Characteristics of the human habitat. General characteristics of the human habitat

Article 834 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Bank deposit agreement

Commentary on Article 834

1. In the commented article, a legal definition of a bank deposit agreement is given.

Analysis of clause 1 of the commented article shows that a bank deposit agreement should be understood as a transaction of a monetary nature, concluded between the bank, on the one hand, and the depositor, on the other hand. The bank for the agreed period accepts the amount of money received from the depositor or for him, called the deposit, on the terms of the return of this amount and the payment of interest on it, determined in the agreement under consideration at its conclusion.

A deposit means monetary funds, both in the currency of the Russian Federation and in foreign currency, which are placed by citizens (individuals) to store and receive income.

A bank deposit agreement is a real agreement and is considered concluded from the moment the depositor transfers the corresponding funds to the bank.

The bank deposit agreement is a type of loan agreement provided for in Art. 807 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (see the commentary to this article), where the bank is the borrower and the depositor is the lender.

The proper execution by the bank of the bank deposit agreement is to promptly return the deposited amount to the depositor and promptly pay interest for using the deposit. The bank must ensure the safety of deposits and timely fulfill its obligations to depositors.

Deposit income must be paid in cash in the form of interest.

Liability for non-fulfillment of a monetary obligation by the bank is established in Art. 395 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. In particular, it provides for the payment of interest for the use of the depositor's funds by the bank as a result of unlawful withholding of these funds or evasion of their return, delay in their payment, as well as unjustified receipt or savings at the expense of another person.

1. According to Art. 37 ФЗ dated 02.12.1990 N 395-1 "On banks and banking activities" bank depositors can be:

- citizens of the Russian Federation;

- Foreign citizens;

- stateless persons.

Minors between the ages of 14 and 18 can independently, without the consent of their parents, adoptive parents and trustees, make contributions to credit institutions and dispose of them (clause 3 of article 26 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Depositors are free in their choice of banks in order to place their funds in deposits and have the right, at their discretion, to have several deposits in different banks.

Investors manage their deposits, have the right to receive income from them, as well as make non-cash payments on the terms specified in the agreement.

1. According to clause 2 of the commented article, if the depositor under the bank deposit agreement is a citizen, then such an agreement is recognized as public. The legal consequence of the definition of the agreement as public is the fact that the bank is obliged to accept funds as a deposit from any individual who applied to it.

However, there are exceptions to this rule (clause 3 of the commented article). In particular, the bank may refuse a citizen to conclude a bank account agreement with him in the cases specified in Art. 846 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation:

- if there is no opportunity for this bank to accept for banking services;

- if the refusal is allowed by law or other legal acts.

In Art. 7 of the Federal Law of 07.08.2001 N 115-FZ "On Counteracting the Legalization (Laundering) of Criminally Obtained Incomes and the Financing of Terrorism" lists the grounds for refusing to conclude bank account (deposit) agreements with customers and for fulfilling customer orders on transactions, as well as to terminate an agreement with clients on the initiative of a credit institution. For example, banks are prohibited from entering into a bank account (deposit) agreement with a client if:

- failure of a citizen (individual) opening an account (deposit) to provide documents that are required for his identification, or using a fictitious name (pseudonym);

- without the personal presence of an individual opening an account (deposit) or his representative.

According to clause 3 of the commented article, the relationship between the bank and the depositor regarding the account to which the deposit was made are usually governed by the rules on the bank account agreement contained in Ch. 45 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (see the commentary to it).

Exceptions to the legal regime of a bank deposit agreement may follow from the essence of the agreement itself, as well as by virtue of the law or other legal acts (clause 2 of the commented article).

Paragraph 3 of the commented article prohibits legal entities from transferring funds that are in deposits (deposits) to the accounts of other persons in order to comply with the provisions of the legislation on combating money laundering and terrorist financing.

1. Clause 4 of the commented article determines the effect of the norms of Ch. 44 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation in a circle of persons. The rules of this chapter apply to banks, other credit organizations, as well as branches and representative offices of foreign banks that make up the banking system of the Russian Federation.
2. Applicable legislation:

- FZ of 21.07.2014 N 213-FZ "On opening bank accounts and letters of credit, on the conclusion of bank deposit agreements by business entities of strategic importance for the military-industrial complex and the security of the Russian Federation, and on amending certain legislative acts of the Russian Federation";

- FZ of 07.08.2001 N 115-FZ "On Counteracting Legalization (Laundering) of Criminally Obtained Incomes and Financing of Terrorism".

1. Arbitrage practice:

- Determination of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation of 12.24.2012 N 2271-О;

- Determination of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation of 20.06.2006 N 257-О;

- Resolution of the Arbitration Court of the Moscow District dated 09.15.2014 N F05-8712 / 12 in case N A40-79131 / 2011;

- Resolution of the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Ural District of 05.04.2012 N F09-9797 / 11 in case N A50-7635 / 2011;

- Resolution of the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Ural District of 05.08.2009 N F09-5306 / 09 on case N A60-35439 / 2008.

Article 835. Right to Attract Funds for Deposits

Commentary on Article 835

1. According to clause 1 of the commented article, this right is granted to banks that have passed state registration and have licenses to carry out banking operations in accordance with the Federal Law of 02.12.1990 N 395-1 "On Banks and Banking Activities". State registration of credit institutions is also regulated by the Federal Law of 08.08.2001 N 129-FZ "On State Registration legal entities and individual entrepreneurs ”.

The bank is created as a business company (limited liability company, additional liability company, joint stock company) on the basis of any form of ownership. The founders of the bank can be legal entities and (or) individuals who are not allowed to leave the membership for the first 3 years from the date of state registration of this bank.

The Bank may perform banking operations solely on the basis of a banking license issued by the Bank of Russia. A bank license is issued after its state registration. The Bank of Russia considers documents on state registration of the bank being founded within a period not exceeding 6 months from the date of their submission to the territorial office of the Central Bank of Russia at the proposed location of this organization.

From the moment of obtaining the license, the bank is entitled to carry out banking operations.

In order to exercise control and supervisory functions, the Central Bank of Russia is authorized to:

- make a decision on state registration of credit institutions;

- to carry out interaction on the issues of state registration of credit institutions with the Federal Tax Service;

- issue licenses for banking operations;

- keep a register of issued licenses;

- keep a book of state registration of credit institutions.

A newly registered bank or a bank, from the date of state registration of which less than two years have passed, has the right to attract funds for deposits if:

- the size of the authorized capital is at least 3 billion 600 million rubles;

- the bank fulfills the obligation to disclose information to an unlimited number of persons about persons who control or have significant influence over the bank (Regulation of the Bank of Russia No. 307-P dated 20.07.2007).

In addition, banks accepting deposits, by virtue of the Federal Law of December 23, 2003 N 177-FZ "On insurance of deposits of individuals in banks of the Russian Federation" must participate in the system of compulsory insurance of deposits of individuals in banks and be registered with the Insurance Agency deposits, which performs the functions of compulsory deposit insurance. From the day a bank is registered until the day it is deregistered in the deposit insurance system, it will be considered a member of the deposit insurance system in Russia.

pays insurance contributions to the compulsory deposit insurance fund;

provides the bank's clients with information on participation in the deposit insurance system;

places the specified information in the premises accessible to the bank's clients, where depositors are served;

keeps records of the bank's obligations to the depositor and the bank's counter claims against the depositor.

Thus, the bank must ensure the safety of deposits of citizens and timely fulfill its obligations to depositors.

1. Clause 2 of the commented article establishes the responsibility of the bank for accepting deposits from citizens in following cases:

- the bank does not have the right to raise funds for deposits;

- violation of the order established by law or banking rules.

In this case, the depositor has the right to demand:

- immediate return of the deposit amount;

- payment of interest on the amount of the deposit in accordance with Art. 395 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation;

- compensation for damages in excess of the amount of interest.

If funds are accepted by a citizen on the terms of a bank deposit agreement from a legal entity, then by virtue of Art. 168 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, such an agreement is considered invalid (as violating the requirements of the law). As a general rule, such a transaction does not entail legal consequences. In this case, the parties to such a transaction are obliged to return to each other everything received under the transaction (Article 167 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

1. Clause 3 of the commented article, in addition to clause 2, establishes cases of banks' liability for attracting funds to deposits in the following circumstances:

- sale to citizens and legal entities of shares and other securities, the issue of which is recognized as illegal;

- opening of deposits for citizens against bills of exchange or other securities, which excludes the possibility of receiving the deposit holder on demand and contradicts the essence of the bank deposit agreement.

1. Applicable legislation:

- Federal Law of 02.12.1990 N 395-1 "On banks and banking activities";

- FZ of 23.12.2003 N 177-FZ "On insurance of deposits of individuals in banks of the Russian Federation";

- ФЗ dated 08.08.2001 N 129-ФЗ "On state registration of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs";

- Instruction of the Bank of Russia dated 02.04.2010 N 135-I;

- Regulation of the Bank of Russia dated July 20, 2007 N 307-P.

1. Arbitrage practice:

- Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation of 06/20/2013 N VAS-3810/13;

- Determination of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation of 04/26/2013 N VAS-3810/13;

- Resolution of the Ninth Arbitration Court of Appeal dated 01.09.2014 N 09AP-33435/14;

- Resolution of the Nineteenth Arbitration Court of Appeal dated 08.29.2014 N 19AP-6885/13;

- Resolution of the Nineteenth Arbitration Court of Appeal dated 25.08.2014 N 19AP-6885/13;

- Resolution of the Ninth Arbitration Court of Appeal dated 11.08.2014 N 09AP-29597/14;

- Resolution of the Ninth Arbitration Court of Appeal dated July 18, 2014 N 09AP-29851/14.

Article 836. Form of bank deposit agreement

2.1. The concept of habitat and living conditions, characteristics of living environments

Wednesday- this is everything that surrounds the body and directly or indirectly affects its state, development, growth, survival, reproduction, etc. The environment of each organism is composed of many elements of inorganic and organic nature and elements introduced by man, his activities. At the same time, some elements may be necessary for the body, others are almost or completely indifferent to it, and others have a harmful effect. The habitat of an organism (s) is environment... The conditions of existence, or the conditions of life, are the totality of the elements of the environment necessary for the organism, with which it is in indissoluble unity and without which it cannot exist. An organism is any living being with a set of basic vital properties. The main and important regularity in the "environment-organism" system is the inextricable connection and mutual influence of the environment and the organism. As an organism experiences the influence of the environment (the action of a complex of environmental factors), so the environment undergoes changes as a result of the influence of living organisms. The appearance of our planet would be completely different if there was no life on the planet (there would be no oxygen in the atmosphere, there would be no such phenomenon as soil, etc.). The specified pattern of the "environment-organism" system was formulated by V. I. Vernadsky and received the name of the law of the unity of the organism and its habitat: life develops as a result of constant exchange of matter and information on the basis of the flow of energy in the aggregate unity of the environment and the organisms inhabiting it. From this law follows the evolutionary-ecological principle, according to which a species of organisms can exist as long and insofar as its environment corresponds to the genetic ability of this species to adapt to its fluctuations and changes. The impact of the species on the environment is growing evolutionarily, which is an important ecological regularity. According to her, any biological system being in a mobile balance with its natural environment and evolving, it increases its impact on the environment. The pressure on the environment grows until it is strictly limited by external factors.

Distinguish between abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic environment. An abiotic environment is a set of inanimate factors (temperature, humidity, radiation, etc.) in which a given organism exists. Biotic environment - a set of living organisms with which a given organism interacts. Anthropogenic environment - the natural environment, directly or indirectly modified by man. There are 4 living environments on Earth: water, ground-air, soil (soil) and living organisms(Figure 2.1). During the long historical development living matter and the formation of more and more perfect forms living beings, organisms, mastering new habitats, were distributed on the Earth according to its mineral shells - hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and adapted to existence in strictly defined conditions. Water became the first medium of life. It was in her that life originated. In the course of historical development, organisms began to populate the ground-air environment. As a result, land plants and animals appeared, which evolved, adapting to new conditions of existence. In the course of the functioning of living matter on land, the surface layer of the lithosphere was gradually transformed into soil. It began to be populated by aquatic and terrestrial organisms, creating a specific complex of inhabitants. Some low-organized animals and all plants enter their habitat passively and survive if they are adapted to it. Most animals actively choose the environment that suits them, or even sometimes create it themselves (for example, beavers build dams to raise the water level).

Aquatic life environment has a number of features. Characteristic feature it is mobility - it is clearly expressed in flowing, rapidly flowing rivers, streams, and even in stagnant bodies of water, this is the case. In the seas and oceans there are ebb and flow, powerful currents, storms; in lakes, water moves under the influence of wind and temperature. The movement of water ensures the supply of oxygen and nutrients to aquatic organisms, and leads to equalization of temperature throughout the entire reservoir.

Figure 2.1 - The main living environments (according to A.S.Stepanovskikh, 2003)

In the life of aquatic organisms, the vertical movement of water plays an important role. In summer, the warmest layers of water are located at the surface, and the coldest ones - at the bottom. In winter, with a decrease in temperature, surface cold waters with temperatures below 4 ° C are located above relatively warm ones. As a result, the vertical circulation of water is disturbed. In spring, as a result of heating to 4 ° C, surface water becomes denser and sinks deeper, and warmer water rises from the depth in its place. As a result of such vertical circulation in the reservoir for a certain time, the temperature of the entire water mass is leveled. With a further increase in temperature, the upper layers of water become less and less dense and no longer descend, a temperature stratification arises. In autumn, the surface layer cools down, becomes denser and sinks deeper, displacing warmer water to the surface. This occurs before the onset of the autumn vertical leveling of the water. When the surface water cools below 4 ° C, it again becomes less dense and again remains on the surface. As a result, the circulation of water stops and temperature stratification sets in again. In lakes of tropical latitudes, the water temperature on the surface does not drop below 4 ° C, and the temperature gradient in them is clearly expressed down to the deepest layers. Mixing of water, as a rule, occurs here irregularly during the coldest time of the year.

Water as a living medium has special physical and chemical properties. Its temperature regime is fundamentally different from that in other environments. In the World Ocean, the amplitude of fluctuations (differences between extreme values) is about 38 ° С, with the lowest about –2 ° С, and the highest + 36 ° С.In fresh inland water bodies of temperate latitudes, the temperature of the surface water layers ranges from –0.9 up to + 25 ° C. Particularly favorable conditions for life are created by such thermodynamic properties of the aquatic environment as high specific heat capacity, high thermal conductivity, expansion during freezing. These conditions are also ensured by the high latent heat of melting of water, as a result of which the temperature under the ice is never lower than its freezing point (for fresh waters, about 0 ° C). Since water has the highest density at 4 ° C, and when it freezes, it expands, then in winter ice forms only from above, while the main water column does not freeze, which ensures the preservation of life in reservoirs under the ice. Water is characterized by significant density (800 times more than air), viscosity. On plants, these features affect the fact that they have little or no development of mechanical tissue, so their stems are very elastic and easily bend. Light and light conditions have a great influence on aquatic organisms. It especially affects the spread of plants. The light regime is determined by a regular decrease with depth, since water absorbs light. It depends on the turbidity of the water, which is related to the amount of particles suspended in the water. The light regime changes according to the seasons of the year. Salinity plays a significant role in the life of aquatic organisms. Different bodies of water have a certain chemical composition... The most important are carbonates, sulfates, chlorides. The amount of dissolved salts in 1 liter of water in fresh waters does not exceed 0.5 g, in the oceans and seas it reaches 35 g. One of the most important gases contained in water is oxygen. The main source of oxygen is the photosynthetic activity of green plants; it also comes from the atmosphere. Different animals show different oxygen requirements. For example, trout is very sensitive to its deficiency, and roach and carp are unpretentious in this regard. Carbon dioxide contained in water provides photosynthesis of aquatic plants, and also takes part in the formation of skeletal formations of animals. Content carbon dioxide in water 700 times more than in the atmosphere. Great importance in the life of aquatic organisms has a concentration of hydrogen ions (pH). Freshwater pools with a pH of 3.7–4.7 are considered acidic, 6.95–7.30 - neutral, with a pH greater than 7.8 - alkaline. The concentration of hydrogen ions plays an important role in the distribution of aquatic organisms. Most freshwater fish can withstand a pH of 5 to 9. If the pH is less than 5, there is massive fish death, and above 10, many fish and other animals die. The aquatic environment is inhabited by many species of plants and animals - from microscopic organisms to the largest ones represented in the modern era.

The aquatic environment is home to approximately 150,000 animal species, or about 7% of the total (Figure 2.2) and 10,000 plant species (8%).

Figure 2.2 - Distribution of the main classes of animals

by habitats (according to G.V. Voitkevich, V.A.Vronsky, 1989)

Feature ground-air environment is that the organisms that live here are surrounded by air, which is a mixture of gases, not their compounds. Air as an ecological factor is characterized by a constant composition - it contains 78.08% nitrogen, about 20.9% oxygen, about 1% argon, and 0.03% carbon dioxide. Due to carbon dioxide and water, it is synthesized organic matter and oxygen is released. When breathing, a reaction occurs, the opposite of photosynthesis - oxygen consumption. Oxygen appeared on Earth about 2 billion years ago, when the surface of our planet was formed during active volcanic activity. A gradual increase in the oxygen content has taken place over the past 20 million years. The main role in this was played by the development of the flora of the land and ocean. Without air, neither plants, nor animals, nor aerobic microorganisms can exist. Most animals in this environment move on a solid substrate - soil, and plants take root in it. Air as a gaseous life medium is characterized by low humidity, density and pressure, as well as a high oxygen content. The environmental factors acting in the ground-air environment differ in a number of specific features: the light here is more intense than in other environments, the temperature undergoes stronger fluctuations, the humidity changes significantly depending on geographic location, season and time of day. The impact of almost all of these factors is closely related to the movement of air masses - wind. Air, like other environmental factors, has a direct and indirect effect on organisms. With direct impact, it has little environmental significance. The indirect influence of air is carried out through winds, which change the nature of such important factors as temperature and humidity, and have a mechanical effect on organisms. Often, strong winds blowing in one direction bend the branches and trunks of trees downwind, which causes the appearance of flag-like crown forms. The wind causes a change in the intensity of transpiration in plants. This is especially pronounced in dry winds, which dry up the air and often cause the death of plants. Wind plays a certain role in the pollination of anemophilous plants (wind-pollinated plants), which have developed a number of adaptations for this: their flower covers are usually reduced and the pollen is not protected from the wind. Upward and especially downward currents in the atmosphere often create conditions for stagnation and accumulation of cold air at the soil surface, which causes a delay in the development of plants and animals. Air currents play a role in the dispersal of plants and animals. The fruits of plants (anemochores) have many adaptations that increase their windage, and are carried by the wind to long distances... For the ground-air environment, as well as for the aquatic environment, a pronounced zoning is characteristic. Moreover, any combination of vegetation cover and animal population corresponds to morphological subdivisions geographic envelope Lands - climatic zones. Each climatic zone characterized by a peculiar vegetation and animal population.

The atmosphere contributes to the preservation of heat on the planet, which would otherwise be dissipated in the cold of outer space. She herself, thanks to the forces of gravity of the Earth, does not evaporate. The atmosphere not only supports life, it serves as a protective shield. At an altitude of 20-25 km from the Earth's surface, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, some of the oxygen molecules are split into free oxygen atoms. The latter can again form an oxygen molecule, its triatomic form, called ozone. Ozone, forming in the upper layers of the atmosphere a thin layer - the ozone screen, provides the fragile earthly life with its further existence.

Soil as a habitat is a collection of weathered parent rock, living organisms and products of their vital activity. The soil has specific physical properties... It is characterized by a more or less loose structure, a certain water permeability and aeration. It also possesses peculiar biological characteristics, since it is closely related to the vital activity of organisms. Its upper layers contain a lot of plant roots. In the process of growth, dying off and decomposition, they loosen the soil and create a certain structure, and at the same time the conditions for the life of other organisms. Burrowing animals mix the soil mass, and after death they become a source of organic matter for microorganisms. Due to its specific properties, the soil performs one of the important functions in the life of various soil organisms and, first of all, plants, providing them with water supply and mineral nutrition.

The optimal supply of soil water available to plants (Figure 2.3) is extremely important. In soil, a distinction is made between biologically useful and biologically useless water. Biologically useful is water that moves freely through the capillaries of the soil and continuously supplies plants with moisture. The value of soil in water supply to plants is the higher, the easier it gives them water, which depends on the structure of the soil and the degree of swelling of its particles. Distinguish between physical and physiological dryness of the soil. With physical dryness, the soil lacks moisture. This happens during atmospheric drought, which is usually observed in dry climates and in places where the soil is moistened only by atmospheric precipitation. Physiological dryness of the soil is a more complex phenomenon. It arises as a result of the physiological inaccessibility of physically available water. Plants, even on moist soils, may experience water shortages when the temperature of the soil cover is low, other unfavorable conditions interfere with the normal functioning of the root system. So, in sphagnum bogs, despite the large amount of moisture, water is inaccessible to many plants due to the high acidity of the soil, poor aeration and the presence of toxic substances that disrupt the normal physiological function of the root system. Strongly saline soils are also physiologically dry. Due to the high osmotic pressure of the soil solution, water in saline soils is inaccessible for many plants. Soil plays an important role in the mineral nutrition of plants. Together with water, a number of mineral substances that are in a dissolved state in the soil enter the plants through the root system. However, root nutrition of plants is not a simple absorption of substances, but a complex biochemical process, in which soil microorganisms play a special role, the secretions of which are assimilated by the root system. Therefore, most higher plants have mycorrhiza, which significantly increases the active surface of the roots. Soil organic matter plays an important role in the growth and development of plants. Humus, or humus, for soil inhabitants is the main source of mineral compounds and energy necessary for life. It determines the fertility of soils and their structure. The processes of mineralization of organic matter and humus provide a constant supply of such essential plant nutrients as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, potassium, and trace elements to the soil solution. Humus serves as a source of physiologically active compounds (vitamins, organic acids, polyphenols, etc.) that stimulate plant growth. Humus substances also provide a water-resistant structure of soils, which creates a favorable introduction-air regime for plants. Microorganisms, plants and animals living in the soil are in constant interaction with each other, as well as with the habitat. These relationships are very complex and varied. Animals and bacteria consume vegetable carbohydrates, proteins, fats. Fungi destroy cellulose, in particular wood. Predators feed on the tissues of their prey. Thanks to these relationships and as a result of fundamental changes in the physical, chemical and biochemical properties of the rock, soil-forming processes constantly occur in nature.

Figure 2.3 - Types of soil water available to plant roots

(after N.I. Nikolaykin, 2004)

1 - soil particles; 2 - hygroscopic water; 3 - capillary water;

4 - air or gravitational water

Figure 2.4 - Living organisms as a living environment

(after A.S.Stepanovskikh, 2003)

Introduction_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3

1.Human as an element of the environment_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6

2. Concept of habitat_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7

3.Human Habitat_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8

Conclusion_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 14

List of used literature_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 16

Introduction.

From birth, a person has inalienable rights to life, freedom and the pursuit of happiness. He exercises his rights to life, rest, health protection, favorable environment, work in conditions that meet the requirements of safety and hygiene in the process of life. They are guaranteed by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

It is known that "life is a form of existence of matter." This allows us to assert that a person exists in the process of life, consisting of his continuous interaction with the environment in order to satisfy his needs. The concept of "vital activity" is broader than the concept of "activity", since it includes in consideration not only the labor process of a person, but also the conditions for his rest, life and migration in the environment.

The basic principle of the existence and development of all living things is the principle of the obligatory external influence: "A living body develops and exists only in the presence of external influences on it." Self-development of a living body is impossible.

The implementation of this principle in nature is achieved by the interaction of a living body with its natural environment, and in other conditions by the interaction of all living things with its environment.

The study of the state of the habitat and the processes of interaction of creatures with the habitat is engaged in ecology - the science of home. According to B.A. Nemirovsky, ecology is a biological science dealing with "the study of the collective coexistence of living organisms in one communal apartment called the" environment "."

FROM late XIX century, significant changes began to occur in the human environment. The biosphere gradually lost its dominant importance and in the regions inhabited by people began to turn into a technosphere. By invading nature, the laws of which are still far from being understood, creating new technologies, people form an artificial habitat - the technosphere. If we take into account that the moral and general cultural development of civilization lags behind the pace of scientific and technological progress, it becomes obvious that the risk to health and life increases. modern man... In the new technosphere conditions, biological interaction is increasingly being replaced by the processes of physical and chemical interaction, and the levels of physical and chemical factors of influence in the last century have been continuously increasing, often having a negative impact on humans and nature. Then the need arose in society to protect nature and man from the negative influence of the technosphere.

In the second half of the 20th century, anthropogenic, that is, caused by human activity, changes in the environment acquired such dimensions that a person, directly or indirectly, himself became their victim. Anthropogenic activity that failed to create the technosphere required quality both in relation to man and in relation to nature, was the root cause of many negative processes in nature and society.

Thus, the technosphere must be considered as a former region of the biosphere, transformed by people with the help of direct or indirect influence of technical means in order to best suit their material and socio-economic needs.

As Academician A.L. Yanshin (b. 1911) notes, even the Second World War, with its colossal negative consequences, did not upset the balance that had developed in nature. However, then the situation changed radically. The population began to grow rapidly, and the number of urban residents grew. This caused an increase in urbanized areas, including landfills, roads, country roads, and so on, which led to the degradation of nature, sharply reduced the distribution areas of many plants and animals due to deforestation, an increase in livestock, the use of herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers. The problem of nuclear waste disposal and many other problems arose.

The human impact on the environment, according to the laws of physics, causes a response reaction of all its components. The human body painlessly tolerates certain influences as long as they do not exceed the limits of adaptation. Life expectancy is an integral indicator of life safety. On the early stages anthropogenesis (for primitive man), it was approximately 25 years.

The development of civilization, which is understood as the progress of science, technology, economy, agriculture, use different types energy, up to nuclear, the creation of machines, mechanisms, the use of various types of fertilizers and means for pest control, significantly increase the number of harmful factors that negatively affect humans. Creating the technosphere, man strove to improve the comfort of his environment, to increase his sociability, to ensure protection from natural negative influences.

But developing the economy, the human population also created a socio-economic security system. As a result, despite the increase in the number harmful effects, the level of human security increased. All this had a beneficial effect on living conditions and, together with other factors (improved medical care, and the like), had an impact on the life expectancy of people. Currently, the average life expectancy in the most developed countries is about 77 years.

Thus, the technosphere created by the hands and mind of man, designed to maximally satisfy his needs for comfort and safety, has largely failed to justify the hopes of people. The emerging industrial and urban habitats turned out to be far from the permissible requirements in terms of safety.

1. Man as an element of the environment.

The most general system (of the highest hierarchical level) is the “Human-Environment” (H-CO) system.

The most important subsystem considered by the Belarusian Railways is “Human-Environment” (CH-OS).

- “Man-Machine-Production Environment”, etc.

The central element of all BJD systems is a person, therefore, a person plays a threefold role:

1.protected object,

2.the object of security,

3. source of danger.

The high cost of operator error - up to 60% of accidents occur due to human fault.

2. The concept of the habitat.

The human habitat is divided into production and non-production (household).

The main element of the production environment is labor, which in turn consists of interrelated and interconnecting elements (Fig. 2) that make up the structure of labor: C - subjects of labor, M - "machines" - means and objects of labor; PT - labor processes, consisting of the actions of both subjects and machines, LTP - labor products, both target and by-products in the form of harmful and hazardous impurities in the air, etc., software of industrial relations (organizational, economic, social -psychological, legal work: relations associated with the culture of work, professional culture, aesthetic, etc.). Elements of the non-production environment: the natural environment in the form of geographic landscape (G-L), geophysical (G), climatic (C) elements, natural Disasters(SB), including fires from lightning and other natural sources, natural processes (PP) in the form of gas emissions from rocks etc. can manifest itself both in a non-production form (sphere) and production, especially in such sectors of the national economy as construction, mining, geology, geodesy and others.

A person is in the closest connection with all elements of the environment in the process of his activity.

Man has always been interested in his environment. And this is understandable, since not only the well-being of the family, clan, tribe, but also its very existence depended on the quality of this environment.

In the Middle Ages, the dominance of scholasticism and theology weakened interest in the study of nature. However, during the Renaissance, Renaissance greats geographical discoveries once again revived the biological research of naturalists.

3. Human habitat.

The habitat surrounding modern man includes the natural environment, the man-made environment and the social environment.

Every day, living in the city, walking, working, studying, a person satisfies a wide range of needs. In the system of human needs (biological, psychological, ethnic, social, labor, economic), it is possible to identify the needs associated with the ecology of the environment. Among them are the comfort and safety of the natural environment, environmentally friendly housing, the provision of information sources (works of art, attractive landscapes) and others.

Natural or biological needs are a group of needs that provide the possibility of a person's physical existence in a comfortable environment - this is the need for space, good air, water, etc., the presence of a suitable, familiar environment for a person. Greening biological needs is associated with the need to create an environmentally friendly, clean urban environment and maintain good condition natural and artificial nature in the city. But in modern big cities it is hardly possible to speak about the presence of a sufficient volume and quality of the environment necessary for every person.

As industrial production grew, more and more various products and goods were produced, and at the same time, environmental pollution increased sharply. The urban environment surrounding a person did not correspond to the historically developed sensory influences that a person needed: cities without any signs of beauty, slums, dirt, standard gray houses, polluted air, loud noise, etc.

But nevertheless, we can confidently state that as a result of industrialization and spontaneous urbanization, the human environment has gradually become "aggressive" for the senses, evolutionarily adapted for many millions of years to the natural environment. In fact, a person relatively recently found himself in an urban environment. Naturally, during this time, the main mechanisms of perception were unable to adapt to the changed visual environment and changes in air, water, soil. This did not pass without a trace: it is known that people living in polluted areas of the city are more prone to various diseases. The most common are cardiovascular and endocrine disorders, but there is a whole range of various diseases, the cause of which is a general decrease in immunity.

In connection with abrupt changes in the natural environment, a lot of studies have arisen aimed at studying the state of the environment and the state of health of residents in a particular country, city, region. But, as a rule, it is forgotten that a city dweller spends most of his time indoors (up to 90% of the time) and the quality of the environment inside various buildings and structures turns out to be more important for human health and well-being. Indoor concentrations of pollutants are often much higher than in outdoor air.

A resident of a modern city most of all sees flat surfaces - building facades, squares, streets and right angles - the intersections of these planes. In nature, planes connected by right angles are very rare. In apartments and offices, such landscapes continue, which cannot but affect the mood and well-being of people who are constantly there.

The habitat is inextricably linked with the concept of "biosphere". This term was introduced by the Australian geologist Suess in 175. Biosphere - natural area the spread of life on Earth, including the lower atmosphere, hydrosphere, upper lithosphere. The name of the Russian scientist V.I.Vernadsky is associated with the creation of the doctrine of the biosphere and its transition to the noosphere. The main thing in the theory of the noosphere is the unity of the biosphere and humanity. According to Vernadsky, in the era of the noosphere, a person can and should "think and act in a new aspect, not only in the aspect of an individual, family, state, but also in the planetary aspect."

In the life cycle, a person and the environment that surrounds him form a permanently operating system “person - environment”.

Habitat - the environment around a person, determined at a given moment by a combination of factors (physical, chemical, biological, social) that can have a direct or indirect, immediate or long-term impact on human activities, his health and offspring.

Acting in this system, a person continuously solves at least two main tasks:

Provides its needs for food, water and air;

Creates and uses protection from negative influences, both from the habitat, and from their own kind.

Habitat is a part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts. The constituent parts and properties of the environment are diverse and changeable. Any living creature lives in a complex and changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulating its life activity in accordance with its changes.

Adaptations of organisms to the environment are called adaptations. The ability to adapt is one of the basic properties of life in general, since it provides the very possibility of existence, the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce. Adaptations are manifested at different levels: from the biochemistry of cells and the behavior of individual organisms to the structure and functioning of communities and ecological systems. Adaptations arise and change during the evolution of species.

Individual properties or elements of the environment are called environmental factors. Environmental factors are diverse. They may be necessary or, conversely, harmful to living things, facilitate or hinder survival and reproduction. Environmental factors are of a different nature and specificity of action. Environmental factors are divided into abiotic (all properties of inanimate nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms) and biotic (these are forms of influence of living things on each other).

The negative impacts inherent in the habitat have existed for as long as the World exists. Sources of natural negative impacts are natural phenomena in the biosphere: climate change, thunderstorms, earthquakes, and the like.

The constant struggle for their existence forced a person to find and improve means of protection from the natural negative effects of the environment. Unfortunately, the emergence of housing, fire and other means of protection, the improvement of methods of obtaining food - all this not only protected a person from natural negative influences, but also influenced the environment.

Over the course of many centuries, the human habitat has slowly changed its appearance and, as a result, the types and levels of negative impacts have changed little. So, it lasted until the middle of the 19th century - the beginning of an active growth of human impact on the environment. In the XX century, zones of increased pollution of the biosphere appeared on the Earth, which led to partial, and in a number of cases, to complete regional degradation. These changes were largely facilitated by:

High rates of population growth on Earth (population explosion) and its urbanization;

Growth in consumption and concentration of energy resources;

Intensive development of industrial and agricultural production;

Massive use of vehicles;

The growth of military spending and a number of other processes.

A person and his environment (natural, industrial, urban, household and others) in the process of life constantly interact with each other. At the same time, life can exist only in the process of movement of flows of matter, energy and information through a living body. Man and his environment harmoniously interact and develop only in conditions when the flows of energy, matter and information are within the limits favorably perceived by man and the natural environment. Any excess of the usual flow levels is accompanied by negative impacts on humans and / or the natural environment. Under natural conditions, such impacts are observed during climate change and natural phenomena.

In the conditions of the technosphere, negative impacts are caused by its elements (machines, structures, etc.) and human actions. By changing the value of any flow from the minimum significant to the maximum possible, it is possible to go through a number of characteristic states of interaction in the "person - environment" system: comfortable (optimal), acceptable (leading to discomfort without negative impact on human health), dangerous (causing degradation of the natural environment) and extremely dangerous (lethal outcome and destruction of the natural environment).

Of the four characteristic states of human interaction with the environment, only the first two (comfortable and acceptable) correspond to the positive conditions of daily life, and the other two (dangerous and extremely dangerous) are unacceptable for the processes of human life, preservation and development of the natural environment.

Conclusion.

There is no doubt that the technosphere has a destructive effect on nature, and therefore on surrounding a person Wednesday. Consequently, a person must solve the problem of nature protection, improving the technosphere, reducing its negative impact to acceptable levels and ensuring his safety in this environment.

A wasteful lifestyle places a huge burden on the environment. One of the main reasons for the constant degradation of the natural environment around the world is the structure of consumption and production, which does not ensure sustainability, especially in industrialized countries. In this case, sustainable development means controlled, consistent with the evolutionary laws of nature and society, that is, such development in which the vital needs of the people of the current generation are satisfied without depriving future generations of such an opportunity.

Man is the most gifted and powerful representative of all life on Earth. In the 19th century, he embarked on an extensive transformation of the face of our planet. He decided not to wait for favors from nature, but simply to take everything he needed from her, without giving her anything in return.

Applying more and more new techniques and technology, people tried to create a living environment for themselves, as much as possible, independent of the laws of nature. But man is an integral part of nature and therefore cannot tear himself away from it, cannot completely withdraw into the mechanical world he has created. Destroying nature, he went "back", thereby destroying his entire existence. The modern period of the development of society is characterized by a large increase in the conflict between man and the environment. Nature began to take revenge on man for his rash consumer attitudes towards her. Having contaminated nature with poisonous substances, using their technical achievements, a person infects himself with this.

Bibliography:

1.Akimov V.A., Lesnykh V.V., Radaev N.N. Risks in nature, technosphere, society and economy.- Moscow: Business Express, 2004.- 352 p.

2. Life safety: Textbook. for universities. / Ed. S. V. Belova; 5th ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Higher. shk., 2005.- 606 p.

3. Life safety: Textbook. for middle prof. educational institutions / Under. ed. S.V. Belova; 5th ed., Isp. and add. - M .: Higher. shk., 2006.- 424s.

4. Kiryushkin A.A. Introduction to life safety. - SPb .: State. un-t, 2001.- 204 p.

6. Reimers N. F. Hopes for the survival of mankind. Conceptual ecology. M., IC "Young Russia", 1992.

7.Khwan T.A., Hwang P.A. Rostov. 2000.

general characteristics human habitat. Biological factors

One of the most important concepts of ecology is the habitat. The environment is a combination of factors and elements that affect the organism in its habitat.

Any living creature lives in a complex, constantly changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulating its life activity in accordance with its changes. Living organisms exist as open, mobile systems that are stable when they receive energy and information from the environment. On our planet, living organisms have mastered four main habitats, each of which is distinguished by a set of specific factors and elements that affect the body.

Life arose and spread in the aquatic environment. Subsequently, with the advent of photosynthesis and, consequently, free oxygen, first in water, and then in the atmosphere, living organisms "came out" on land, took possession of the air environment, and populated the soil. With the emergence of the biosphere as a part of the Earth's shell inhabited by living organisms, it has become another environment with a certain combination of specific biotic factors affecting the organism. The natural environment provides a person with living conditions and resources for life. Development economic activity man improves the living conditions of people, but requires an increase in the expenditure of natural, energy and material resources. In the course of industrial and agricultural production, wastes are generated, which, together with the production processes themselves, affect noobiogeocenoses and lead to disturbances and pollution, which increasingly worsen the conditions of human habitation. Biological factors, or driving forces evolution, are common to all living nature, including humans. These include hereditary variation and natural selection. The role of biological factors in human evolution was revealed by Charles Darwin. These factors played a large role in human evolution, especially in the early stages of human development. A person has hereditary changes that determine, for example, hair and eye color, height, resistance to the influence of environmental factors. In the early stages of evolution, when a person was strongly dependent on nature, individuals with hereditary changes useful in given environmental conditions predominantly survived and left offspring (for example, individuals distinguished by endurance, physical strength, agility, ingenuity). Adaptation of organisms to the effects of environmental factors. environment is called adaptation. The ability to adapt is one of the most important properties of living things. Only adapted organisms survive, acquiring in the process of evolution signs useful for life. These traits are fixed in generations due to the ability of organisms to reproduce. Adaptation to environmental factors manifests itself at different levels: cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population, population-specific, biocenotic and global, i.e. at the level of the biosphere as a whole. The elements of the habitat that affect living organisms are called environmental factors. To study the environment (habitat and human production activity), it is advisable to single out the following main components: air environment; aquatic environment (hydrosphere); wildlife (humans, domestic and wild animals, including fish and birds); vegetable world(cultivated and wild plants, including those growing in water); soil (vegetation layer); bowels (the upper part of the earth's crust, within which mining is possible); climatic and acoustic environment. The most vulnerable components, without which human existence is impossible and to which the greatest damage is caused by human activities related to the development of industry and urbanization, are air environment and the hydrosphere. Their pollution also causes significant harm to nature (the totality of natural conditions for the existence of human society). The whole completeness of interaction and interdependence of living organisms and elements of inanimate nature in the field of the spread of life is reflected in the concept of biogeocenosis. Biogeocenosis is a dynamic, stable community of plants, animals and microorganisms that are in constant interaction and direct contact with the components of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Biogeocenosis consists of biotic (biocenosis) and abiotic (ecotope) parts, which are connected by continuous metabolism and represent an energetically and materially open system. The biogeocenosis receives the energy of the sun, minerals of the soil, gases of the atmosphere, water. Biogeocenosis produces heat, oxygen, carbon dioxide, biogenic substances carried by water, humus. The main functions of biogeocenosis are unilaterally directed flow of energy and circulation of substances. In the structure of any biogeocenosis, the following mandatory components are distinguished:

Abiotic inorganic substances Wednesday;

Autotrophic organisms - producers of biotic organic substances;

Heterotrophic organisms - consumers (consumers) of ready-made organic substances of the first (herbivorous animals) and subsequent (carnivorous animals) orders;

Detritivorous organisms are destroyers (destructors) that decompose organic matter. The listed components of biogeocenosis underlie food (trophic) connections, which are initially based on the presence of two types of nutrition in the biosphere - auto-trophic and heterotrophic. Autotrophs Attract Essential For Life chemical substances from the environment and with the help of solar energy convert them into organic matter. Heterotrophs - decompose organic matter to carbon dioxide, water, mineral salts and return them to the environment. This ensures the circulation of substances, which arose in the process of evolution as necessary condition existence of life. At the same time, the light energy of the sun is transformed by living organisms into other forms of energy - chemical, mechanical, thermal.

Under the human environment in the very general view understand "the totality of natural and artificial conditions in which a person realizes himself as a natural and social being." The human environment consists of 2 interrelated parts: natural and social; natural - this is the entire planet Earth, public - society and social relations.

The classification of the human environment, carried out by the well-known Russian systematizer in the field of ecology NF Reimers, is of the greatest interest. He identified four interrelated components of the environment: natural; the environment generated by agricultural technology, the so-called "second nature" - quasi-natural; artificial environment - "third nature" or art nature; social environment (see table).

The natural component of the human environment according to NF Reimers is, in fact, the natural environment ("first nature"). It is composed of factors of natural and anthropo-natural origin, directly or indirectly affecting a person. Among them, he includes energy state environments (thermal and wave, including magnetic and gravitational fields); chemical and dynamic character; water component (, the earth's surface; chemical composition of waters); the physical, chemical and mechanical nature of the earth's surface (flatness, hilly, mountainous, for example); the appearance and composition of the biological part of ecological systems (, animal, microbial population) and their landscape combinations, population density and the mutual influence of people on the biological factor, etc. self-regulation.

In absolute terms, most of these territories are in the Russian Federation,.

The environment of the “second nature” (quasi-natural, from the Latin language “quasi” - as if) are elements of the natural environment, artificially transformed, modified with the help of agricultural technology. Unlike natural, they are not able to systematically self-support themselves long time... They are destroyed without constant human intervention. It includes arable and other human-transformed lands (cultural landscapes), dirt roads, the space of populated areas with natural characteristics and internal structure (with fences, buildings, various and thermal regimes, green strips, ponds, etc.). NF Reimers also referred to "second nature" as domestic animals and indoor cultivated plants.

The human-created environment or "third nature" (artepnature, from Lat. - artificial) according to Reimers is the entire world artificially created by man, which has no analogues in natural nature and without constant maintenance and renewal by man is inevitably destroyed. It includes the asphalt and concrete of modern cities, the space of life and work, transport, the service sector, technological equipment, furniture, etc. The cultural and architectural environment is also called one of the elements of the artepnatural environment. A person is mainly surrounded by the arty environment.

And the last element of the human environment is society and various social processes - the social environment .. This environment has more and more influence on a person. It includes the relationship between people, the psychological climate, the level of material security, health care, common cultural values, the degree of confidence in tomorrow etc.

Thus, the human environment is formed by natural, quasi-natural, artepnatural and social, which are closely interrelated and none of them can be replaced by another. LV Maksimova offers another classification of the human environment, the originality of which lies in the study of the "living environment".