Straight lines and planes around us. Plane in space - information needed
Cell: chemical composition, structure, functions of organelles.
The chemical composition of the cell. Macro and microelements. The relationship between the structure and functions of inorganic and organic matter(proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, ATP) that make up the cell. Role chemical substances in the cell and the human body.
Organisms are made up of cells. Cells different organisms have a similar chemical composition. Table 1 shows the main chemical elements found in the cells of living organisms.
Table 1. The content of chemical elements in the cell
| Element | Quantity, % | Element | Quantity, % |
| Oxygen | 65-75 | Calcium | 0,04-2,00 |
| Carbon | 15-18 | Magnesium | 0,02-0,03 |
| Hydrogen | 8-10 | Sodium | 0,02-0,03 |
| Nitrogen | 1,5-3,0 | Iron | 0,01-0,015 |
| Phosphorus | 0,2-1,0 | Zinc | 0,0003 |
| Potassium | 0,15-0,4 | Copper | 0,0002 |
| Sulfur | 0,15-0,2 | Iodine | 0,0001 |
| Chlorine | 0,05-0,10 | Fluorine | 0,0001 |
The first group includes oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. They account for almost 98% of the total cell composition.
The second group includes potassium, sodium, calcium, sulfur, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, chlorine. Their content in the cell is tenths and hundredths of a percent. Elements of these two groups belong to macronutrients(from the Greek. macro- big).
The rest of the elements, represented in the cell by hundredths and thousandths of a percent, are included in the third group. This trace elements(from the Greek. micro- small).
No elements inherent only in living nature were found in the cell. All of the listed chemical elements are also part of inanimate nature. This indicates the unity of living and inanimate nature.
Lack of any element can lead to illness, and even death of the body, since each element plays a specific role. Macronutrients of the first group form the basis of biopolymers - proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, as well as lipids, without which life is impossible. Sulfur is part of some proteins, phosphorus is part of nucleic acids, iron is part of hemoglobin, and magnesium is part of chlorophyll. Calcium plays important role in metabolism.
Some of the chemical elements contained in the cell are part of inorganic substances - mineral salts and water.
Mineral salts are in the cell, as a rule, in the form of cations (K +, Na +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+) and anions (HPO 2- / 4, H 2 PO - / 4, СI -, HCO 3), the ratio of which determines the acidity of the environment, which is important for the vital activity of cells.
(In many cells, the medium is slightly alkaline and its pH hardly changes, since a certain ratio of cations and anions is constantly maintained in it.)
Of inorganic substances in living nature, plays a huge role water.
Life is impossible without water. It makes up a significant mass of most cells. A lot of water is contained in the cells of the human brain and embryos: more than 80% water; in the cells of adipose tissue - only 40.% By old age, the water content in the cells decreases. A person who has lost 20% of the water dies.
The unique properties of water determine its role in the body. It participates in heat regulation, which is due to the high heat capacity of water - consumption a large number energy when heated. What determines the high heat capacity of water?
In a water molecule, an oxygen atom is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The water molecule is polar, since the oxygen atom has a partially negative charge, and each of the two hydrogen atoms has
Partially positive charge. A hydrogen bond is formed between the oxygen atom of one water molecule and the hydrogen atom of another molecule. Hydrogen bonds provide connection a large number water molecules. When water is heated, a significant part of the energy is spent on breaking hydrogen bonds, which determines its high heat capacity.
Water - good solvent... Due to its polarity, its molecules interact with positively and negatively charged ions, thereby facilitating the dissolution of the substance. In relation to water, all cell substances are divided into hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
Hydrophilic(from the Greek. hydro- water and phileo- I love) are substances that dissolve in water. These include ionic compounds (for example, salts) and some non-ionic compounds (for example, sugars).
Hydrophobic(from the Greek. hydro- water and phobos- fear) are substances that are insoluble in water. These include, for example, lipids.
Water plays an important role in chemical reactions in the cell during aqueous solutions... It dissolves metabolic products that are unnecessary for the body and thereby facilitates their removal from the body. The high water content in the cell gives it elasticity... Water facilitates the movement of various substances within or from cell to cell.
Bodies of animate and inanimate nature consist of the same chemical elements. The composition of living organisms includes inorganic substances - water and mineral salts. The vital numerous functions of water in a cell are due to the characteristics of its molecules: their polarity, the ability to form hydrogen bonds.
INORGANIC CELL COMPONENTS
Another type of classification of elements in a cell:
Macronutrients include oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, chlorine, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and iron.
Trace elements include manganese, copper, zinc, iodine, fluorine.
Ultramicroelements include silver, gold, bromine, selenium.
| ELEMENTS | CONTENT IN THE BODY (%) | BIOLOGICAL VALUE |
| Macronutrients: | ||
| O.C.H.N | O - 62%, C - 20%, H - 10%, N - 3% |
Are a part of all organic substances of the cell, water |
| Phosphorus P | 1,0 | Are a part of nucleic acids, ATP (forms high-energy bonds), enzymes, bone tissue and tooth enamel |
| Calcium Ca +2 | 2,5 | In plants, it is part of the cell membrane, in animals - in the composition of bones and teeth, activates blood clotting |
| Trace elements: | 1-0,01 | |
| Sulfur S | 0,25 | Part of proteins, vitamins and enzymes |
| Potassium K + | 0,25 | It conditions the conduction of nerve impulses; activator of enzymes of protein synthesis, photosynthesis processes, plant growth |
| Chlorine CI - | 0,2 | Is a component of gastric juice in the form of hydrochloric acid, activates enzymes |
| Sodium Na + | 0,1 | Provides conduction of nerve impulses, maintains osmotic pressure in the cell, stimulates the synthesis of hormones |
| Magnesium Mg +2 | 0,07 | Part of the chlorophyll molecule, found in bones and teeth, activates DNA synthesis, energy metabolism |
| Iodine I - | 0,1 | Part of the thyroid hormone - thyroxine, affects the metabolism |
| Iron Fe + 3 | 0,01 | It is a part of hemoglobin, myoglobin, lens and cornea of the eye, activator of enzymes, participates in the synthesis of chlorophyll. Provides oxygen transport to tissues and organs |
| Ultramicroelements: | less than 0.01, trace amounts | |
| Cu copper +2 | Participates in the processes of hematopoiesis, photosynthesis, catalyzes intracellular oxidative processes | |
| Manganese Mn | Increases the productivity of plants, activates the process of photosynthesis, affects the processes of hematopoiesis | |
| Boron B | Influences the growth processes of plants | |
| Fluorine F | It is part of the enamel of the teeth, with a deficiency, caries develops, with an excess - fluorosis | |
| Substances: | ||
| H 2 0 | 60-98 | It constitutes the internal environment of the body, participates in the processes of hydrolysis, and structures the cell. Universal solvent, catalyst, participant chemical reactions |
ORGANIC CELL COMPONENTS
| SUBSTANCES | STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES | FUNCTIONS |
| Lipids | ||
| Esters of the highest fatty acids and glycerin. The composition of phospholipids additionally contains the residue Н 3 РО4. They have hydrophobic or hydrophilic-hydrophobic properties, high energy intensity. | Construction- forms a bilipid layer of all membranes. Energy. Thermoregulatory. Protective. Hormonal(corticosteroids, sex hormones). Components of vitamins D, E. Source of water in the body. Reserve nutrient |
|
| Carbohydrates | ||
Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, ribose, deoxyribose |
Well soluble in water | Energy |
Disaccharides: sucrose, maltose (malt sugar) |
Water soluble | Components DNA, RNA, ATP |
Polysaccharides: starch, glycogen, cellulose |
Poorly soluble or insoluble in water | Reserve nutrient. Building - plant cell shell |
| Squirrels | Polymers. Monomers - 20 amino acids. | Enzymes are biocatalysts. |
| I structure is a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. Link - peptide - CO- NH- | Construction - are part of membrane structures, ribosomes. | |
| II structure - a-spiral, bond - hydrogen | Motor (contractile proteins of muscles). | |
| III structure - spatial configuration a-spirals (globule). Bonds - ionic, covalent, hydrophobic, hydrogen | Transport (hemoglobin). Protective (antibodies). Regulatory (hormones, insulin) | |
| Structure IV is not typical for all proteins. Connection of several polypeptide chains into a single superstructure They are poorly soluble in water. Action of high temperatures, concentrated acids and alkalis, salts of heavy metals causes denaturation | ||
| Nucleic acids: | Biopolymers. Consist of nucleotides | |
| DNA is deoxy ribonucleic acid. | Nucleotide composition: deoxyribose, nitrogenous bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, phosphoric acid residue - H 3 PO 4. Complementarity of nitrogenous bases A = T, G = C. Double helix. Capable of self-doubling |
Form chromosomes. Storage and transmission of hereditary information, genetic code... Biosynthesis of RNA, proteins. Encodes the primary structure of the protein. Contained in the nucleus, mitochondria, plastids |
| RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. | Nucleotide composition: ribose, nitrogenous bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, H 3 PO 4 residue. Complementarity of nitrogenous bases A = Y, G = C. One chain | |
| Informational RNA | Transmission of information about the primary structure of the protein, is involved in protein biosynthesis | |
| Ribosomal RNA | Builds the body of the ribosome | |
| Transport RNA | Encodes and transfers amino acids to the site of protein synthesis - ribosomes | |
| Viral RNA and DNA | Genetic apparatus of viruses | |
Protein structure
Enzymes.
The most important function of proteins is catalytic. Protein molecules that increase the rate of chemical reactions in a cell by several orders of magnitude are called enzymes... Not a single biochemical process in the body occurs without the participation of enzymes.
More than 2000 enzymes have been discovered so far. Their efficiency is many times higher than the efficiency of inorganic catalysts used in production. So, 1 mg of iron in the catalase enzyme replaces 10 tons of inorganic iron. Catalase increases the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (Н 2 О 2) by 10 11 times. An enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of formation of carbonic acid (CO 2 + H 2 O = H 2 CO 3), accelerates the reaction 10 7 times.
An important property of enzymes is the specificity of their action; each enzyme catalyzes only one or a small group of similar reactions.
The substance affected by the enzyme is called substrate... The structures of the enzyme molecule and the substrate must match exactly. This explains the specificity of the enzyme action. When a substrate is combined with an enzyme, the spatial structure of the enzyme changes.
The sequence of interaction between the enzyme and the substrate can be depicted schematically:
Substrate + Enzyme - Enzyme-Substrate Complex - Enzyme + Product.
It can be seen from the diagram that the substrate combines with the enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate complex. In this case, the substrate turns into a new substance - a product. At the final stage, the enzyme is freed from the product and re-enters into interaction with the next substrate molecule.
Enzymes function only at a certain temperature, concentration of substances, acidity of the environment. A change in conditions leads to a change in the tertiary and quaternary structure of the protein molecule, and, consequently, to the suppression of the enzyme activity. How does this happen? Only a certain part of the enzyme molecule, called active center... The active site contains from 3 to 12 amino acid residues and is formed as a result of the bending of the polypeptide chain.
Under the influence of various factors, the structure of the enzyme molecule changes. In this case, the spatial configuration of the active center is disrupted, and the enzyme loses its activity.
Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts. Thanks to enzymes, the rate of chemical reactions in cells increases by several orders of magnitude. An important property of enzymes is the specificity of action under certain conditions.
Nucleic acids.
Nucleic acids were discovered in the second half of the 19th century. Swiss biochemist F. Mischer, who isolated a substance with a high content of nitrogen and phosphorus from the nuclei of cells and called it "nuclein" (from lat. nucleus- core).
Nucleic acids store hereditary information about the structure and functioning of every cell and all living things on Earth. There are two types of nucleic acids - DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Nucleic acids, like proteins, are species specific, that is, each species has its own type of DNA. To find out the reasons for species specificity, let us consider the structure of nucleic acids.
Nucleic acid molecules are very long chains of many hundreds or even millions of nucleotides. Any nucleic acid contains only four types of nucleotides. The functions of nucleic acid molecules depend on their structure, their constituent nucleotides, their number in the chain and the sequence of the compound in the molecule.
Each nucleotide has three components: nitrogenous base, carbohydrate, and phosphoric acid. Each DNA nucleotide contains one of four types of nitrogenous bases (adenine - A, thymine - T, guanine - G, or cytosine - C), as well as a deoxyribose carbohydrate and a phosphoric acid residue.
Thus, DNA nucleotides differ only in the type of nitrogenous base.
A DNA molecule consists of a huge number of nucleotides linked in a chain in a specific sequence. Each kind of DNA molecule has its own number and sequence of nucleotides.
DNA molecules are very long. For example, to write down the sequence of nucleotides in DNA molecules from one human cell (46 chromosomes), a book of about 820,000 pages would be required. The alternation of four types of nucleotides can form an infinite number of variants of DNA molecules. These structural features of DNA molecules allow them to store a huge amount of information about all the characteristics of organisms.
In 1953, the American biologist J. Watson and English physicist F. Crick created a model of the structure of the DNA molecule. Scientists have found that each DNA molecule consists of two chains, linked together and spirally twisted. It looks like a double helix. In each strand, the four types of nucleotides alternate in a specific sequence.
The nucleotide composition of DNA differs in different types bacteria, fungi, plants, animals. But it does not change with age, depends little on changes environment... The nucleotides are paired, that is, the number of adenine nucleotides in any DNA molecule is equal to the number of thymidine nucleotides (AT), and the number of cytosine nucleotides is equal to the number of guanine nucleotides (C-G). This is due to the fact that the connection of two chains with each other in a DNA molecule obeys a certain rule, namely: the adenine of one chain is always linked by two hydrogen bonds only with Thymine of the other chain, and guanine is always linked by three hydrogen bonds with cytosine, that is, the nucleotide chains of one molecule DNA is complementary, complementary to each other.
Nucleic acid molecules - DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides. The composition of DNA nucleotides includes a nitrogenous base (A, T, G, C), a deoxyribose carbohydrate, and the remainder of a phosphoric acid molecule. The DNA molecule is a double helix consisting of two strands connected by hydrogen bonds according to the principle of complementarity. The function of DNA is to store hereditary information.
In the cells of all organisms there are ATP molecules - adenosine triphosphoric acid. ATP is a universal cell substance, the molecule of which has energy-rich bonds. ATP molecule is one kind of nucleotide, which, like other nucleotides, consists of three components: a nitrogenous base - adenine, a carbohydrate - ribose, but instead of one it contains three residues of phosphoric acid molecules (Fig. 12). The connections indicated in the figure with the icon are rich in energy and are called macroergic... Each ATP molecule contains two macroergic connections.
When the high-energy bond is broken and one molecule of phosphoric acid is cleaved with the help of enzymes, 40 kJ / mol of energy is released, while ATP is converted into ADP - adenosine diphosphoric acid. When one more phosphoric acid molecule is cleaved off, another 40 kJ / mol is released; AMP is formed - adenosine monophosphoric acid. These reactions are reversible, that is, AMP can be converted into ADP, ADP - into ATP.
ATP molecules are not only cleaved, but also synthesized; therefore, their content in the cell is relatively constant. ATP value in the life of a cell is enormous. These molecules play a leading role in the energy metabolism necessary to ensure the vital activity of the cell and the body as a whole.
Rice. ATP structure diagram.| adenine - |
An RNA molecule, as a rule, is a single chain, consisting of four types of nucleotides - A, Y, G, C. There are three main types of RNA: mRNA, rRNA, tRNA. The content of RNA molecules in a cell is not constant; they are involved in protein biosynthesis. ATP is the universal energetic substance of the cell, which contains energy-rich connections. ATP plays a central role in energy metabolism in the cell. RNA and ATP are found both in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm of the cell.
86 elements found in the human body periodic system Mendeleev, which are constantly present, of which 25 are necessary for normal life, 18 of which are absolutely, and 7 are useful. Professor V.R. Williams called them the elements of life.
The composition of substances participating in reactions associated with cell life includes all known chemical elements, most of them are oxygen (65 - 75%), carbon (15 - 18%), hydrogen (8 - 10%) and nitrogen (1 , 5 - 3.0%). The rest of the elements are divided into 2 groups: macronutrients (about 1.9%) and microelements (about 0.1%). Macronutrients are sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium and iron, to trace elements - zinc, copper, iodine, fluorine, manganese, selenium, cobalt, molybdenum, strontium, nickel, chromium, vanadium, etc. and are few in number, but play an important role - they affect metabolism. Without them, the normal functioning of each cell separately and the organism as a whole is impossible.
Table of chemical elements in the human body, their role
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Share in total mass% |
The role or function of elements in the human body |
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The main elements of the human body |
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Oxygen |
Required for oxidation reactions, primarily for the respiration process. It is present in most organic substances and in water. |
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Forms a framework of molecules of organic substances. |
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Present in most organic compounds and in the water. |
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Component of all proteins, nucleic acids and many other organic substances. |
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Structural component bones and teeth. It is important for the conduction of nerve impulses through synapses, blood coagulation processes, muscle contraction, fertilization. |
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Component of nucleic acids, phospholipids, nucleotides involved in energy transfer. Structural component of bones. |
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The most important intracellular cation. It is necessary for the conduction of nerve impulses. Component of most proteins. |
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It is the energy transport of the cell, as it can carry oxygen electrons and methyl groups. Protects tissues and cells from oxidative processes. |
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The most important extracellular cation. Participates in the regulation of fluid movement between parts of the body, as well as in the conduction of nerve impulses. |
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Microelements of the body |
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Enzyme cofactor (kinase). |
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The most important anion of the interstitial fluid. Also important for maintaining osmotic balance. Participates in the transport of oxygen with blood (chloride displacement). |
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trace amounts |
Component of hemoglobin and myoglobin. Electron carrier. Enzyme cofactor (catalase). |
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trace amounts |
Component of thyroid hormones. |
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trace amounts |
Vitamin B component 12 |
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Other trace elements include manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), fluorine (F), molybdenum (Mo) and selenium (Se). |
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The source of information: Human biology in diagrams / V.R. Pickering - 2003.
>> Chemistry: Chemical elements in the cells of living organisms
More than 70 elements have been found in the composition of substances that form the cells of all living organisms (humans, animals, plants). These elements are usually divided into two groups: macronutrients and micronutrients.
Macronutrients are found in cells in large quantities. First of all, these are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. In total, they make up almost 98% of the total cell content. In addition to these elements, the macronutrients also include magnesium, potassium, calcium, sodium, phosphorus, sulfur and chlorine. Their total content is 1.9%. Thus, the share of other chemical elements is about 0.1%. These are trace elements. These include iron, zinc, manganese, boron, copper, iodine, cobalt, bromine, fluorine, aluminum, etc.
23 microelements have been found in mammalian milk: lithium, rubidium, copper, silver, barium, strontium, titanium, arsenic, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, iodine, fluorine, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, etc.
The mammalian blood contains 24 microelements, and the human brain contains 18 microelements.
As you can see, there are no special elements in the cell that are characteristic only of living nature, that is, at the atomic level, there are no differences between living and inanimate nature. These differences are found only at the level complex substances- on the molecular level... So, along with inorganic substances(water and mineral salts) cells of living organisms contain substances that are characteristic only of them - organic substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, vitamins, hormones, etc.). These substances are built mainly from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, that is, from macronutrients. Trace elements are contained in these substances in insignificant quantities, however, their role in the normal life of organisms is enormous. For example, compounds of boron, manganese, zinc, cobalt dramatically increase the productivity of individual agricultural plants and increase their resistance to various kinds of diseases.
Man and animals receive the trace elements they need for normal life through the plants they feed on. If there is not enough manganese in food, then growth retardation, a slowdown in the onset of puberty, metabolic disorders during the formation of the skeleton are possible. The addition of fractions of a milligram of manganese salts to the daily ration of animals eliminates these diseases.
Cobalt is part of vitamin B12, which is responsible for the work of the blood-forming organs. Lack of cobalt in food often causes serious illness, which leads to depletion of the body and even death.
The importance of trace elements for humans was first revealed in the study of a disease such as endemic goiter, which was caused by a lack of iodine in food and water. Taking salt containing iodine leads to recovery, and adding it to food in small amounts prevents disease. For this purpose, food table salt is iodized, to which 0.001-0.01% of potassium iodide is added.
Most biological enzyme catalysts contain zinc, molybdenum, and some other metals. These elements, contained in the cells of living organisms in very small quantities, ensure the normal operation of the finest biochemical mechanisms, are true regulators of vital processes.
Many microelements are contained in vitamins - organic substances of various chemical nature that enter the body with food in small doses and have a great effect on the metabolism and general vital functions of the body. In their biological action, they are close to enzymes, but enzymes are produced by the cells of the body, and vitamins are usually supplied with food. Sources of vitamins are plants: citrus fruits, rose hips, parsley, onions, garlic and many others. Some vitamins - A, B1, B2, K - are obtained synthetically. Vitamins got their name from two words: vita - life and amine - containing nitrogen.
Trace elements are also part of hormones - biologically active substances regulating the work of organs and systems of human and animal organs. They take their name from the Greek word harmao - I conquer. Hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and enter the bloodstream, which carries them throughout the body. Some hormones are produced synthetically.
1. Macronutrients and microelements.
2. The role of trace elements in the life of plants, animals and humans.
3. Organic matter: proteins, fats, carbohydrates.
4. Enzymes.
5. Vitamins.
6. Hormones.
At what level of forms of existence of a chemical element does the difference between living and inanimate nature begin?
Why are individual macronutrients also called biogenic? List them.
Lesson content lesson outline support frame lesson presentation accelerative methods interactive technologies Practice tasks and exercises self-test workshops, trainings, cases, quests homework discussion questions rhetorical questions from students Illustrations audio, video clips and multimedia photos, pictures, charts, tables, schemes humor, jokes, jokes, comics parables, sayings, crosswords, quotes Supplements abstracts articles chips for the curious cheat sheets textbooks basic and additional vocabulary of terms others Improving textbooks and lessonsbug fixes in the tutorial updating a fragment in the textbook elements of innovation in the lesson replacing obsolete knowledge with new ones For teachers only perfect lessons calendar plan for a year guidelines discussion agenda Integrated lessonsIn the cells of different organisms, about 70 elements of the periodic table of elements of DI Mendeleev were found, but only 24 of them have a fully established value and are constantly found in all types of cells.
The largest specific gravity in the elemental composition of the cell is oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. These are the so-called the main or biogenic elements. These elements account for more than 95% of the mass of cells, and their relative content in living matter is much higher than in earth crust... Calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, chlorine, sodium, magnesium, iodine and iron are also vital. Their content in the cell is calculated in tenths and hundredths of a percent. The listed items make up a group macronutrients.
Other chemical elements: copper, manganese, molybdenum, cobalt, zinc, boron, fluorine, chromium, selenium, aluminum, iodine, iron, silicon - are contained in extremely small amounts (less than 0.01% of the cell mass). They belong to the group trace elements.
The percentage in the body of this or that element in no way characterizes the degree of its importance and necessity in the body. So, for example, many trace elements are part of various biologically active substances - enzymes, vitamins (cobalt is part of vitamin B12), hormones (iodine is part of thyroxine); they affect the growth and development of organisms (zinc, manganese, copper), hematopoiesis (iron, copper), processes of cellular respiration (copper, zinc), etc. The content and significance for the vital activity of cells and the body as a whole of various chemical elements is given in the table:
| Element | Symbol | Approximate content,% | Significance for the cell and the body |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oxygen | O | 62 | Part of water and organic matter; participates in cellular respiration |
| Carbon | C | 20 | Part of all organic substances |
| Hydrogen | H | 10 | Part of water and organic matter; participates in energy conversion processes |
| Nitrogen | N | 3 | Part of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, ATP, chlorophyll, vitamins |
| Calcium | Ca | 2,5 | It is a part of the cell wall in plants, bones and teeth, increases blood clotting and contractility of muscle fibers |
| Phosphorus | P | 1,0 | Part of bone tissue and tooth enamel, nucleic acids, ATP, some enzymes |
| Sulfur | S | 0,25 | Part of amino acids (cysteine, cystine and methionine), some vitamins, participates in the formation of disulfide bonds during the formation of the tertiary structure of proteins |
| Potassium | K | 0,25 | Contained in the cell only in the form of ions, activates enzymes of protein synthesis, determines the normal rhythm of cardiac activity, participates in the processes of photosynthesis, generation of bioelectric potentials |
| Chlorine | Cl | 0,2 | The negative ion prevails in the body of animals. Hydrochloric acid component in gastric juice |
| Sodium | Na | 0,1 | Contained in the cell only in the form of ions, it determines the normal rhythm of cardiac activity, affects the synthesis of hormones |
| Magnesium | Mg | 0,07 | It is a part of chlorophyll molecules, as well as bones and teeth, activates energy metabolism and DNA synthesis |
| Iodine | I | 0,01 | Part of thyroid hormones |
| Iron | Fe | Footprints | It is a part of many enzymes, hemoglobin and myoglobin, participates in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll, in the transport of electrons, in the processes of respiration and photosynthesis |
| Copper | Cu | Footprints | It is a part of hemocyanins in invertebrates, a part of some enzymes, participates in the processes of hematopoiesis, photosynthesis, hemoglobin synthesis |
| Manganese | Mn | Footprints | It is a part of or increases the activity of certain enzymes, participates in the development of bones, assimilation of nitrogen and the process of photosynthesis |
| Molybdenum | Mo | Footprints | It is a part of some enzymes (nitrate reductase), participates in the processes of binding atmospheric nitrogen by nodule bacteria |
| Cobalt | Co | Footprints | Part of vitamin B12, participates in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by nodule bacteria |
| Boron | B | Footprints | Influences the growth processes of plants, activates the restorative enzymes of respiration |
| Zinc | Zn | Footprints | Part of some enzymes that break down polypeptides, participates in the synthesis of plant hormones (auxins) and glycolysis |
| Fluorine | F | Footprints | Part of the enamel of teeth and bones |
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