Caesar's first triumvirate and Gaulish wars. Pompey and Caesar

In 60 BC. NS. Caesar returned to Rome from Spain. The political career of the 40-year-old leader of the popular people and the favorite of the Roman mob developed along an ascending line. Acting as the governor of Spain Dalny, he improved his financial affairs (in particular, paid off multimillion-dollar debts) and gained military fame, gaining the right to triumph (as a result of his campaign along the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula, the Lusitanians and Gallecs submitted to the Roman authorities). True, having acted as an applicant for a consulate, Caesar was forced to abandon his triumph: the Senate did not allow him to nominate himself in absentia, and Caesar came to Rome as a private person (the contenders for triumph had to wait for the decision of the Senate outside the city walls).

Anticipating fierce opposition from the optimists, he decided to enlist the support of Pompey and his veterans. Pompey readily entered this alliance, sealed by his marriage to Caesar's only daughter, Julia (Pompey was 46, Julia was 23; she died 6 years later). The third member of the coalition was Crassus, behind whom stood horsemen, that is, financial capital. So in 60 BC. NS. the union of three politicians took shape, which went down in history under the name of the First Triumvirate (60 - 53 BC). According to a preliminary agreement, Caesar was to receive a consulate, and after him - a viceroyalty. For his part, Caesar guaranteed Pompey the approval of his orders in the East and the allotment of land to the veterans. Personally, Crassus was not promised anything (he did not claim), but the horsemen received a promise from Caesar to protect their financial interests in Asia. Soon Caesar proved in practice that he knew how to keep his word.

Consuls 59 BC NS. became Caesar and the henchman of the optimates Mark Calpurnius Bibulus, Caesar's longtime foe, a stubborn and narrow-minded man. The senate intended to use Bibulus as a tool to oppose any political initiative of Caesar. Therefore, from the moment they took office, a confrontation began between them, which, however, Bibulus lost.

As soon as Caesar submitted an agrarian bill for consideration by the Senate (the latter provided, in particular, the revival of the Capuan colony and the creation of a commission for allotting land to the poor plebeians and veterans of Pompey), as well as a proposal to approve all Pompey's orders in the East at once and satisfy the petition of tax farmers to reduce the amount of the buyback by one-third, as the Senate majority led by Cato and Cicero strongly opposed. Caesar, not in the least discouraged by such a reaction, introduced a package with his proposals to the comitia. Then Cato and Bibulus decided by any means to disrupt the procedure of discussion and voting. In response, Pompey mobilized his veterans, and it was impossible to avoid violence. "First of all, on the way to the forum, a basket of manure was turned on Bibulus's head, then they attacked his lictors and broke their rods, and, finally, stones and darts flew, many were wounded, and all the rest fled headlong from the forum" (Plutarch). After that, all of Caesar's proposals were approved, and soon an agrarian commission of 20 people, headed by Pompey and Crassus, began work.

Consul Bibulus locked himself in his house in protest, completely withdrawing from participation in state affairs. As a result, Caesar actually became the sole ruler of Rome, and a malicious rhyme spread throughout the city: "It was to the consulate of Caesar, and not to the consulate of Bibulus: there was really nothing in the consulate of Bibulus, friend."

Meanwhile, at the suggestion of the tribune Publius Vatinius, Caesar received the governorship in Cisalpine Gaul (together with Istria and Dalmatia) along with three legions for a period of five years. Then the Senate reluctantly added to this the governorship in Gaul Narbonne, where the legion was stationed. As a result, Caesar and Pompey got what they so stubbornly sought. The riders, led by Crassus, were also pleased. All that remained was to settle scores with the optimates.

The prudent Lucullus voluntarily left the political field, turning to academics, fish cages and sumptuous dinners in the company of friends. The rest were less fortunate. The triumvirate got rid of the inflexible Cato and the overly flexible Cicero with the help of the plebeian tribune of 58 BC. NS. Publius Clodius Pulchra. This unprincipled, dissolute (in 62 BC he compromised the wife of Caesar himself, after which he filed for divorce) and the impudent demagogue held resolutions in the comitia on sending Cato on a special mission to Cyprus and punishing those who were guilty of executions of citizens without a court sentence. The last law was aimed at Cicero. The great orator, who was completely despondent, had no choice but to go into exile, which was destined to last more than a year (58 - 57 BC).

In 60 BC. an important event took place in the political life of Rome - an alliance of the three most influential political figures was formed, consisting of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. It was an informal agreement between representatives of the three most influential socio-political forces - the army, popularists and horsemen. In essence, it meant the unification of all anti-Senate groups. Despite the fact that from a formal point of view, this triumvirate was not enshrined at the institutional level in legislation, in political practice it became in fact the second government existing along with the official government controlled by the Senate.

The motives for creating such an alliance are highlighted in sources and historiography in sufficient detail. It is obvious that in 60 BC. a situation developed in which three influential leaders - Pompey, Caesar and Crassus, against the background of dissatisfaction with the actions of the Senate, saw in each other a source of mutually beneficial support. According to the information of Dion Cassius, Pompey was dissatisfied with the fact that after the victorious campaign the senate refused to reward his veterans with land plots, and to recommend him to the consulate next year. In the same year, Julius Caesar returned from the province of Far Spain, who served there as governor after the departure of the praetor in Rome. Caesar also began to seek a consulate, but was opposed by the senators (Dio., XXXVII, 54.2). Crassus, representing the interests of the equestrian estate, was dissatisfied with the Senate law on the investigation of judges suspected of bribery. In addition, he hoped to become a leading political figure at the expense of the authority of Pompey and Caesar. "Crassus imagined," says the same Cassius, "that his origin and wealth should put him above all" (Ibid., 56.4). It is believed that the initiator of the creation of the triumvirate was Julius Caesar. He managed to reconcile Pompey and Crassus, who were at enmity with each other, and unite them in friendship, "putting the power of both at his own service" (Plut., Caes., 13). Caesar was convinced that he would never be able to become powerful without them, and, according to Dio Cassius, "was not afraid of their strengthening, if they, united, become even more powerful." Pompey, according to the same Cassius, was afraid of the strengthening of the influence of Crassus and Caesar and "did not want to be crushed by them" (Dio., XXXVII, 56.3).

It is still controversial whether Caesar was already hatching dictatorial plans. Plutarch argues that Caesar's whole idea of ​​the triumvirate was nothing more than a "coup d'état unnoticed for all" (Plut., Caes., 13). Cassius Dio is more restrained in his assessments. In his opinion, Pompey, Caesar and Cassius came to an agreement only "for the organization of the republic as they pleased" (Dio., XXXVII, 57). In historiography, in general, an opinion has been established regarding the exclusively tactical goals of the triumvirs. They were more concerned with stabilizing their own position at the moment and implementing relevant bills in the interests of their many supporters, rather than seizing power. The Triumvirs offered new ways of solving urgent social problems. At the same time, each of them had his own interest: “Pompey sought the approval of his orders in the East and rewarding of his veterans, Caesar dreamed of a consulate in 59 BC and the implementation of a number of measures in favor of the plebs, and Crassus wanted to satisfy the interests of the riders and get the eastern provinces under control "Mashkin N.A. History ancient rome... Ed. 3rd. M., 1956.S. 78.

Despite the fact that among the participants in the triumvirate, Caesar was perhaps the least influential political leader, in a short time he managed to become a key figure in the "union of three." The triumvirs agreed to bring Caesar to the consulate so that he, as consul, could realize the interests of all the participants in the triumvirate. In 59 BC. with the support of the veterans of Pompey, the horsemen of Crassus and the city plebs, Caesar was elected consul. The second consul was the Senate protege Mark Bibulus.

Having received consular powers, Caesar proposed several bills to the people's assembly. First, he put forward a plan to provide land plots 20 thousand veterans of Pompey and land-poor citizens with three or more children. Secondly, a law was put forward to approve all the orders of Pompey in the East. Thirdly, in favor of the supporters of Crassus, a reduction of one third of the tax from the province of Asia was envisaged. In addition, Caesar demanded the adoption of a law that increased the punishment for extortion of provincial governors - proteges of the Senate A.V. Zarshchikov. Caesar and the Caesarians: the role of the personal group in the political struggle // Diss. for a job. uch. Art. to. and. Sci., Saratov, 2003.S. 85. According to some authoritative historians, in particular R. Carson, it was the extortion law that became one of the most important monuments. state activities Caesar, "for over 500 years, who served guiding thread for Roman magistrates in the provinces "Carson R.A.G." Caesar and the Monarchy ", Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 47..

Almost all ancient sources report that Caesar and his colleagues in the triumvirate used the methods of forceful pressure in the implementation of legislative initiatives. For example, the authors describe well the events that accompanied the adoption of the agrarian law in favor of the soldiers of Pompey. Despite the fact that the second consul - Bibulus spoke out against this law, the senators did not agree to put it to a vote, and the tribunes of the people imposed a "veto" (ban), Caesar cynically ignored all legal opposition. He went to the Forum and appealed for support to the people, "placing Pompey next to him on one side, and Crassus on the other" (Plut., Caes., 14). As a result, succumbing to forceful pressure, the senators were forced to agree to the adoption of the law, and Caesar's friend in the consulate, Mark Bibulus, was so intimidated by the triumvirs that "until the end of his consulate he did not leave his house and only expressed his protest in edicts" Mishulin A.V. History of Ancient Rome. Well world history. Ancient history... M., 1946.S. 223. According to Suetonius, many "then began jokingly not about the consulate of Caesar and Bibulus, but about the consulate of Julius and Caesar" (Suet., Iul., 20.2). Used Caesar and other informal methods of struggle against his political opponents. Thus, he intimidated the sanatorium Lucius Laculla with false accusations, who objected too harshly to him, and also "hired an informer against the entire hostile party (optimates) as a whole" Mashkin N.A. History of Ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956.S. 83.

Caesar did not forget about his own interests. According to the draft law introduced in 59 BC. in the Senate by a supporter of Caesar - tribune Publius Vatinius, it was proposed to Caesar to transfer to the administration of the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria for a five-year term with the right to recruit an army of up to three legions (10 thousand people) and wage war with neighboring tribes. In addition, Caesar should have received the right to appoint legates in the praetorian rank at his own discretion, without the consent of the Senate. After the law was successfully discussed in the popular assembly, the Senate, under pressure from Pompey and Crassus, had to give Caesar also Narbonne Gaul with the right to recruit one additional legion S.L. Utchenko. Julius Caesar. M., 1976.S. 101.

In March 58 BC. AD Caesar arrived in Gaul, where he was supposed to receive a loyal army, gain fame, wealth and the opportunity to interfere in the political life of Rome. The interests of Caesar and the entire triumvirate in Italy and Rome were defended by Pompey and Crassus.

Thus, having received a consulate, Caesar fulfilled his obligations in relation to his colleagues - the triumvirs, satisfied the requirements of a significant part of Roman citizens, weakened the influence of the Senate, and at the same time took care of the implementation of his own vain plans. As a result, the triumvirate grew stronger and from a secret agreement turned into an obvious and significant factor in the political life of Rome. To further strengthen the "union of three", informal agreements were sealed by family ties. Caesar's daughter Julia was married to Pompey, despite the fact that she was already betrothed to Servilius Cepion. Caesar himself married Calputnia, the daughter of one of Caesar's prominent supporters - Calpurius Piso (Ibid., 21).

By the mid-50s. 1st century BC. the political situation in Rome deteriorated markedly, which led to a weakening of the influence of the triumvirate on the political life of Rome. Before Caesar's departure to Gaul, where he fought exhausting wars against the Gallic tribes for several years, the allies maintained agreement among themselves and quite successfully controlled the situation. However, after Caesar's departure to Gaul, Pompey and Crassus, due to constant quarrels with each other, could not consistently represent the interests of the triumvirate Mashkin N.A. History of Ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. S. 91 .. This led to the activation of other political camps, in particular the supporters of the popular Claudius Pulchra, who was elected in 58 BC. the people's tribune. Clodius began to oppose both the policies of the Senate oligarchy and the triumvirs. A good orator, determined and daring leader, he passed a series of laws in favor of the plebs against the opposition of the Senate, as well as Pompey and Crassus. As a result, collegia of citizens were created in the quarters of Rome, which turned into political clubs of the plebs; the decisions on the abolition of any payment for bread were implemented; limited competence of censors when drawing up senatorial lists; the procedures for holding public assemblies have been greatly simplified. Wanting to strike a blow at the Senate, Clodius succeeded in discrediting and expelling one of the most influential leaders of the optimistic camp - Mark Tullius Cicero. In his political struggle, Clodius began to rely on the masses armed with clubs, consisting of urban plebs, freedmen and even slaves. In contrast to the formations of Clodius, the senators created similar detachments, headed by the tribune of the people of 57 BC. Milon. Street brutal brawls of political opponents began to instill fear in the ordinary inhabitants of Rome. "Often the assembled dispersed only after," notes Plutarch, "as they desecrate the exaltation for the orator with corpses and stain him with blood" (Plut., Caes., 28). In this situation, the influence of the power of the Triumvirs has noticeably weakened, and political power has become fragmented. According to T. Mommsen, in Rome in the 50s BC. Actually, there were already three governments: the formally ruling Senate, the informal triumvirate, and the semi-criminal groups of Clodius and Milo Mommsen T. History of Rome. T. 2.SPb., 1994. S. 334.

In 56 BC. the triumvirs, at the initiative of Caesar, attempted to restore their political authority and order in the state. In the city of Lucca, bordering on Cisalpine Gaul, they adopted the most important state decisions that the Senate and the people's comitia were supposed to carry out. Caesar was extended his term in Gaul with unlimited powers for five years. Pompey and Crassus received a consulate in 55 BC. After the end of their consular powers, Pompey received control over the Spanish provinces, and Crassus - Syria, which was considered the most important province in the East. As a result, the triumvirs could control the political situation practically throughout the entire territory of the Roman state. According to R. Carson, it was this decision of the triumvirs that was the prologue to the establishment of the future dictatorship of Caesar, since it was "the will of the triumvirs that largely determined the directions of the activities of the senate, the assembly and magistrates" Carson R. A. G. "Caesar and the Monarchy", Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 46..

Despite the fact that the three leaders were able to promote their decisions in the Senate and the comitia, in the second half of the 50s. their union ceased to exist as an influential factor in Roman politics. This was due to a number of circumstances. First, Crassus, after his consular duties and departure to Syria, was in 53 BC. killed by the Parthian wars. Thus, from the triumvirate, the duumvirate of Pompey - Caesar automatically turned out. Second, in the face of the political chaos that gripped Rome in 52 BC. the senate was forced to turn with a proposal to Pompey, to accept the supreme power to restore order. The situation in Rome was indeed very serious. As Plutarch put it, at that time "the state plunged into the abyss of anarchy, like a ship rushing without control" (Ibid., 28). "And many have already spoken openly," Plutarch also notes, "that the state cannot be healed by anything other than autocracy" (Ibid). In this crisis situation, Pompey, as "the most authoritative, was elected" consul without a colleague "(Suet., Iul., 26), which actually meant giving him dictatorial power. After a series of decisive measures, Pompey became the most powerful man in Rome. conditions, he no longer needed the support of Caesar.On the contrary, striving to maintain primacy, he was now interested in weakening his former ally, who, meanwhile, had acquired great military power and influence through the successful waging of wars in Gaul. and Caesar himself. During his ten-year stay in Gaul, he became a very powerful and wealthy military leader, whose authority among the soldiers was extremely high. a slave from among the captives "(Ibid., 26.3). At the same time, from afar, he tried to influence the political life of Rome. Gold and other booty were used to bribe officials, arrange feasts and gladiatorial fights for the people. With funds from mining, Caesar also began to build the Forum, and "one land under it was worth more than one hundred million" (Ibid., 26.2). Caesar was aware of his strength and did not want to have a rival in the person of the influential Pompey. "His glory was already equal to the glory of Pompey's victories," writes Plutarch, "and" now he used all the pretexts that Pompey himself gave him, both the conditions of the time and the decline of civil life in Rome "(Plut., Caes., 28). Thus, the triumvirate finally disintegrated, and an open conflict was brewing between Pompey and Caesar.

Thus, the period of the triumvirate brought significant political and military conquests to Caesar. Since the conclusion of the "alliance of three" Caesar has played a leading role in it, despite the lack of authority in comparison with his colleagues in the agreement. He is elected consul and successfully implements the plans of the triumvirs aimed at fighting the Senate, satisfying the interests of his supporters and his own political ambitions. Relying on the support of Pompey and Crassus, Caesar achieved the transfer to him of Cisalpine and Narbonne Gaul, as well as Illyria.

Of the three united leaders, it was Caesar who gained perhaps the most significant political dividends from the triumvirate. Waging wars in distant Gaul, he was able to become a famous commander and an influential politician who had huge support from the army and equally enormous material resources, with the help of which many political problems of Rome were solved. Over time, however, the triumvirate has exhausted its capabilities. After the death of Crassus and in connection with the sharply aggravated political situation in Rome, the idea of ​​fighting the Senate lost its relevance. To the fore came the contradictions between Pompey and Caesar, who claimed the sole political leadership.

The military-political confrontation that arose between Pompey and Caesar unfolded against the backdrop of the growing chaos in the Roman state. After two years of social upheaval, in August 50 BC. Cicero wrote: "Unfortunately, I do not foresee peace this year, and the closer the inevitable strife approaches (meaning the collision of Pompey and Caesar), the clearer this danger is visible." Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters // Reader on the history of ancient Rome. // Edited by V.I. Kuzishchina. M., 1987.S. 152. The formal reason for the open clash of the former triumvirs was the refusal of Pompey and the Senate to provide an opportunity for Caesar in absentia, without resigning as a proconsul in Gaul, to stand as a candidate for consular elections in Rome in 49 BC. AD According to the Senate decree, Caesar had to relinquish command, disband all his troops and return to Rome as an honest man. However, Caesar feared "that he could not be unharmed if he parted with the army" Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. In the same place. P. 152. For their part, they were offered compromise options. For example, he agreed to disband his troops, but only if “if Pompey did the same” (Ibid., 30).

The irreconcilable position of the Senate and Pompey forced Caesar to start military operations, which relatively quickly took on the character of a civil war. Almost all strata of Roman society were involved in it, as well as numerous peoples in the provinces. In anticipation of the outlined armed struggle, Cicero sagaciously noted: "In these quarrels, as I foresee, the Senate and those who carry out the judgment will be on the side of Gnaeus Pompey; those who live with fear and without hope will join Caesar." Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. In the same place. P. 153. This assessment made by Cicero is not accidental. While the Senate aristocracy defended its own interests, Caesar's program reflected a broader spectrum of social interests. It provided for the establishment of unlimited power like a Hellenistic monarchy, where the interests of not only one estate (for example, the Senate), but all Roman citizens and the population of the Roman provinces would be expressed. This is probably why Caesar was able to attract quite a lot of people to his side soon after he crossed the Rubicon River and entered Italy on March 1, 49 BC, i.e. only two months after Caesar's legions attacked Rome, Cicero noted: "People from the municipalities talk to me a lot, the villagers talk a lot; they do not care about anything at all except the fields, except the estates, except for their money. And this is the turn of the matter. : the one in whom they were previously sure, they fear (Pompey), but love this, whom they feared (Caesar) "Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. In the same place. P. 154.

The rapid advance of Caesar's army deep into Italy caused a massive exodus of the population. "Everywhere began a stampede of fear and tears," notes Appian (App., B.C., II, 35). Soon Rome was filled with a stream of refugees from the surrounding towns and villages. In a state of chaos, the authorities were unable to maintain order either by persuasion or orders. Suffering to general panic, Pompey and most of the senators fled from Rome. According to the testimony of ancient authors, on the way to Rome, Caesar tried everywhere to show his loyalty and humane treatment, thanks to which the mass panic stopped, and, having occupied Rome, Caesar found him "in a calmer state than expected" (Plut., Caes., 35 ). Even his political opponent, Cicero, praised Caesar's actions. In one of his letters to a certain Titus Pomponius, he writes: "What kind of man appeared in the state, how active, how vigilant, how prepared. I swear that if he does not execute anyone and does not take anything from anyone, then those who are extremely feared they would be extremely fond of him "Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. In the same place. ... At the same time, having taken possession of Rome, Caesar made it clear to the senators and officials who remained in it that from now on "everything will come only from him" (App., B. C., II, 107). So, contrary to the law, he seized the rich state treasury, and the popular tribune Metella, who was going to prevent this arbitrariness, said: "If you are dissatisfied with my actions, then go away. my power "(Plut., Caes., 35). In the opinion of Cicero, Caesar did not arrange reprisals only because he "considered the softness pleasing to the people" Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. In the same place. ...

While Pompey, who had fled from Rome, was gathering his troops in Greece, Caesar defeated his main forces in Spain, which consisted of eight legions. There, as in Italy, he showed mercy to the vanquished and enrolled many of Pompey's captured legionnaires into his ranks. After returning from Spain, Caesar became a dictator. This extraordinary position of six months, as we discussed above, was a traditional part of the Roman system of government. Not used since the Hannibal Wars, in the 1st century. BC. she was reanimated by Sulla. Caesar's dictatorship was not out of the ordinary. Like Sulla, Caesar formalized his position of power through the Senate appointment of Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 239.

However, 11 days after taking office, he resigned his dictatorial powers, declared himself consul and moved against Pompey to Greece. June 6, 48 BC In the north of Greece, in Vessalia, a decisive battle took place between the opponents, during which the Pompeians were defeated, and Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where Mommsen T. was treacherously killed. History of Rome. 2. SPb., 1994. 347..

Thus, the physical elimination of a dangerous and powerful competitor, military force and the authority of Caesar, his flexible policy towards all strata of the population, as well as the ineffectiveness of republican institutions of power in a period of crisis for the state were the main prerequisites for the establishment of the dictatorship of Caesar.

Victory in the civil war brought Caesar control of the Roman state. If back in the fall of 48 BC. Caesar received dictatorial powers from the consul Servilius Isauricus for a period of one year, in the spring of 47 BC. - for 10 years in a row, then in 44 BC. he has already received the authority of a permanent dictator. This was a radical departure from the Roman tradition, which viewed the dictatorship "as an emergency magistracy with a strictly limited duration" by Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 241.

Introduced, for example, in case of restoration of order in the state. At the same time, the legitimacy of Caesar's power rested more on the recognition of his authority than on the fear of force. The need for a dominant leader to control the political system was recognized in Rome in the years leading up to the civil war. Even Cicero, who was an ardent supporter of republican rule, recognized the need for the state "a kind of trustee who could use the universally recognized auctoritate to maintain order." Cicero Mark Tullius. Dialogues: About the state. On the laws // Reader on the history of ancient Rome. // Edited by V.I. Kuzishchina. M., 1987.S. 208. Thus, the elevation of Caesar to the rank of dictator was, in fact, a recognition of the need for a dominant trustee who would prevent violence, arbitrariness and corruption in Roman society.

Caesar's autocracy was complemented by other state powers. He received the lifelong competence of the tribune of the people and censor with the right to look through the lists of senators and observe the morals. In addition, the Senate and the people gave him the right of recommendation. As a dictator, Caesar could recommend his candidates for master's positions (consuls, praetors, aediles). True, "with the exception of the applicants for the consulate, half of the candidates were elected at the request of the people, and half by the appointment of Caesar" (Suet., Iul., 41.2).

Senate, formerly the highest government agency power, became essentially an advisory body under the dictator Caesar, who more than half replenished it with his henchmen. At the same time, using the right of the censor, Caesar increased the number of senators from 600 to 900 people. Another supreme body republican constitution - the people's assembly practically ceased to function as an independent institution. The gatherings at the Forum consisted mainly of Caesar's clients or his friends, who confirmed the candidature of the dictator during the elections of magistrates. The executive authorities were reorganized in accordance with the wishes of Caesar. As the volume of government affairs increased markedly, the dictator increased the number of traditional magistrates. Under Caesar, 16 praetors began to be elected instead of eight, six aediles instead of four, and 40 quaestors instead of 24. If Caesar's candidates proposed for these posts required the formal consent of the people, then lower-ranking officials (legates, prefects, procurators) were appointed personally dictator. Especially many of these officials were sent to the provinces to manage state property, finance and control the collection of taxes Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 244-245.

In addition to the land plots, "Caesar paid his veterans from the extraction of 24 thousand sesterces" (Suet., Iul., 38). Thus, the adaptation of the soldiers to a peaceful life took place calmly and the requirements of the legionnaires were satisfied.

Solving the debt issue, Caesar also chose a compromise path, which, if possible, does not infringe on the interests of either side. He refused full cassation of debts, which could destabilize ownership relations. The debts were reduced by deducting the interest paid from the principal, and the remainder could be paid in equal installments over three years. The lending rate was reduced to 6% per annum. For violation of this regulation, the usurer was severely punished. Caesar also canceled arrears on rent in Rome and Italy, and "those who paid for housing in Rome up to 2 thousand sesterces and in Italy up to 500 thousand, he exempted from payment for a year" (Ibid., 38.2) ...

The issue of the distribution of free bread to the Roman plebs was also topical. Ever since 58 BC. free grain distributions were instituted, the list of recipients of this donation swelled to 300 thousand people. Caesar carefully revised this list and reduced the number of recipients to 150 thousand people, significantly reducing the burden on the treasury and grain suppliers. from those not included in the lists "(Ibid., 41.3). To please the people, Caesar practiced periodic generous distributions of cash and products from his own reserves. So, in memory of his deceased daughter Julia, he "distributed to the people ten measures of grain and as many pounds of butter, 300 sesterces each in money." Especially impressive was Caesar's generosity after his successful military campaigns. For example, "after the Spanish triumph, he threw an incredibly rich feast and distribution of meat" (Ibid., 38). The dictator did not forget about the people's craving for all kinds of spectacles and performances. In the Caesarian era, the sphere of entertainment acquired a very wide scope: "Gladiator battles and theatrical performances were staged in all quarters of the city and in all languages, and horse races in the circus, and athletes' competitions, and sea battle" (Ibid., 39).

The main direction of the provincial policy of Caesar was the massive granting of Roman citizenship to the local nobility. For the first time in Roman history, the right of a Roman citizen was granted to an entire province - Cisalpine Gaul. In Transalpine Gaul, some cities and communities were granted Roman citizenship. Actually, measures to expand citizenship rights were linked to solving the problem of increasing the birth rate of Roman citizens. Since 130 BC. the birth rate was steadily falling, it was necessary to implement measures to stimulate it. Caesar established a reward program that encouraged people to have three or more children. To control emigration and support the population of Italy, a rule was established according to which "no citizen over 20 or under 40 years old who is not on military service, cannot leave Italy for more than three years. ”Other original measures were implemented in this direction (Ibid., 41.3). In particular,“ Caesar granted Roman citizenship to everyone who studied medicine in Rome, and to all teachers noble arts "Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters // Ibid. M., 1987. S. 155..

The dictatorship of Caesar was very painfully perceived in the circles of the Senate aristocracy. In the literature, a case is widely described when the senators, who appeared in full force to present to Caesar the most respectable decrees, "were severely insulted that the dictator accepted them while sitting" (Plut., Caes., 60). The Roman nobility had a deep-rooted belief in the justice of only the collegial system of oligarchic rule. The autocratic regime of Caesar, although it was recognized as temporarily necessary, was categorically unacceptable in the long term. Monarchist sentiments were also rejected by the people. So, for example, during one of the holidays, the attempts of Anthony, one of Caesar's associates, to crown the statue of the dictator with the royal crown Carson R. A. G. "Caesar and the Monarchy" were greeted with shouts of disapproval in the crowd. Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 52.. However, with the beginning of the establishment of the dictatorship, the senate and the people "themselves entrusted Caesar with powers beyond all measure: a permanent consulate, a life-long dictatorship, care for morals, then the name of the emperor, the nickname of the father of the fatherland, a statue among the royal statues, an exalted place in the theater." (Suet., Iul., 76). In a sense, Roman citizens were in a state of dual desires. On the one hand, they needed a strong dictatorial power capable of ensuring stability in society, on the other hand, they remained staunch supporters of a republican form of government based on collegiality and turnover of all officials. Caesar successfully solved the most acute socio-economic problems, strengthened the institutions of government and restored public order, but "his omnipotence, which did not see an end in sight, caused more and more fears" (Plut., Caes., 60).

It was on this basis that a conspiracy against Caesar matured among the senators, in the center of which were Cassius Longinus, Decimus Brutus and Mark Brutus. It is noteworthy that Mark Brutus justified the murder of Caesar by the fact that he "became a tyrant, and the duty of all honest people is to kill the tyrant" Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 250.

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