Write a message about the stars in general. Characteristics of the most notable stars

Pleshakov had a good idea - to create an atlas for children, by which it is easy to determine the stars and constellations. Our teachers picked up this idea and created their own atlas-determinant, which is even more informative and visual.

What are constellations?

If you raise your eyes to the sky on a clear night, you can see many sparkling lights of various sizes, which, like a scattering of diamonds, adorn the sky. These lights are called stars. Some of them seem to be collected in clusters and upon prolonged examination they can be divided into certain groups. Such groups are called "constellations" by man. Some of them may resemble the shape of a bucket or intricate outlines of animals, however, in many ways, this is just a figment of the imagination.

For many centuries, astronomers have tried to study such clusters of stars and give them mystical properties. People tried to systematize them and find a general pattern, and so constellations appeared. For a long time, the constellations were carefully studied, some were broken into smaller ones, and they ceased to exist, and some, after clarification, were simply corrected. For example, the constellation Argo was divided into smaller constellations: Compass, Carina, Sail, Korma.

The history of the origin of the names of the constellations is also very interesting. To facilitate memorization, they were given names united by one element or literary work... For example, it was noticed that during the period of heavy rains the Sun rises from the side of certain constellations, which were given the following names: Capricorn, Whale, Aquarius, constellation Pisces.

In order to bring all the constellations to a certain classification, in 1930, at a meeting of the International Astronomical Union, it was decided to officially register 88 constellations. According to the decision, the constellations do not consist of groups of stars, but represent areas of the starry sky.

What are the constellations?

Constellations differ in the number and brightness of the stars that make up it. There are 30 most prominent groups of stars. The longest constellation in area is considered Big Dipper... It includes 7 bright and 118 stars visible to the naked eye.

The smallest constellation located in the southern hemisphere is called the Southern Cross and it is impossible to see it with the naked eye. It consists of 5 brighter and 25 less visible stars.

Lesser Horse is the smallest constellation in the northern hemisphere and consists of 10 faint stars that can be seen with the naked eye.

The constellation Orion is considered the most beautiful and brightest. It includes 120 stars visible to the naked eye and 7 of them are very bright.

All constellations are conventionally divided into those located in the southern or northern hemisphere. For those who live in the southern hemisphere of the Earth, the clusters of stars located in the northern hemisphere and vice versa are not visible. Of the 88 constellations, 48 ​​are in the southern hemisphere and 31 in the northern. The remaining 9 groups of stars are located in both hemispheres. The Northern Hemisphere can be easily identified by the Pole Star, which always shines very brightly in the sky. She is the extreme star on the handle of the Ursa Minor bucket.

Due to the fact that the Earth revolves around the Sun, which does not allow us to see some constellations, the seasons change and the position of this star in the sky changes. For example, in winter, the location of our planet in a circumsolar orbit is the opposite of that in summer. Therefore, at each time of the year, only certain constellations can be seen. For example, in the summer, you can see the triangle formed by the stars Altair, Vega and Deneb in the night sky. V winter time there is an opportunity to admire the infinitely beautiful constellation Orion. Therefore, sometimes they say: autumn constellations, winter, summer or spring constellations.

The constellations are best seen in the summer and it is advisable to observe them in an open space, outside the city. Some stars can be seen with the naked eye, and some may require a telescope. The constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor and Cassiopeia are best seen. In autumn and winter, the constellations Taurus and Orion are clearly visible.

Bright constellations seen in Russia

The most beautiful constellations of the northern hemisphere visible in Russia are: Orion, Big Dipper, Taurus, Big Dog, Small Dog.

If you look closely at their location and give free rein to imagination, you can see a hunting scene, which, as if on an ancient fresco, has been captured in the sky for more than two thousand years. The brave hunter Orion is always depicted surrounded by animals. Taurus runs to his right, and the hunter swings a club at him. At the feet of Orion are the faithful Big and Small dogs.

Constellation orion

It is the largest and most colorful constellation. It can be clearly seen in autumn and winter. Orion can be seen over the entire territory of Russia. The arrangement of its stars resembles the outline of a person.

The history of the formation of this constellation originates from ancient Greek myths. According to them, Orion was a brave and strong hunter, the son of Poseidon and the nymph Emvriala. He often hunted along with Artemis, but one day, for defeating her during the hunt, he was struck by an arrow of the goddess and died. After death, he was turned into a constellation.

The brightest star in Orion is Rigel. It is 25 thousand times brighter than the Sun and 33 times its size. This star has a bluish-white glow and is considered supergiant. However, despite such an impressive size, it is much smaller than Betelgeuse.

Betelgeuse adorns Orion's right shoulder. It is 450 times larger than the diameter of the Sun, and if you put it in the place of our star, then this star will take the place of four planets to Mars. Betelgeuse shines 14,000 times brighter than the Sun.

The constellation Orion also includes nebula and asterisms.

Constellation Taurus

Taurus is another large and incredibly beautiful constellation in the northern hemisphere. It is located northwest of Orion and is located between the constellations Aries and Gemini. Not far from Taurus, there are constellations such as: Charioteer, Cetus, Perseus, Eridanus.

This constellation in mid-latitudes can be observed throughout almost the entire year, with the exception of the second half of spring and early summer.

The history of the constellation dates back to ancient myths. They talk about Zeus turning into a calf in order to kidnap the goddess Europa and bring her to the island of Crete. For the first time this constellation was described by Eudoxus - a mathematician who lived long before our era.

The brightest star not only in this constellation, but also in other 12 groups of stars is Aldebaran. It is located on the head of Taurus and used to be called the "eye". Aldebaran is 38 times the diameter of the Sun and 150 times brighter. This star is located 62 light-years from us.

The second brightest star in the constellation is Nat or El-Nat (bull horns). It is located near the Charioteer. It is 700 times brighter than the Sun and 4.5 times larger than it.

Within the constellation are two incredibly beautiful open clusters of stars, the Hyades and the Pleiades.

The age of the Hyades is 650 million years. They can be easily found in the starry sky thanks to Aldebaran, who is perfectly visible among them. They include about 200 stars.

The Pleiades got their name from the nine parts. Seven of them are named after the seven sisters Ancient Greece(Pleiades), and two more - in honor of their parents. The Pleiades are very visible in winter. They include about 1000 stellar bodies.

An equally interesting formation in the constellation of Taurus is the Crab Nebula. It was formed after a supernova explosion in 1054 and was discovered in 1731. The nebula is 6500 light-years distant from Earth, and its diameter is about 11 light years. years.

This constellation belongs to the Orion family and is bordered by the constellations Orion, Unicorn, Dog Minor, Hare.

Constellation Big Dog was first discovered by Ptolemy in the second century.

There is a myth that Big Dog was formerly Lelap. It was a very fast dog that could catch up with any prey. Once he chased a fox, which was not inferior to him in speed. The outcome of the race was a foregone conclusion, and Zeus turned both animals to stone. He placed the dog in heaven.

The constellation Canis Major is very visible in winter. The brightest star of not only this, but all other constellations is Sirius. It has a bluish sheen and is located fairly close to Earth, 8.6 light years away. In terms of brightness in our solar system, it is surpassed by Jupiter, Venus, and the Moon. Light from Sirius reaches the Earth in 9 years, and it is 24 times stronger than the sun. This star has a companion called Puppy.

The education of such a concept as "Vacation" is associated with Sirius. The fact is that this star appeared in the sky during the summer heat. Since Sirius is called "canis" in Greek, the Greeks began to call this period a vacation.

Constellation Canis Minor

Lesser Dog is bordered by such constellations as: Unicorn, Hydra, Cancer, Gemini. This constellation represents an animal that, together with Canis Major, follows the hunter Orion.

The history of the formation of this constellation, if we rely on myths, is very interesting. According to them, the Little Dog is Mera, the dog of Ikaria. This man was taught to make wine by Dionysus and this drink turned out to be very strong. One day his guests decided that Ikaria decided to poison them and killed him. Mayra was very sad for the owner and soon died. Zeus placed it in the form of a constellation in the starry sky.

This constellation is best observed in January and February.

The brightest stars in this constellation are Portion and Gomeisa. Portion is located 11.4 light-years from Earth. It is somewhat brighter and hotter than the Sun, but physically it differs little from it.

Gomeisa is visible to the naked eye and glows with a blue-white light.

Constellation Ursa Major

Ursa Major, shaped like a dipper, is one of the three largest constellations. It is mentioned in the writings of Homer and in the Bible. This constellation is very well studied and has great importance in many religions.

It borders on such constellations as: Waterhew, Leo, Hounds, Dogs, Dragon, Lynx.

According to ancient Greek myths, the Big Dipper is associated with Callisto, the beautiful nymph and lover of Zeus. His wife Hera turned Callisto into a bear as punishment. Once, this bear stumbled into the forest on Hera and his son Zeus, Arkas. To avoid tragedy, Zeus turned his son and nymph into constellations.

The big bucket is formed by seven stars. The most striking of them are three: Dubhe, Alkaid, Aliot.

Dubhe is a red giant and points to the North Star. It is located 120 light years from Earth.

Alkaid, the third brightest star in the constellation, expresses the end of the Ursa Major's tail. It is located at a distance of 100 light years from Earth.

Aliot is the brightest star in the constellation. She personifies the tail. Because of its brightness, it is used in navigation. Aliot shines 108 times brighter than the Sun.

These constellations are the brightest and most beautiful in the northern hemisphere. They can be perfectly seen with the naked eye on an autumn or frosty winter night. The legends of their formation allow fantasies to roam and imagine how the mighty hunter Orion, along with his faithful dogs, runs after the prey, and Taurus and the Big Dipper are watching him closely.

Russia is located in the northern hemisphere, and in this part of the sky we manage to see only a few of all the constellations that exist in the sky. Depending on the season, only their position in the sky changes.

For centuries, people have observed star patterns in the night sky. constellations.

When studying the starry sky, astronomers the ancient world divided the sky into regions. Each region was divided into groups of stars called constellations.

Constellations- these are areas into which the celestial sphere is divided for the convenience of orientation in the starry sky. Translated from Latin, "constellation" means "a group of stars." They serve as great landmarks to help you find stars. One constellation can contain from 10 to 150 stars.

A total of 88 constellations are known. 47 are ancient, known for several millennia. Many of them bear the names of the heroes of ancient Greek myths, for example Hercules, Hydra, Cassiopeia and cover the region of the sky accessible to observations from the south of Europe. The 12 constellations are traditionally called zodiacal constellations. These are well-known: Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Ves-sy and Scorpio. The rest of the modern constellations were introduced in the 17th and 18th centuries as a result of the study of the southern sky.

It was possible to determine your location by finding a certain constellation in the sky in one place or another in the sky. The selection of certain pictures in the mass of stars helped in the study of the starry sky. Astronomers of the ancient world divided the sky into regions. Each region was divided into groups of stars called constellations.

Constellations are imaginary figures that the stars form in the firmament. The night sky is a canvas dotted with paintings of dots. People have found pictures in the sky since ancient times.

The constellations were given names, legends and myths were formed about them. Different peoples divided the stars into constellations in different ways.

Some of the constellation stories have been extremely bizarre. Here, for example, what picture the ancient Egyptians saw in the constellation surrounding the Big Dipper Bucket. They saw a bull, a man was lying next to him, a man was dragged along the ground by a hippo, who walked on two legs and carried a crocodile on his back.

People saw in the sky what they wanted to see. Hunting tribes saw star-filled images of the wild animals they hunted. European navigators found constellations that resemble a compass. Indeed, scientists believe that the main area of ​​use of the constellations was to learn how to navigate the sea while sailing.

There is a legend that tells that the wife of the Egyptian pharaoh Berenice (Veronica) offered her luxurious hair as a gift to the goddess Venus. But the hair was stolen from the halls of Venus and ended up in the sky as a constellation. In summer, the constellation Hair of Veronica can be seen in the Northern Hemisphere below the handle of the Big Dipper Bucket.

Many constellation stories have their origins in Greek myths. Here is one of them. The goddess Juno was jealous of her husband Jupiter, the servant Callisto. To protect Callisto, Jupiter turned her into a bear. But this created a new problem. One day, Callisto's son went hunting and saw his mother. Thinking that this is an ordinary bear, he raised his bow and aimed, Jupiter intervened and, in order to prevent the murder, turned the young man into a little bear cub. This is how, according to the myth, a big bear and a little bear cub appeared in the sky. Now these constellations are called Ursa Major and Ursa Minor.

The position of the stars in relation to each other is constant, but they all revolve around a certain point. In the northern hemisphere this point corresponds Polar Star... If you point a camera on a fixed tripod at this star and wait an hour, you can make sure that each of the stars photographed has circumscribed a part of a circle.

When looking at the sky from the northern hemisphere, the Pole Star is in the center, and the Ursa Minor is above it. Ursa Major is located on the left, between the two Dippers the Dragon "squeezed". Under Ursa Minor, in the shape of an inverted M, is the constellation Cassiopeia.

In the southern hemisphere there is no central star that could serve as a reference point (axis) around which, as it seems to us, all stars revolve. Above the center is South Cross, and above him, in turn, the Centaur, as if surrounding him. The South Triangle is visible on the left, and below it is the Peacock. Even lower is the constellation Toucan.

Since the Earth revolves around the Sun in a year, its position relative to the stars is constantly changing. Each night the sky is slightly different from what it was yesterday. In the northern hemisphere in summer, the Ursa Minor is visible in the center, and above it is visible the Dragon, as if surrounding it, and below, on the right, the zigzag of Cassiopeia, above it is the constellation Cepheus, on the left is the Big Dipper.

In winter, in the northern hemisphere, another part of the sky is visible from the Earth. On the right, one of the most beautiful constellations, Orion, is discernible, and in the middle is Orion's Belt. Below you can see the small constellation of the Hare. If you draw a line down from Orion's Belt, you will notice the brightest star in the sky, Sirius, which in our latitudes never rises high above the horizon line.

It seems that the stars in the constellations are close to each other, in fact, this is an illusion.

The stars of the constellations are trillions of kilometers apart. But stars farther away can be brighter and look the same as farther less bright stars. From Earth, we see the constellations flat.

Stars are like people, they are born and die. They are in constant motion. Therefore, over time, the outlines of the constellations change. A million years ago, the current Big Dipper Bucket was not like a bucket, but a long spear. Perhaps in a million years, people will have to come up with new names for the constellations, because their shape will undoubtedly change.

Maybe, somewhere, there is a planetary system with which our Sun looks like a small star, part of some constellation, in the outlines of which the inhabitants of a distant planet see the silhouette of their native exotic animal.

ESSAY

pupils of 4 "B" class

MBOU SOSH # 3

them. Ataman M.I. Platov

Golovacheva Lydia

Classroom teacher:

Udovitchenko

Lyudmila Nikolaevna

on the topic:

"Stars and constellations"

1. Concept-constellations, types of constellations.

2. The history of the names of the constellations.

3. Star maps.

Bibliography:

1.Universe: An Encyclopedia for Children / Per. with fr. N. Klokovoi M .: Egmont Russia LTD., 2001 /

Introduction

For millennia, the stars were incomprehensible to human consciousness, but they fascinated him. Therefore, the science of stars - astronomy - is one of the most ancient. It took thousands of years for people to free themselves from the naive notion that stars are points of light attached to a huge dome. However, the greatest thinkers of antiquity understood that the starry sky with the Sun and the Moon is something more than just an enlarged semblance of a planetarium. They guessed that planets and stars are separate bodies and float freely in the Universe. With the beginning of the space age, the stars have become closer to us. We learn more and more about them. But the most ancient science of the stars, astronomy, not only has not exhausted itself, but, on the contrary, has become even more interesting.

Stellar magnitudes

One of the most important characteristics is magnitude. Previously, it was believed that the distance to the stars is the same, and the brighter the star, the larger it is. The brightest stars were assigned to the stars of the first magnitude (1 m, from Latin magnitido - magnitude), and those barely distinguishable with the naked eye - to the sixth (6 m). Now we know that stellar magnitude does not characterize the size of a star, but its brightness, that is, the illumination that a star creates on Earth.

But the magnitude scale has been preserved and updated. The brightness of a 1 m star is exactly 100 times greater than the brightness of a 6 m star. Luminaries, the brightness of which exceeds the brightness of stars 1 m, have zero and negative stellar magnitudes. The scale continues towards the stars that are invisible to the naked eye. There are stars 7 m, 8 m, and so on. For a more accurate assessment, fractional magnitudes of 2.3 m, 7.1 m, and so on are used.

Since the stars are at different distances from us, their apparent stellar magnitudes do not say anything about the luminosities (radiation power) of the stars. Therefore, the concept of "absolute magnitude" is also used. The stellar magnitudes that stars would have if they were at the same distance (10 pc) are called absolute stellar magnitudes (M).

Distance to the stars

To determine the distances to the nearest stars, the parallax method is used (the value of the angular displacement of the object). The angle (p) at which the average radius of the earth's orbit (a) would be seen from the star, located perpendicular to the direction to the star, is called the annual parallax. The distance to the star can be calculated using the formula

The distance to the star corresponding to a parallax of 1 ? called a parsec.

However, annual parallaxes can be determined only for the nearest stars located no further than several hundred parsecs. But a statistical relationship was found between the form of the star's spectrum and the absolute magnitude. Thus, the absolute stellar magnitudes are estimated by the type of the spectrum, and then, comparing them with the visible stellar magnitudes, the distances to the stars and the parallaxes are calculated. Parallaxes defined in this way are called spectral parallaxes.

Luminosity

Some stars seem brighter to us, others fainter. But this does not yet speak about the true radiation power of the stars, since they are located at different distances. Thus, the apparent magnitude in itself cannot be a characteristic of the star, since it depends on the distance. The true characteristic is luminosity, that is, the total energy that a star emits per unit of time. The luminosities of the stars are extremely diverse. One of the giant stars, S Dorado, has a luminosity of 500,000 times that of the Sun, and the luminosity of the faintest dwarf stars is about the same times less.

If the absolute stellar magnitude is known, then the luminosity of any star can be calculated using the formula

log L = 0.4 (Ma -M),

where: L is the luminosity of the star,

M is its absolute magnitude, and

Ma is the absolute stellar magnitude of the Sun.

Mass of stars

Another important characteristic of a star is its mass. The masses of the stars are different, but, in contrast to the luminosities and sizes, they are different within relatively narrow limits. The main method for determining the masses of stars is provided by the study of binary stars. Based on the law of universal gravitation and Kepler's laws generalized by Newton, the formula was derived

M 1 + M 2 = -,

where M 1 and M 2 are the masses of the main star and its satellite, P is the satellite's orbital period, and is the semi-major axis of the earth's orbit.

A relationship was also found between the luminosity and the mass of the star: the luminosity increases in proportion to the cube of the mass. Using this dependence, it is possible to determine the masses of single stars from the luminosity, for which it is impossible to calculate the mass directly from observations.

Spectral classification

The spectra of the stars are their passports with a description of all of them physical properties... By the spectrum of a star, you can find out its luminosity (and hence the distance to it), its temperature, size, chemical composition its atmosphere, both qualitative and quantitative, the speed of its movement in space, the speed of its rotation around its axis, and even whether there is another invisible star near it, with which it revolves around their common center of gravity.

There is a detailed classification of stellar classes (Harvard). Classes are designated by letters, subclasses by numbers from 0 to 9 after the letter denoting the class. In class O, subclasses begin with O5. The sequence of spectral types reflects a continuous drop in stellar temperature as the transition to more and more later spectral types. It looks like this:

O - B - A - F - G - K - M

Among cool red stars, besides the class M, there are two other varieties. In the spectrum of some, instead of the molecular absorption bands of titanium oxide, bands of carbon monoxide and cyanogen are characteristic (in the spectra, denoted by the letters R and N), and among others, bands of zirconium oxide (class S) are characteristic.

The vast majority of stars belong to the sequence from O to M. This sequence is continuous. The colors of stars of various classes are different: O and B are bluish stars, A are white, F and G are yellow, K are orange, M are red.

The above classification is one-dimensional, since the main characteristic is the temperature of the star. But among the stars of the same class there are giant stars and dwarf stars. They differ in the density of the gas in the atmosphere, surface area, and luminosity. These differences are reflected in the spectra of the stars. There is a new, two-dimensional classification of stars. According to this classification, each star except spectral class the luminosity class is also indicated. It is denoted by Roman numerals from I to V. I - supergiants, II-III - giants, IV - subgiants, V - dwarfs. For example, the spectral type of the star Vega looks like A0V, Betelgeuse - M2I, Sirius - A1V.

All of the above applies to normal stars. However, there are many non-standard stars with unusual spectra. First of all, these are emission stars. Their spectra are characterized not only by dark (absorption) lines, but also by light emission lines, brighter than the continuous spectrum. Such lines are called emission lines. The presence of such lines in the spectrum is denoted by the letter “e” after the spectral type. So, there are stars Be, Ae, Me. The presence of certain emission lines in the spectrum of the star O is designated as Of. There are exotic stars whose spectra consist of broad emission bands against the background of a weak continuous spectrum. They are designated WC and WN, they do not fit into the Harvard classification. Recently, infrared stars have been discovered that emit almost all of their energy in the invisible infrared region of the spectrum.

Giant and dwarf stars

Among the stars, there are giants and dwarfs. The largest among them are red giants, which, despite their weak emission from square meter surfaces, shine 50,000 times more powerful than the Sun. The largest giants are 2,400 times the size of the Sun. Inside they could accommodate our solar system up to the orbit of Saturn. Sirius is one of the white stars, it shines 24 times more powerful than the Sun, it is about twice the diameter of the Sun.

But there are many dwarf stars. They are mostly red dwarfs with a diameter of half or even one-fifth of the diameter of our Sun. The sun is an average star in size, there are billions of such stars in our galaxy.

Special place are occupied by white dwarfs among the stars. But they will be discussed later, as the final stage in the evolution of an ordinary star.

Variable stars

Variable stars are stars that change in brightness. In some variable stars, the brightness changes periodically, in others, there is an erratic brightness change. To designate variable stars, Latin letters are used with the indication of the constellation. Within one constellation, variable stars are assigned sequentially one Latin letter, a combination of two letters, or the letter V with a number. For example, S Car, RT Per, V 557 Sgr.

Variable stars are divided into three large classes: pulsating, eruptive (explosive), and eclipsing.

Pulsing stars have smooth brightness variations. They are caused by periodic changes in the radius and temperature of the surface. The periods of pulsating stars vary from fractions of a day (RR Lyrae stars) to tens (Cepheids) and hundreds of days (Mira - stars of the Mira Ceti type). About 14 thousand pulsating stars have been discovered.

The second class of variable stars is explosive, or, as they are also called, eruptive stars. These include, firstly, supernovae, novae, repeated novae, stars like I Gemini, nova-like and symbiotic stars. Eruptive stars include young fast variable stars, IV Ceti stars and a number of related objects. The number of open eruptive variables exceeds 2000.

Pulsing and eruptive stars are called physical variable stars because the change in their apparent brightness is caused by physical processes flowing on them. This changes the temperature, color, and sometimes the size of the star.

Let us consider in more detail the most interesting types of physical variable stars. For example, the Cepheids. They are a very common and very important type of physical variable stars. They have the features of the star d Cepheus. Its luster is constantly changing. Changes are repeated every 5 days and 8 hours. Gloss rises faster than decreases after maximum. d Cepheus is a periodic variable star. Spectral observations show changes in radial velocities and spectral type. The color of the star also changes. This means that deep changes of a general nature are taking place in the star, the cause of which is the pulsation of the outer layers of the star. Cepheids are non-stationary stars. There is an alternate compression and expansion under the action of two opposing forces: the force of attraction to the center of the star and the force of gas pressure, pushing the substance outward. A very important characteristic of the Cepheids is the period. For each given star, it is constant with great accuracy. Cepheids are giant stars and supergiants with high luminosity.

The main thing is that there is a relationship between the luminosity and the period in Cepheids: the longer the brightness period of the Cepheid, the greater its luminosity. Thus, according to the period known from observations, it is possible to determine the luminosity or absolute magnitude, and then the distance to the Cepheid. Probably, many stars have been Cepheids for some time during their lives. Therefore, their study is very important for understanding the evolution of stars. In addition, they help determine the distance to other galaxies, where they are visible due to their high luminosity. The Cepheids also help in determining the size and shape of our Galaxy.

Another type of regular variable is the Mira, a long-period variable star named after the star Mira (about Ceti). Being huge in volume, exceeding the volume of the Sun by millions and tens of millions of times, these red giants of spectral class M pulsate very slowly, with periods from 80 to 1000 days. Change in luminosity in visual rays different representatives this type of stars occurs 10 to 2500 times. However, the total radiated energy changes only 2-2.5 times. The radii of the stars fluctuate around average values ​​in the range of 5-10%, and the light curves are similar to the Cepheid ones.

As already mentioned, not all physical variable stars exhibit periodic changes. Many stars are known to be classified as semi-regular or irregular variables. In such stars, it is difficult, if not impossible, to notice regularities in the change in brightness.

Let us now consider the third class of variable stars - eclipsing variables. These are binary systems, the orbital plane of which is parallel to the line of sight. When stars move around a common center of gravity, they alternately eclipse each other, which causes fluctuations in their brightness. Outside of eclipses, light from both components reaches the observer, and during an eclipse, the light is attenuated by the eclipsing component. In close systems, changes in the total brightness can also be caused by distortions in the shape of the stars. The periods of eclipsing stars range from several hours to tens of years.

There are three main types of eclipsing variable stars. The first is variable stars of the Algol type (b Perseus). The components of these stars are spherical in shape, with the size of the companion star being larger and the luminosity less than the main star. Both components are either white, or the main star is white and the companion star is yellow. As long as there is no eclipse, the brightness of the star is practically constant. When the main star is eclipsed, the brightness decreases sharply (main minimum), and when the satellite enters the main star, the brightness decrease is insignificant (secondary minimum) or is not observed at all. From the analysis of the light curve, the radii and luminosities of the components can be calculated.

The second type of eclipsing variable stars are b Lyrae stars. Their brightness continuously and smoothly changes within about two magnitudes. Between the major lows, a shallower secondary low is bound to occur. The periods of variability are from half a day to several days. The components of these stars are massive bluish-white and white giants of spectral types B and A. Due to their significant mass and relative proximity to each other, both components are subject to strong tidal effects, as a result of which they acquired an ellipsoidal shape. In such close vapors, stellar atmospheres penetrate each other, and there is a continuous exchange of matter, part of which goes into interstellar space.

The third type of eclipsing binary stars are stars that are called Ursa Major W stars after this star, the period of variability (and revolution) of which is only 8 hours. It is difficult to imagine the colossal speed with which the huge components of this star are orbiting. The spectral classes of these stars are F and G.

There is also a small separate class of variable stars - magnetic stars. In addition to a high magnetic field, they have strong inhomogeneities in their surface characteristics. Such inhomogeneities during the rotation of the star lead to a change in brightness.

For about 20,000 stars, the variability class has not been determined.

The study of variable stars is of great importance. Variable stars help determine the age of the stellar systems in which they are located and the type of their stellar population; distances to distant parts of our Galaxy, as well as to other galaxies. Modern observations have shown that some variables double stars are the source x-ray.

Stars flowing out of gas

In the collection of stellar spectra, it is possible to trace a continuous transition from spectra with individual thin lines to spectra containing individual unusually wide bands along with dark lines and even without them.

Stars that, according to their spectral lines, could be attributed to stars of spectral class O, but have broad bright bands in the spectrum, are called Wolf-Rayet stars - after two French scientists who discovered and described them in the last century. It was only now possible to unravel the nature of these stars.

The stars of this class are the hottest among all known. Their temperature is 40-100 thousand degrees.

Such tremendous temperatures are accompanied by such a powerful radiation of a stream of ultraviolet rays that light atoms of hydrogen, helium, and at very high temperatures and atoms of other elements, apparently unable to withstand the pressure of light from below, fly upward with great speed. The speed of their movement under the influence of light pressure is so great that the attraction of the star is unable to keep them. In a continuous stream, they break off the surface of the star and, almost not held back, rush away into world space, forming a kind of atomic rain, but directed not downward, but upward. In such a rain, all life on the planets would be burned if they were surrounded by these stars.

A continuous rain of atoms escaping from the surface of the star forms a continuous atmosphere around it, but continuously scattering into space.

How long can a Wolf-Rayet star expire in gas? In a year, the Wolf-Rayet star emits a mass of gas equal to one tenth or one hundred thousandth of the mass of the Sun. The mass of Wolf-Rayet stars is, on average, ten times the mass of the Sun. Expelling gas at such a rate, the Wolf-Rayet star cannot exist longer than 10 4 -10 5 years, after which nothing will remain of it. Regardless of this, there is evidence that in reality, stars in a similar state have existed for no longer than ten thousand years, rather even much less. Probably, with a decrease in their mass to a certain value, their temperature drops, and the ejection of atoms stops. Currently, only about a hundred of such self-destructing stars are known in the entire sky. Probably only a few of the most massive stars reach such high temperatures in their development when gas loss begins. Perhaps, having thus freed itself from the excess mass, the star can continue its normal, “healthy” development.

Most Wolf-Rayet stars are very close spectroscopic binaries. Their partner in a pair always turns out to be also a massive and hot class O or B. Many of these stars are eclipsing binaries. Gas-streaming stars, while rare, have enriched the concept of stars in general.

New stars

Stars are called new if their brightness suddenly increases hundreds, thousands, even millions of times. Having reached the highest brightness, the new star begins to extinguish and returns to a calm state. The more powerful the outbreak of a new star, the faster its brightness decreases. In terms of the rate of decrease in brightness, new stars are classified either as “fast” or “slow”.

All new stars eject gas during a burst, which scatters at high speeds. The largest mass of gas ejected by new stars during an outburst is contained in the main envelope. This envelope is visible decades after the outburst around some other stars in the form of a nebula.

All new ones are double stars. In this case, the pair always consists of a white dwarf and a normal star. Since the stars are very close to each other, there is a flow of gas from the surface of a normal star to the surface of a white dwarf. There is a hypothesis for new outbreaks. The flash occurs as a result of a sharp acceleration of the thermal nuclear reactions burning hydrogen on the surface of a white dwarf. Hydrogen enters white dwarf from a normal star. Thermonuclear “fuel” accumulates and explodes after reaching a certain critical value. The flashes can be repeated. The interval between them is from 10,000 to 1,000,000 years.

The closest relatives of novae are dwarf novae. Their outbursts are thousands of times weaker than the outbreaks of new stars, but they occur thousands of times more often. In appearance, new stars and dwarf novae in a quiescent state do not differ from each other. And it is still not known what physical reasons lead to such a different explosive activity of these outwardly similar stars.

Supernovae

Supernovae are the brightest stars that appear in the sky as a result of stellar flares. A supernova outbreak is a catastrophic event in the life of a star, since it can no longer return to its original state. At its maximum brightness, it shines like several billion stars like the Sun. The total energy released during the flare is comparable to the energy emitted by the Sun during its existence (5 billion years). Energy dissipates to accelerate matter: it scatters in all directions at tremendous speeds (up to 20,000 km / s). The remnants of supernova explosions are now observed in the form of expanding nebulae with unusual properties(Crab Nebula). Their energy is equal to the energy of a supernova explosion. After an outburst, a neutron star or pulsar remains in place of a supernova.

Until now, the mechanism of supernova explosions is not completely clear. Most likely, such a star catastrophe is possible only at the end “ life path" stars. The following energy sources are most likely: gravitational energy released during the catastrophic contraction of the star. Supernova explosions have important consequences for the Galaxy. The matter of the star, scattering after the outburst, carries the energy that feeds the energy of the movement of the interstellar gas. This substance contains new chemical compounds... In a sense, all life on Earth owes its existence to supernovae. Without them, the chemical composition of matter in galaxies would be very scarce.

Double stars

Binary stars are pairs of stars bound into one system by gravitational forces. The components of such systems describe their orbits around a common center of mass. There are triple, quadruple stars; they are called multiple stars.

Systems in which components can be seen through a telescope are called visual binaries. But sometimes they are only randomly located in the same direction for the terrestrial observer. In space, they are separated by great distances. These are optical binaries.

Another type of binaries is made up of those stars that, when moving, alternately block each other. These are eclipsing binary stars.

Stars with the same proper motion (in the absence of other signs of duality) are also binary. These are the so-called wide pairs. With the help of multicolor photoelectric photometry, binary stars can be detected that do not otherwise manifest themselves. They are photomeric binaries.

Stars with invisible satellites can also be classified as binaries.

Spectroscopic binaries are stars whose duality is revealed only by studying their spectra.

Star clusters

These are groups of stars linked by gravity and common origin. They number from several tens to hundreds of thousands of stars. Distinguish between open and globular clusters. The difference between them is determined by the mass and age of these formations.

Open star clusters unite tens and hundreds, rarely thousands of stars. Their sizes are usually several parsecs. Concentrate towards the equatorial plane of the Galaxy. There are more than 1000 known clusters in our Galaxy.

Globular star clusters number hundreds of thousands of stars, have a clear spherical or ellipsoidal shape with a strong concentration of stars towards the center. All globular clusters are located far from the Sun. There are 130 known globular clusters in the Galaxy, and there should be about 500.

Globular clusters appear to have formed from huge gas clouds on early stage the formation of the Galaxy, keeping their elongated orbits. The formation of open clusters began later from gas that “settled” towards the galactic plane. In the densest clouds of gas, the formation of open clusters and associations continues to this day. Therefore, the age of open clusters is not the same, while the age of large globular clusters is approximately the same and is close to the age of the Galaxy.

Star associations

These are scattered groups of stars of spectral types O and B and type T. Taurus. In their characteristics, stellar associations are similar to large, very young open clusters, but differ from them, apparently, in a lesser degree of concentration towards the center. In other galaxies there are complexes of hot young stars associated with giant clouds of hydrogen ionized by their radiation - superassociations.

What feeds the stars?

How do the stars expend such monstrous amounts of energy? Various hypotheses have been put forward at different times. So, it was believed that the energy of the Sun is supported by the fall of meteorites on it. But there should be a lot of them on the Sun, which would noticeably increase its mass. The energy of the Sun could be replenished due to its contraction. However, if the Sun were once infinitely large, then in this case, too, its contraction to modern size would be enough to sustain energy for only 20 million years. Meanwhile, it has been proven that the earth's crust exists and is illuminated by the Sun for much longer.

Finally, the physics of the atomic nucleus indicated the source of stellar energy, which is in good agreement with the data of astrophysics and, in particular, with the conclusion that most of the mass of the star is hydrogen.

The theory of nuclear reactions led to the conclusion that the source of energy in most stars, including the Sun, is continuing education helium atoms from hydrogen atoms.

When all of the hydrogen has been converted to helium, the star can still exist by converting helium into heavier elements, up to and including iron.

Internal structure of stars

We consider a star as a body subject to the action of various forces. The force of gravity tends to pull the matter of the star towards the center, while the gas and light pressures directed from the inside tend to push it away from the center. Since the star exists as a stable body, then, therefore, there is some kind of balance between the conflicting forces. For this, the temperature of different layers in the star should be set such that in each layer the energy flow outward leads to the surface all the energy that has arisen under it. Energy is generated in a small central core. For the initial period of a star's life, its compression is a source of energy. But only until the temperature rises so much that nuclear reactions begin.

Formation of stars and galaxies

Matter in the Universe is in continuous development, in the most diverse forms and states. Since the forms of existence of matter change, then, consequently, various and diverse objects could not have arisen all at the same time, but were formed in different epochs and therefore have their own definite age, counted from the beginning of their origin.

The scientific foundations of cosmogony were laid by Newton, who showed that matter in space under the influence of its own gravity is divided into shrinking pieces. The theory of the formation of clumps of matter from which stars are formed was developed in 1902 by the English astrophysicist J. Jins. This theory also explains the origin of the Galaxies. In an initially homogeneous environment of constant temperature and density, compaction can occur. If the force of mutual gravitation in it exceeds the force of gas pressure, then the medium will contract, and if gas pressure prevails, then the substance will dissipate in space.

It is believed that the age of the Metagalaxy is 13-15 billion years. This age does not contradict the estimates of the age of the oldest stars and globular star clusters in our Galaxy.

Evolution of the stars

The condensations that have arisen in the gas-dust environment of the Galaxy and continue to contract under the action of their own gravitation are called protostars. As it contracts, the density and temperature of the protostar increases, and it begins to emit abundant infrared radiation. The duration of the compression of protostars is different: with a mass less than the solar mass - hundreds of millions of years, and for massive ones - only hundreds of thousands of years. When the temperature in the interior of the protostar rises to several million Kelvin, thermonuclear reactions of the conversion of hydrogen into helium begin in them. At the same time, a huge energy is released, which prevents further compression and heats up the substance to self-luminescence - the protostar turns into an ordinary star. So, the stage of compression is replaced by a stationary stage, accompanied by a gradual “burnout” of hydrogen. In the stationary stage, a star spends most of its life. It is in this stage of evolution that the stars are located, which are located on main sequence“Spectrum-luminosity”. The time spent by a star on the main sequence is proportional to the mass of the star, since the supply of nuclear fuel depends on this, and is inversely proportional to the luminosity, which determines the rate of consumption of nuclear fuel.

When all the hydrogen in the central region has been converted to helium, a helium core will form inside the star. Now hydrogen will turn into helium not in the center of the star, but in a layer adjacent to the very hot helium core. As long as there are no energy sources inside the helium core, it will constantly shrink and at the same time heat up even more. Compression of the nucleus leads to a more rapid release of nuclear energy in a thin layer near the nucleus boundary. In more massive stars, the temperature of the core during compression rises above 80 million Kelvin, and thermonuclear reactions of the transformation of helium into carbon, and then into other heavier chemical elements, begin in it. The energy escaping from the core and its environs causes an increase in gas pressure, under the influence of which the photosphere expands. The energy coming to the photosphere from the interior of the star now spreads over large area than before. As a result, the temperature of the photosphere decreases. The star leaves the main sequence, gradually transforming into a red giant or supergiant depending on its mass, and becomes an old star. Passing the stage of a yellow supergiant, a star can turn out to be a pulsating, that is, a physical variable star, and remain so in the stage of a red giant. The swollen shell of a star of small mass is already weakly attracted by the core and, gradually moving away from it, forms a planetary nebula. After the final scattering of the envelope, only the hot core of the star - a white dwarf - remains.

More massive stars have a different fate. If the mass of a star is approximately twice the mass of the Sun, then such stars are last stages their evolution lose stability. In particular, they can explode like supernovae, and then catastrophically shrink to the size of balls with a radius of several kilometers, that is, turn into neutron stars.

A star, the mass of which is more than twice the mass of the Sun, having lost its balance and beginning to shrink, will either turn into a neutron star, or will not be able to reach a stable state at all. In the process of unlimited compression, it is likely capable of turning into a black hole.

White dwarfs

White dwarfs are unusual, very small dense stars with high surface temperatures. The main distinguishing feature internal structure white dwarfs are gigantic in density compared to normal stars. Due to the enormous density, the gas in the bowels of white dwarfs is in an unusual state - degenerate. The properties of such a degenerate gas are not at all similar to those of ordinary gases. Its pressure, for example, is practically independent of temperature. The stability of the white dwarf is supported by the fact that the pressure of the degenerate gas in its interior is opposed to the tremendous gravitational force that squeezes it.

White dwarfs are at the final stage of the evolution of stars of not very large masses. There are no more nuclear sources in the star, and it shines for a very long time, slowly cooling down. White dwarfs are stable if their mass does not exceed approximately 1.4 times the mass of the Sun.

Neutron stars

Neutron stars are very small, superdense celestial bodies. Their diameter is on average no more than a few tens of kilometers. Neutron stars are formed after the exhaustion of the sources of thermonuclear energy in the interior of an ordinary star, if its mass by this time exceeds 1.4 solar masses. Since there is no source of thermonuclear energy, stable equilibrium of the star becomes impossible and a catastrophic contraction of the star towards the center begins - gravitational collapse. If the initial mass of the star does not exceed a certain critical value, then the collapse in the central parts stops and a hot neutron star is formed. The collapse process takes a split second. It can be followed either by the leakage of the remaining stellar envelope onto a hot neutron star with the emission of neutrinos, or ejection of the envelope due to the thermonuclear energy of “unburned” matter or the energy of rotation. Such an ejection occurs very quickly and from the Earth it looks like a supernova explosion. Observed neutron stars - pulsars are often associated with supernova remnants. If the mass of a neutron star exceeds 3-5 solar masses, its equilibrium will become impossible, and such a star will be a black hole. Very important characteristics of neutron stars are rotation and magnetic field. The magnetic field can be billions and trillions of times stronger than the earth's magnetic field.

Pulsars

Pulsars are sources of electromagnetic radiation that changes strictly periodically: from fractions of a second to several minutes. The first pulsars were discovered in 1968. as weak sources of pulsed radio emission. Later, periodic sources of X-ray radiation were discovered - the so-called X-ray pulsars, the radiation properties of which differ significantly from the properties of radio pulsars.

The nature of pulsars has not yet been fully disclosed. Scientists believe pulsars are spinning neutron stars with strong magnetic fields. Due to the magnetic field, the pulsar's radiation is similar to the beam of a searchlight. When, due to the rotation of a neutron star, a beam hits the antenna of a radio telescope, we see bursts of radiation. Periodic disruptions observed in some pulsars confirm the predictions of the presence of a solid crust and a superfluid core in neutron stars (period disruptions occur when the solid crust breaks - “starquakes”).

Most pulsars are formed in supernova explosions. This has been proven, at least for the pulsar in the center of the Crab Nebula, which also exhibits impulsive emission in the optical range.

Black holes

Some of the most interesting and mysterious objects in the Universe are black holes. Scientists have established that black holes must arise as a result of a very strong compression of any mass, in which the gravitational field increases so strongly that it does not release light or any other radiation, signals or bodies.

In order to overcome gravity and escape from the black hole, it would take a second cosmic speed, greater light speed. According to the theory of relativity, no body can develop a speed greater than the speed of light. That is why nothing can fly out of a black hole, no information can come out. After any bodies, any substance or radiation fall under the influence of gravity into a black hole, the observer will never know what happened to them in the future. Near black holes, according to scientists, the properties of space and time should change dramatically.

Scientists believe that black holes can appear at the end of the evolution of fairly massive stars.

The effects that arise when the surrounding matter falls into the field of a black hole are most pronounced when the black hole is part of a binary stellar system, in which one star is a bright giant, and the second component is a black hole. In this case, gas from the envelope of the giant star flows to the black hole, twists around it, forming a disk. Layers of gas in the disk rub against each other, slowly approach the black hole along spiral orbits and eventually fall into it. But even before this fall, at the edge of the black hole, the gas is heated by friction to a temperature of millions of degrees and radiates in the X-ray range. From this radiation, astronomers are trying to detect black holes in binary stellar systems.

It is possible that very massive black holes arise in the centers of compact star clusters, in the centers of galaxies and quasars.

It is also possible that black holes could have arisen in the distant past, at the very beginning of the expansion of the Universe. In this case, the formation of very small black holes with a mass much less than the mass of celestial bodies is possible.

This conclusion is especially interesting because near such small black holes the gravitational field can induce specific quantum processes of the “creation” of particles from the vacuum. With the flow of these nascent particles, small black holes in the universe can be detected.

Quantum processes of particle production lead to a slow decrease in the mass of black holes, to their "evaporation".

Bibliography

Astrophysics, ed. Dagaeva M.M. and Charugina V.M.

Vorontsov-Velyaminov B.A. Essays on the Universe. M.: 1980

Meyer M.V. Universe. S.-P.: 1909

Astronomy textbook for grade 11. M.: 1994

Frolov V.P. Introduction to the physics of black holes.

encyclopedic Dictionary young astronomer.

FOR CHILDREN ABOUT SPACE. CONVERSATION SIX. STARS AND CONSTELLATIONS

(Shorygina T.A. For children O outer space and Yuri Gagarin - first astronaut Of the earth: Conversations, leisure, stories. -M.: Sphere, 2014.-128s.)

Space is not a walk, a rocket is not an airplane.

(Yuri Gagarin)

Starry sky

Imagine that on a clear frosty evening you went outside and looked up at the sky.

How many stars! How bright they are! It seems as if a fairy-tale wizard has scattered handfuls of sparkling diamonds across the dark blue sky.

Stars

The stars are clear

Frequent asterisks

They burn high in the sky.

As if they are singing beautiful songs -

They talk to us!

The sky is huge

The sky is bottomless

The stars, like grains of sand, are innumerable.

Yet, believe me,

Guiding star

In life, everyone has!

There are very, very many stars in the sky. Without any instruments, you can see about six thousand stars, and with a telescope - almost two billion!

All the stars are huge balls of fire. But the temperature of these hot balls is different, so they have different colors.

The hottest stars are white, slightly less hot ones are blue, then yellow ones follow, and red ones close the row.

The brightest stars in our Northern Hemisphere are Sirius and Aldebaran.

- Why do you think they seem small, like grains of sand?

Right! The stars are infinitely far from us. Light from distant stars comes to Earth after hundreds and even thousands of years.

- And which star is closest to the Earth?

Right! The sun.

Scattering of stars sparkle in the sky on a dark night, and disappear in the morning.

By the way, this is also stated in the riddle:

Scattered over the sheepskin

Grains of gold

And when it dawned,

They were boldly blown away!

Where do the stars disappear during the day?

Right! They do not disappear anywhere, but we do not see them in the bright rays of our luminary.

Stars are different not only in temperature and color, but also in size.

There are stars in space that are called the Red Giants. These stars were perfectly normal in the past, but formed from ordinary stars as they gradually began to cool down. The very core of a star, or, as they say, its core, becomes smaller, contracts, and the outer layer, on the contrary, grows and expands. The star becomes not so hot, it cools down. From white it turns into a giant red star.

In outer space, there are small but very hot stars. They are called White Dwarfs.

There are also special stars in the Universe - Black holes. Scientists have studied these strange celestial bodies for a long time and came to the conclusion that they seem completely black, because they completely absorb the rays of the light falling on them.

Why it happens?

Because the Black Hole consists of a very dense compressed matter (sometimes this star turns into a point!) And has a tremendous force of attraction.

In ancient times, travelers and sailors found their way through the stars. But there are so many stars in the sky and it is not easy to remember their location.

Therefore, even in the old days, the stars were connected by lines on special maps of the starry sky so that simple figures were formed that resemble people or animals. These groups of stars were called constellations.

In a year, the Earth makes one revolution around the Sun, and every month the Sun rises against the background of another constellation. There are 12 such constellations. They are called zodiacal.

Do you know the names of the zodiacal constellations?

A counting rhyme will help you remember the names of these constellations:

Like months - brothers,

There are twelve constellations.

And their name is: Cancer, Taurus,

Virgo, Aries and Sagittarius,

Scorpio and Gemini

Pisces, Capricorn, Libra,

Leo, and next to Aquarius.

Remember them soon!

In addition to the zodiacal constellations, there are others in the sky. The science of astronomy originated in Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Greece, Rome. Many constellations bear Greek or Latin names and interesting legends and myths are associated with them.

You probably saw the bright constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor in the night sky. About these constellations in ancient Greece, they laid down such a legend.

Once the thunder god Zeus admired the earthly beauty Callisto. His jealous wife Hera took offense and, using her magical powers, turned Callisto into a bear. She hoped that her son, a skilled hunter Arkas, would kill the beast when he saw him in his House. But Zeus turned the bear into a celestial constellation. To prevent the poor girl from being bored alone, he placed her beloved dog next to her. This constellation was named Ursa Minor.

Listen to the poem.

Big Dipper

The beauty of the earthly Callisto

Thunderer Zeus is captured.

The look is enthusiastic and quick

He throws it at her.

Hera caught his eye,

Full of hidden fire.

The heart flamed with anger:

“I will take revenge on Callista.

I will make her hairy

Clubfoot like a bear.

Instead of lovely hands - paws,

Let death befall her!

Her son is a brave hunter,

He will kill the bear

Arrows will pierce her heart

The body will become like ice. "

But from a terrible fate

Zeus saved his beloved:

"Will not kill you in vain

Your loving son Arkas.

Instead of human life

With a suffering soul

I will give you eternity -

Become a Big Dipper.

Retribution will not find you

Pain and fear will not touch.

Will you twinkle with a constellation

Diamond stars in the sky! "

This constellation is also called the Big Bucket. It really looks like a bucket with a long handle.

Bear or bucket?

Flickers and glows

Big Dipper.

The constellation looks like a bucket,

And the bucket does not look like a bear at all!

Using the constellation Ursa Major, you can find the North Star. For pilgrims, this guiding star has always served as a reference point. If you face her, then in front of you there will be north, behind, behind you - south, on the right hand - east, and on the left - west.

There is a small constellation in the sky called Lyra. It is decorated with one of the most bright stars Northern Hemisphere - Vega.

Why do you think the constellation is called Lyra?

The constellation resembles a musical instrument played by the amazing singer Orpheus. According to one of the Greek legends, Orpheus sang so beautifully that people, animals and birds could hear his singing. The sounds of his voice worked wonders - the murmur of khda in the springs ceased, the wind subsided, bare rocks were covered with flowers, dry trees - with young green leaves. The constellation Coma Veronica shines in the dark sky. Legend has it that Queen Veronica had golden, curly hair of amazing beauty. How did they end up in heaven? Listen to the poem.

Veronica's hair

The queen's braids are marvelous,

Not to the waist - to the toes.

Runs down the back, streams

Golden waterfall!

Hair curls like jets

Are pouring like a sunny river

The king admires, kisses,

Strokes her hair with her hand.

Once during a feast

The king hugged his wife.

Played sad lyre:

“I'm leaving for war!

Dear Veronica!

I love you alone "-

The king whispers, caressing softly

Spit a fragrant wave.

And the queen gave a vow:

If the king returns alive,

Then she will lose her braid

Precious, golden.

But the war was not long

And the message came to the queen:

"The king is alive and well

Soon, soon will be here! "

“Well,” said Veronica,

I will fulfill my vow ":

And cut off braids

They fell to the floor near their feet.

Somewhere ghostly and quiet

"The braids of young Veronica

Fly to heaven! "

A woman has no beautiful

Long golden braids

But shines in the clear sky

A fabulous scattering of stars!

The stars form large clusters. They are called galaxies. A galaxy is a rotating cluster of stars.

The solar system is part of the galaxy called the Milky Way. On a dark night, part of the Milky Way can be seen in the sky. It resembles a faintly shimmering strip of spilled milk. By the way, the very word "galaxy" comes from the Greek word meaning "milk".

Milky Way.

Our solar system is located at the edge of the Milky Way, and in total it includes about 10 billion stars.

In addition to the Milky Way, there are a huge variety of other galaxies in the Universe, there are at least hundreds of millions of them! The galaxy closest to us is called the Andromeda Nebula.

Galaxy.

Listen to the fantastic fairy tale "Astrologer and Monkey Mickey"

What shape do the stars have?

Why do stars seem tiny to us?

Which star is closest to Earth?

Why do stars have different colors?

What stars are called Red Giants? White dwarfs? Black holes?

What is a constellation? What zodiac constellations do you know?

What legends and stories about the stars and constellations do you know?

What star is called a guiding star?

What are large clusters of stars called?

What is the name of our galaxy?

Starry sky. Stars.

Cartoon - If the stars are falling.

Children's poems about stars, constellations and planets for reading (memorizing)

Milky Way
Rimma Aldonina

Black velvet of the sky
Embroidered with stars.
Light path
Runs across the sky.
Edge to edge
It spreads easily
As if someone spilled
Milk across the sky.
But of course not in the sky
No milk, no juice
We are the star system
We see ours from the side.
This is how we see the Galaxies
Native distant light -
Space for astronautics
For many thousands of years.

Stars
Rimma Aldonina

What are stars?
If they ask you -
Answer boldly:
Hot gas.
And also add,
What, moreover, always
Nuclear reactor -
Every star!

***
G. Kruzhkov

There is one star in the sky
What - I will not say
But every night from the window
I look at her.

She shimmers so brightly!
And somewhere in the sea
Probably a sailor now
He checks the path along it.

Constellations
Yu. Sinitsyn

Stars, stars, for a long time
Chained you forever
A man's greedy gaze.

And sitting in animal skin
Near the red fire
Inseparably into the dome blue
He could look until morning.

And looked in silence in debt
A man in the open space of the night -
Then with fear
Then with delight
Then with a vague dream.

And then with a dream together
The tale was ripening on the lips:
About the mysterious constellations
About unknown worlds.

Since then they have been living in heaven,
As in the night edge of wonders, -
Aquarius,
Sagittarius and Swan,
Lion, Pegasus and Hercules.

Cosmic tale(fragment)
Vasily Lepilov

Space is painted black
Since there is no atmosphere,
There is no night, no day.
There is no earthly blue here,
Here the views are strange and strange:
And the stars are all visible at once
Both the Sun and the Moon.

In the north, a star is visible
And it is called
Pole star.
She is a reliable friend of people
And two Bears with her
Among cosmic lights
They all go on in sequence.

Not far off, the Dragon quieted down.
He looks askance at the Bears,
Chews the ends of the mustache.
And the Eagle watched for a long time,
Like a skinny Wolf wandered somewhere
And bypassed by the side
Constellation of the Hounds of the Dogs.

The heavenly Lion was sleeping peacefully,
Revealing your fearsome snapdragon
(Don't joke with lions!)
The whale swam up to Andromeda,
Pegasus galloped rapidly,
And proudly the Swan flew
Along the Milky Way.

Someone was guarded by Hydra,
After all, Hydra was Hydroy
From time immemorial, friends!
Through the giant firmament
She crawls mysteriously.
Whom does Hydra guard?
It is impossible to say yet.

And near the Milky Way,
Wherever you go or go
There is a huge Cancer.
Lies in cosmic dust
Slightly moves his claws
And everything is watching Hydroy.
(Cancer, apparently, is not a fool!)

Here the Raven flapped its wings,
Phoenix rose from the ashes,
Peacock fluffed its tail,
Here the Serpent wriggled,
The chanterelles ran, frolicking,
And the Lynx sat, hiding,
Dolphin saved the singer.

The giraffe walked like God
Here is the Hare, here is the Unicorn,
Crane, Chameleon.
And the Dove with the Lizard is ...
No, apparently I can't count
All these fabulous creatures
Who is the space inhabited.

Quoted from the publication: V.P. Lepilov "The Cosmic Tale" Astrakhan: "Volga", 1992, pp. 34-35

Arkady Hait
From the "Baby Monitor"

Above the Earth late at night,
Just stretch out your hand
You will grab onto the stars:
They seem to be nearby.
You can take the Peacock's feather,
Touch the hands on the Clock,
Ride the Dolphin,
Swing on the scales.
Above the Earth late at night,
If you glance up at the sky
You will see, like bunches,
There are constellations hanging.
Above the Earth late at night,
Just stretch out your hand
You will grab onto the stars:
They seem to be nearby.

Here is the Big Dipper
The stellar porridge interferes
Big bucket
In a large cauldron.

And next to it glows dimly
Ursa Minor.
Small ladle
Collects crumbs.

***
G. Sapgir

We have heard: two Bears
At night they shine in the sky.
At night we looked up -
We saw two pots.

***
Leonid Tkachuk

Here is the edge of the handle, where the ladle is ours
The star marked Benetnash.
You will cast a glance in the neighborhood -
You will see Mizar and Alcor.
But the handle has a turn
Aliot leads to the star.
Well then we finally
We will see the edge of the bowl - Megrets.
And we will go through the bottom just like that,
Seeing Fekda and Merak.
And above it shines as always
Nam Dubhe is a bright star.

Big Dipper
Yu. Sinitsyn

At the Big Dipper
It hurts the handle is good!
Three stars - and everything
They burn like diamond!

Among the stars, big and bright,
Another one is slightly visible:
In the middle of the handle
She took shelter.

You better take a closer look
See
Have two stars merged?

The one that is larger
It is called the Horse.
And the baby next to her -
Rider,
Riding on it.

Wonderful rider
This star prince Alcor
And carries it to the constellations
Horse Mitsar at full speed.

The golden-mane horse flutters
A gilded bridle.
The Silent Horseman rules
To the North Star.

Constellations
Rimma Aldonina

All night constellations shining
Do not slow down the round dance
Around one star standing
As if in the center of the firmament.

The earth's axis tilted towards it,
We named it Polar.
Where is the north, we learn from it
And we are grateful to her for that.

Orion
Natalia Tennova

Not afraid of winter and cold,
Girded tight,
Equipped for hunting
Orion speaking.
Two stars from the Major League
In Orion, this is Rigel
In the lower right corner,
Like a bow on a shoe.
And on the left epaulette -
Betelgeuse shines brightly.
Three stars obliquely
Decorate the belt.
This belt is like a hint.
He is a heavenly guide.
If you go to the left
You will find the miracle Sirius.
And from the right end -
The path to the constellation Taurus.
He points straight
In the red eye of Aldebaran.

Zodiac belt
A. G. Novak

January snow on the road
The sun shines in Capricorn.

In February, the day is longer
The sun is shining in ... (Aquarius).

There are many snow blocks in March,
The sun is somewhere among ... (Pisces).

And in April from ... (Aries)
The sun is warming up in full.

In May, the sun in ... (Corpuscle) -
Expect freckles on your face.

In June, the Sun at ... (Gemini)
Fantu children drink in the bushes.

In July, the sun rolls towards ... (To Cancer),
Music lover - to the garden to the poppy.

The school opens in August,
... (A lion) runs away for the sun.

Outside the window, "he will feel sated,"
... (Virgo) The sun will shelter.

In October, according to the opinion of owls,
The sun is shining from ... (Libra).

In November in the sky
The sun is shining in ... (Scorpio).

In December, like a tomboy
It will hide behind the sun ... (Sagittarius).

Children's poems about comets and stars for reading and memorizing

Comet
Rimma Aldonina

What a splendid wonder!
Almost half of the world
Mysterious, very beautiful
A comet hovers over the Earth.

And I want to think:
- Where
Has a bright miracle appeared to us?
And I want to cry when
It will fly away without a trace.

And we are told:
- It's ice!
And her tail is dust and water!
It doesn't matter if a Miracle is coming to us
A Miracle is always beautiful!

***
G. Sapgir

Spreading your fiery tail
The comet rushes between the stars.
- Listen, constellations,
Last news,
Wonderful news
Heavenly news!

Riding at wild speeds
I was visiting the Sun.
I saw the Earth in the distance
And new satellites of the Earth.
I was carried away from the Earth
Ships flew after me!

Dear students, in my opinion, this is important!

I advise you to go through other sections of "Navigation" and read interesting articles or watch presentations, didactic materials in subjects (pedagogy, methodology for the development of children's speech, theoretical basis interaction between the preschool educational institution and parents); material for preparation for tests, control works, exams, coursework and theses I would be glad if the information posted on my website will help you in your work and study.

Best regards, O. G. Golskaya.

Humanity is intensively studying everything that is around us, especially in outer space. The stars in the sky attract with their beauty and mystery, because they are so far away. Scientists and researchers have already collected a lot of information about the stars, so in this article I would like to highlight the most Interesting Facts about the stars.

1. What is the closest star to the earth? This is the Sun. It is located only 150 million km from the Earth, and by cosmic standards is an average star. It is classified as a main sequence yellow dwarf G2. It has been converting hydrogen to helium for 4.5 billion years now, and will likely continue to do so for another 7 billion years. When the sun runs out of fuel, it will become a red giant star, the size of the star will increase many times. When it expands, it will engulf Mercury, Venus, and possibly even Earth.

2. All stars have the same composition. The birth of a star begins in a cloud of cold molecular hydrogen, which begins to gravitationally contract. When a cloud of molecular hydrogen is compressed and fragmented, many of these pieces will form into individual stars. The material is collected in a ball, which continues to contract under the influence of its own gravity, until the temperature in the center reaches a temperature capable of igniting nuclear fusion. The original gas was formed during the Big Bang and consists of 74% hydrogen and 25% helium. Over time, they convert some of the hydrogen to helium. This is why our Sun has a composition of 70% hydrogen and 29% helium. But initially they consist of 3/4 hydrogen and 1/4 helium, with impurities of other trace elements.

3. The stars are in perfect balance. Any star, as it were, is in constant conflict with itself. On the one hand, the entire mass of the star, by its gravity, constantly compresses it. But the hot gas exerts tremendous pressure from within, disrupting its gravitational collapse. Nuclear fusion in the nucleus generates a tremendous amount of energy. The photons travel from the center to the surface in about 100,000 years before escaping. As the star gets brighter, it expands and turns into a red giant. When nuclear fusion in the center stops, then nothing can restrain the growing pressure of the overlying layers and it collapses, turning into a white dwarf, a neutron star or a black hole. It is possible that the stars in the sky that we see no longer exist, because they are very far away and their light takes billions of years to reach the earth.

4. Most of the stars are red dwarfs. Comparing all known stars, it can be argued that most of all are red dwarfs. They have less than 50% of the mass of the Sun, and red dwarfs can weigh even 7.5%. Below this mass, gravitational pressure will not be able to compress the gas in the center to initiate nuclear fusion. They are called brown dwarfs. Red dwarfs emit less than 1 / 10,000 of the Sun's energy, and can burn for tens of billions of years.

5. The mass is equal to its temperature and color. The stars can vary in color from red to white or blue. Red is the coldest color with temperatures less than 3500 Kelvin. Our luminary is yellowish-white, with an average temperature of about 6000 Kelvin. The hottest are blue, with surface temperatures above 12,000 Kelvin. Thus, temperature and color are related. The mass determines the temperature. How more mass, the larger the core will be and the more active nuclear fusion will occur. This means more energy reaches its surface and raises its temperature. But there is an exception, these are red giants. A typical red giant can have the mass of our Sun, and be a white star throughout its life. But as it approaches the end of its life, it increases and the luminosity increases 1000 times and seems unnaturally bright. Blue giants are just big, massive, and hot luminaries.

6. Most of the stars are double. Many stars are born in pairs. These are binary stars, where two stars orbit around a common center of gravity. There are other systems with 3, 4 and even more participants. Just think what beautiful sunrises can be seen on the planet in a four-star system.

7. The size of the largest suns is equal to the orbit of Saturn. Let's talk about red giants, or more precisely, about red supergiants, against which our star looks very small. The red supergiant is Betelgeuse, in the constellation Orion. It is 20 times the mass of the Sun and at the same time 1000 times more. The largest known star is VY Canis Major. It is 1800 times larger than our Sun and would fit into the orbit of Saturn!

However, by our time the largest star in the universe has already lost more than half of its mass. That is, the star is aging and its hydrogen fuel is already running out. The outer part of VY has become larger due to the fact that gravity can no longer prevent weight loss. Scientists say that when the star's fuel dries up, it is likely to explode in a supernova and turn into a neutron star or black hole. The star has been observed to lose its brightness since 1850.
Nowadays, scientists do not leave the study of the Universe for a minute. Therefore, this record was broken. Astronomers have found an even larger star in the vastness of space. The discovery was made by a group of British scientists led by Paul Crowther in the late summer of 2010. The researchers studied the Large Magellanic Cloud and found the star R136a1. NASA's Hubble Space Telescope helped make an incredible discovery.

8. The most massive luminaries have a very short life. As mentioned above, the low mass of a red dwarf can last tens of billions of years of combustion before running out of fuel. The converse is also true for the most massive ones we know. Giant luminaries can be 150 times the mass of the Sun and emit a huge amount of energy. For example, one of the most massive stars we know of is Eta Carinae, located about 8000 light years from Earth. It emits 4 million times more energy than the Sun. While our Sun can safely burn fuel for billions of years, Eta Carinae can only shine for a few million years. And astronomers expect Eta Carinae to explode at any time. When it goes out, it will become the brightest object in the sky.

9. The number of stars is enormous. How many stars are there in the Milky Way? You may be surprised to learn that there are on the order of 200-400 billion pieces in our galaxy. Each may have planets, and on some, life is possible. There are about 500 billion galaxies in the universe, each of which may have as many or even more than the Milky Way. Multiply these two numbers together and you will see how many there are approximately.

10. They are very, very far away. The closest to Earth (excluding the Sun) is Proxima Centauri, located 4.2 light years from Earth. In other words, it takes over 4 years of light itself to complete the journey from Earth. If we launch the fastest spacecraft ever launched from Earth, it will travel more than 70,000 years to Earth. Today, traveling between the stars is simply not possible.