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It is known that along with the sophists in Athens, he spoke and gained popularity with his activities. Socrates(469-399 BC).

Socrates did not write anything, he limited himself to the oral presentation of his views. About him and his teaching is known mainly from the works of his students - Xenophon and Plato.

The starting point of Socrates' philosophy was the skeptical position "I know that I know nothing." This starting position was an expression of his negative attitude towards materialism.

Socrates argued that sensory perception does not give true knowledge, that it does not generate knowledge, but opinion. True knowledge, according to Socrates, is possible only through general concepts. Not the knowledge of the particular and the individual, but the establishment of the universal, general concepts and definitions should constitute the task of science. Genuine knowledge can be achieved only by induction, revealing the signs that are common to individual phenomena, and moving from particular cases to general definitions.

Socrates applied this method to questions of morality, to a lesser extent - to the sphere of politics, state and law. It was in ethics that he sought the meaning of being. He was looking for rational, logically conceptual substantiation of the objective nature of the moral nature of the state and law. Developing concepts, Socrates laid the foundation theoretical research this area. He declared society more accessible to scientific knowledge than the realm of nature. He defines the range of issues that he tried to explore - the concepts of "justice", "right", "law", "piety", "state", etc.

Socrates criticized Athenian democracy. His ideal was aristocracy. He portrayed her as a state ruled by a few knowledgeable people prepared for business government controlled and acquiring true knowledge.

Trying to justify the domination of a minority, Socrates argued that dominion is a “royal art”, to which only those who have mastered true knowledge, wisdom, “the best” people, destined for this both by their birth, and especially by upbringing and training, should be admitted: “Kings and rulers are not those who carry a scepter or are chosen by anyone or have received power by lot or violence or deceit, but those who know how to govern.” Therefore, Socrates condemned the replacement of posts by lot, accepted in the Athenian democracy.

Socrates also spoke negatively about the composition of the people's assembly - the supreme body of the Athenian state. The People's Assembly, he said, consists of artisans and merchants, "thinking only about how to buy them something cheaper and sell at a higher price," people who "never thought about public affairs." These and similar statements of Socrates served as the basis for the accusation that his speeches arouse in youth contempt for the established state system and a propensity for violence.

The legal theory of Socrates is based on the identity of the just and the legitimate, since law and positive law are the result of human rational activity. He developed the doctrine of natural law. Socrates said that there are unwritten, "divine" laws, established not by people, but by gods, having power everywhere and regardless of the will of people. These laws are "brothers of human laws." They constitute the moral basis of the law in force in the state. There are provisions universally accepted by the people, whether or not they are expressed in written laws. Natural, unwritten laws also require obedience to written laws. Fair and lawful are one and the same.

Socrates uses the concept of unwritten, natural laws not to criticize existing laws, but to justify the need to comply with them. Any laws, whatever their merits, are more salutary than lawlessness and arbitrariness.

The purpose of fair reasonable laws is to establish the freedom of the city, which is the property of both the individual and the state. Therefore, according to Socrates, knowledge and observance of the laws are the guarantee of freedom.

Socrates did not write anything, he limited himself to the oral presentation of his views. It is known about him and his teachings mainly from the works of his students, Xenophon and Plato.

Socrates (469-399 BC) Was not the founder of any school, did not write anything. We all know from the teachings of Xenophon and Plato. Socrates is not of noble birth. Constant striving for the truth, to awaken thought and conscience with your word. He did not like sophists, did not take money for lessons. Conversations in which he discussed all aspects of human life: politics, virtue and evil. Socrates tried to elevate thought to the general principles underlying particular factors. Socrates put the world of man above the outer world, opposed the pagans to himself. The inner essence of man in the mind. Mind is paramount. He gives real knowledge. Knowledge is the root of all goodness. Ignorance is the root of evil. Socrates did not speak publicly and did not seek power. He believed that those who knew the application to all should rule.

He singled out 5 forms of government: monarchy, tyranny, plutocracy, aristocracy, democracy. The difference between these forms of government according to the number of persons, according to the methods and purposes of exercising power.

The monarch is obeyed voluntarily, the tyrant by force.

Plutocracy rule of the rich

Aristocracy is the rule of a minority.

Democracy is the ideal of Socrates, the rule of all.

But he criticized all forms of government. The main drawback is the incompetence of the board. He did not trust the demagogues. He had a low opinion of the political wisdom of the people's assembly. Socrates leaned towards the aristocracy, where the best rule. His ideal is the rule of the best and those who know, where reason and virtue reign and guide the steps of a politician.

For the first time he puts forward the concept of a contractual relationship between the state and the citizen. Paternalistic version of the contract: Fatherland and laws are higher and dearer than father and mother, higher educators and masters. Anyone who does not like the order can leave the state, while the rest undertake to comply with all the orders of the state and its bodies. If citizens have agreed to become members of their state, they are obliged to honor its rules and regulations.

The duty to obey the law is the first duty of every citizen. Along with the "written" law, there is the "unwritten" law, which operates among all peoples, obviously established by the gods. This is a requirement to honor the gods, respect parents and return good for good.

In 399 Socrates was put on trial for rejecting the deities of his state, corrupting the youth, inspiring them with disastrous ideas (aristocratic beliefs). He was sentenced to death. The reason for his condemnation is the inclination towards democracy, the moral and religious nature of the doctrine, affecting the foundations of the state system.

Socrates went down in history as a teacher of morality.

6. Plato's doctrine of the state and law.

PLATO (427-347 BC) was of aristocratic origin. At the age of 20, he met Socrates and became his faithful disciple. He created the Academy, which existed for 900 years, his own FSF school.

Plato is the first Greek philosopher whose teachings came down in the original. Almost all of them are written in the form of dialogues. According to his views, he is an idealist.

Distinguishes:

The world of eternal immutable ideas, existing by itself, regardless of our consciousness and is truly real

The world of reflection of these ideas is the world of incoming phenomena surrounding us.

Before our birth, the soul resides in the world of ideas, which gives a person the ability to general concepts. Our ideas are the embodiment of our soul. We receive knowledge from the memories of our soul, and not from sensuality.

Views on the state and laws are set out in 3 dialogues: "State", "Politics", "Laws".

In the treatise "Politician" the wisest should be the best ruler. His wisdom is sufficient to make the government perfect. The law - previously the best and most righteous - is not able to prescribe everything appropriate to everyone and everyone. The law is not for imposing chains, binding the ruler. A wise ruler does not need laws. Possessing all the virtues, he is the law himself and must be guided by his discretion. The best form of government is the power of the wisest over the mass of citizens subject to him, unlimited by any laws: "The ruler is a shepherd." If there is only one sage, then this is the kingdom. If a few of the stupidest are the aristocracy, which is the best form of government.

In the essay "The State" Plato depicts the ideal state system. Criticizing Athenian democracy, he gives an outline of the perfect social and state structure: “Freedom must be replaced by a firm order, the rule of the masses by the rule of the sages, the lack of enlightenment by a well-thought-out system of upbringing and education. Property relations are strictly regulated.”

The population must be divided into the following classes:

A sufficient number of people engaged in material labor - the lower classes, barely worthy of the title of citizens(farmers, craftsmen and merchants). This estate feeds the state, the majority of the population.

Defenders of the State(warriors, guards). The main goal is to protect the state from external and internal enemies. These are citizens in the proper sense of the word, who combine courage against enemies with meekness towards fellow citizens. This is achieved by careful upbringing, lifestyle.

Plato developed his own system for educating citizens: gymnastics and music, which should be subordinated to humanity. The Guardians live in complete communism - no private property, no wives and children, everything is common. All material resources they receive from the first class of citizens, they should not have gold and silver. All property must be taken away from them, children after birth are taken from their mothers and brought up by the state. Citizens will have common interests, joys and sorrows. "The destruction of privacy is deprivation, but well-bred guardians find happiness in the service of the common good."

3. Stand out from the guards rulers older in years and possessing the greatest virtues. They are few, they are entrusted unlimited power in the state.

The birth process is strictly controlled. A person is assigned a place in the state according to his abilities, distributed by class. Citizens are the passive material from which the state structure is being built. Rulers rule by will and reason, there is no law over them.

Such a state will be the pinnacle of all virtues: wisdom lives in rulers, courage in warriors, moderation in the lower class. Justice reigns over all.

Plato likens the state to an individual, which consists of 3 parts:

wisdom * in the head of man

courage* in the heart

moderation* in the lower parts of the body

« Organic theory" of the origin of mankind

All origin is achieved by the guidance of philosophers guided by eternal truths. The belonging of power to philosophers is the main condition for a correct policy. Such is the utopian ideal of Plato. Closest to perfect forms of government of all existing imperfect ones is

TIMOCRACY - the rule of courageous and brave warriors.

OLIGARCHY - the wealthiest citizens rule

DEMOCRACY AND TYRANNY are the worst forms: they are completely devoid of all virtues. It is too easy to live in a democracy, but with this ease there is a decline in morals and government. This is anarchy!!! An arbitrary equality degenerates into a worse inequality, because positions are obtained by chance, by lot, by the flattery of the crowd. This leads to tyranny - the most cruel slavery. The tyrant grows up as a protege of the poor people, gives him generous promises.

After 15 years, he goes to Syracuse to realize his ideas. But disappointed. Almost at the age of 80, he wrote a new work - the treatise "Laws", where he himself strives to give an indication of how the "second worthy state" should be arranged.

Convinced of the unrealizability of his political ideal, he takes a mixed form of government from monarchy and democracy, some of these forms can take their one-sided principle to the extreme. Monarchy is power, democracy is freedom, which leads to the death of government. He considers the Persian kingdom as an example of the first, the Athenian state of the second. Political wisdom consists in the ability of rulers to restrain themselves. The monarchy should be limited by the freedom of citizens, and democracy by the efforts of the authorities in necessary cases. Moderation and harmony will prevail in the state.

The state must be removed from the coast. The number of people should be sufficient to protect the state and not be too large so as not to interfere with order. 5040 families. Each family receives a land plot, the alienation of which is not allowed. Only one of the sons inherits. The average size of the property is established with the definition of the lower and higher limits (no more than 4 times). The surplus goes to the treasury.

Citizens are divided into 4 classes according to property. The supreme body of the state is the “custodians of the laws” - the guards, who make up a board of 37 people from 50 to 70 years old. The second most important body is the Senate (360 people). Everyone elects senators. Overseers of the city, priests are also elected. Warlords are elected by the warriors.

In such a state, the role of laws is great. Here, the rulers themselves must obey the laws, i.e. Plato's position is changing (he was convinced that the rulers are imperfect). Now the will of the ruler is restrained to the smallest detail by developed laws.

Instead of the absolute rule of philosophers, he now proposes the absolute rule of laws that are immutable: "in them everything is justified that concerns religion, marriage, the education of children - the games of children, songs and dances, funerals." The whole routine of life

So Plato remains an idealist. The freedom of the individual, the individual is sacrificed to the "common good", the unity of the state. Measures that he proposes to violators - up to the death penalty.

The best criticism of Plato belongs to his student Aristotle: “Excessive unity destroys the unity of the state. The community also has another side, which cares more about its property.” Man has two senses: possession and affection.

Political ideas of Socrates. Dissatisfied with the existing democracy, Socrates made very high demands on politicians. Closest to these requirements was the aristocracy.

Socrates says of himself that he takes care to prepare as many people as possible who are able to take up political activity. But he also considered the will of the people, their laws, to be sacred. To follow the law means to do what is right. According to Xenophon, Socrates admires the most ancient and most educated states and peoples, because they are the most pious. He even thinks that he will not be ashamed to take the Persian king as a model, because the Persian king considers agriculture and military art to be the noblest occupations. The land and the art of war are the original property of the noble masters, the tribal landowning aristocracy.

Socrates sings of agriculture. It makes it possible to promise good promises to the slaves and to entertain the workers and persuade them to obedience. Agriculture is the mother and nurse of all the arts, the source of the necessities of life for a noble lord, the best occupation and the best science. It gives beauty and strength to the body, encourages courage, gives excellent and most devoted citizens to the common good.

At the same time, agriculture is opposed to urban occupations, crafts as harmful to business and destroying the soul. Socrates talks about courage, prudence, justice, modesty. He would like to see in the Athenian citizens people who are brave, but modest, not exacting, prudent, fair in their relations with their friends, but not at all with enemies. A citizen must believe in the gods, make sacrifices to them and generally perform all religious rites, hope for the mercy of the gods and not allow himself the audacity to study the world, the sky, the planets.

In a word, a citizen must be a humble, God-fearing, obedient tool in the hands of noble masters. The work of Xenophon was written as an objection to the unfair accusation of political unreliability, therefore, in it the author sets out the views of Socrates in this way. Finally, it should be mentioned that Socrates also outlined the classification state forms, proceeding from the main provisions of his ethical and political teachings.

The state forms mentioned by Socrates are monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, plutocracy and democracy. Monarchy, from the point of view of Socrates, differs from tyranny in that it relies on legal rights, and not on the forcible seizure of power, and therefore has a moral meaning that tyranny lacks. aristocracy, which is defined as the rule of a few who know and moral people, Socrates prefers all other state forms.

End of work -

This topic belongs to:

Socrates and Plato: the foundation of classical philosophy

Socrates 469 - 399 BC e. and Plato 427 347 BC. e. met in 408 BC. e. and did not part until the death of Socrates. At the age of 20, Plato, an ambitious young man with many promises, was preparing .. In addition to numerous students, Socrates was always accompanied by crowds of onlookers, whose ignorance did not allow him to understand everything ..

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The monarch is obeyed voluntarily, the tyrant by force.

Plutocracy rule of the rich

Aristocracy is the rule of a minority.

Democracy is the ideal of Socrates, the rule of all.

Socrates went down in history as a teacher of morality.

6. Plato's doctrine of the state and law.

PLATO (427-347 BC) was of aristocratic origin. At the age of 20, he met Socrates and became his faithful disciple. He created the Academy, which existed for 900 years, his own FSF school.

Plato is the first Greek philosopher whose teachings came down in the original. Almost all of them are written in the form of dialogues. According to his views, he is an idealist.

Distinguishes:

The world of eternal immutable ideas, existing by itself, regardless of our consciousness and is truly real

The world of reflection of these ideas is the world of incoming phenomena surrounding us.

Views on the state and laws are set out in 3 dialogues: "State", "Politics", "Laws".

The population must be divided into the following classes:

3. Stand out from the guards rulers older in years and possessing the greatest virtues. They are not numerous, they are entrusted with unlimited power in the state.

Such a state will be the pinnacle of all virtues: wisdom lives in rulers, courage in warriors, moderation in the lower class. Justice reigns over all.

Plato likens the state to an individual, which consists of 3 parts:

wisdom * in the head of man

courage* in the heart

moderation* in the lower parts of the body

« Organic theory" of the origin of mankind

TIMOCRACY - the rule of courageous and brave warriors.

OLIGARCHY - the wealthiest citizens rule

Socrates was interested and fond of at all times. From century to century, the audience of his interlocutors changed, but did not decrease. And today it is undoubtedly more crowded than ever.

At the center of Socratic thought is the theme of man, the problems of life and death, good and evil, virtues and vices, right and duty, freedom and responsibility, personality and society. And the Socratic discourses are an instructive and authoritative example of how one can navigate through the thicket of these eternally topical issues. The appeal to Socrates at all times was an attempt to understand oneself and one's time. And we, with all the originality of our era and the novelty of tasks, are no exception.

Polis and laws

Moreover, this highest virtue, called royal by Socrates, is equally significant both in private and in public life of a person: in both cases we are talking about the same thing - the management of relevant affairs (polis or household) on the basis of knowledge. The ability of a good owner, the steward of the house, is similar to the ability of a good boss, and the first can easily take care of the affairs of the second. “Therefore, do not look with such disdain at the owner,” Socrates said to a certain Nicomachis. “Care for one's own only quantitatively differs from concern for the public; in other respects it is exactly the same"

The basic principle of Socratic moral philosophy, according to which virtue is knowledge, in the sphere of political and legal is formulated as follows: "Those who know should rule." This requirement summarizes the philosophical ideas of Socrates about the reasonable and just principles of the state and law and critically addresses them to all forms of political structure. “Kings and rulers,” he emphasizes, are not those who wear sceptres, not those who are elected by famous nobles, and not those who have achieved power by lot or violence, deceit, but those who know how to rule”

This Socratic version of the “philosopher on the throne” is the inevitable consequence of that intellectual aristocracy in the political sphere that permeates his entire moral philosophy. And it is significant that the political ideal of Socrates equally critically rises above democracy, oligarchy, tyranny, tribal aristocracy and traditional royal power.

In terms of theory, the Socratic ideal was an attempt to formulate the ideally rational essence of the state, and in relation to practical politics, it was aimed at establishing the principle of competence in polis management. In his characteristics of various forms of government and government, Socrates sought to highlight their inherent features of originality, formative principles. “Regarding the kingdom and tyranny, he thought,” says Xenophon, “that both are power, but differ from one another. The power based on the will of the people and state laws, he called the kingdom, and the power against the waves of the people and based not on the laws, but on the arbitrariness of the ruler, he called tyranny. If the government comes from such persons who execute the laws, then he called such a device an aristocracy; if it comes from wealth - plutocracy; and if from the will of all - democracy. "Many of these provisions of Socrates, in particular the very classification of various forms of government, the opposition of the king to a tyrant, the consideration of the role of law in characterizing the forms of government, etc., had a noticeable impact on subsequent teachings about the forms of the state. This influence, through the work of ancient thinkers, and above all Plato, Aristotle and Polybius, also affected the corresponding concepts of the Middle Ages and modern times.

Socrates was a convinced patriot of the Athenian polis, and his criticism of the negative aspects of Athenian democracy remained within the boundaries of this unconditional devotion to his native polis. Praising the high moral qualities Athenians in comparison with other Hellenes, he proudly said for his compatriots: "No one has more wonderful and more numerous great deeds of their ancestors than the Athenians." But this “primacy in valor” among the Hellenes, as the sad results of the Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta showed for the Athenians, was lost. The military failures of Athens were accompanied by internal political turmoil, anti-democratic coups, the coming to power for a short time of supporters of oligarchic and even tyrannical rule. Democracy, in turn, resorted to extreme measures in defending itself against the intensified opposition, which further exacerbated intrapolis tensions and the struggle for power.

The enemies of Athenian democracy attributed all external and internal failures to the democratic structure of the polis, the rule of the demos. Socrates' position was different. At the heart of the turmoil that befell Athens, he saw, first of all, the moral corruption of his fellow citizens, whose self-confidence led to negligence, frivolity and disobedience in military and city affairs. “I believe,” Socrates told Pericles Jr. about the reasons for the decline of Athens, “that just as all people, despite their advantages and superiority, are only due to negligence are lower than their rivals, so the Athenians, because of their great superiority, stopped caring about themselves and, as a result, became worse ... If, after examining the decrees of their ancestors, they fulfilled them no worse than their ancestors, then they themselves would be no worse; if this is not possible, then at least they should imitate those who are now considered the first, and act in the same way with them. Then, acting in the same way, the Athenians would not be worse, but, acting more carefully, they would be better.

It is obvious that such a mention of the "first", i.e. the Spartans, had as its goal not the humiliation of the Athenians and not the transformation of Athens in the spirit of the state system of Sparta, but rather the revival of the leading role of an even policy, at least at the cost of imitation in something more successful adversary. Socrates' call to fellow citizens to take a closer look at the achievements of their enemies was only sober and wise advice, although, of course, very unpleasant for his ambitious compatriots. In any case, it was about the improvement of the Athenian policy and the better conduct of its affairs, but not about the transition to positions hostile to Athens. It is significant that Socrates did not consider the moral vices of the Athenians to be an absolutely incurable disease. When Pericles Jr. complains about the internal strife and litigation of the Athenians, their mutual hatred, the desire to cash in at the expense of the state and other citizens, Socrates draws the attention of his young interlocutor to positive sides Athenian polis way of life, inspiring hope for a possible revival of the former greatness of Athens.

Criticizing the passion for money-grubbing and personal enrichment that gripped the Athenians, their neglect of the reason of the second virtue, the incompetence of democratic rulers, the “busy work” accepted in democracies, etc., Socrates, at the same time, did not question the very foundations of Athenian polis life, which traditionally developed from times of Solon in a democratic way.

The unconditional devotion of a citizen to his policy and its laws is the starting point for the entire political and legal position and orientation of Socrates. By agreeing to become a member of this state, the citizen thereby enters, according to Socrates, into an agreement with the policy and undertakes to sacredly honor its orders and institutions (Plato. Crito, 51). Socrates was thus the first in the history of European political thought to formulate the concept of contractual relations between the state and its members, its citizens.

According to this Socratic concept, the citizen and the polis are not equal in rights, just as, for example, father and son, master and subordinate person are not equal in their rights. Socrates develops a peculiar version of the contractual connection between the citizen and the state, according to which the Fatherland and the Laws are higher and more precious than father and mother; they are the highest parents, educators and rulers for citizens. Any Athenian, having reached the age of majority, Socrates explains, can, in accordance with the laws, without any obstacles, leave the state with all his property, if he does not like its rules, and go wherever he wants - either to a colony of the same state, or to another state. The adoption of citizenship is thus voluntary. Therefore, the citizens who remain in this policy as its members thereby in fact agree to fulfill all the dictates of the state and its bodies.

According to Socrates, the citizen of the state is left with only the following choice: either by persuasion and other lawful, non-violent means to prevent possible unfair decisions and actions of lawful political bodies and officials, or to execute them. “It is necessary,” Socrates says about the duties of a citizen to the state, “either to convince him or to do what it orders, and if it sentences you to something, then you need to endure imperturbably whether it will be beatings or shackles, whether it will send you to war, to wounds and death; all this must be done, for therein lies justice. You can not retreat, dodge or leave your place in the ranks. And in war, and in court, and everywhere you need to do what the State and Fatherland orders, or try to convince him and explain what justice is. To inflict violence on a mother or father, and even more so on the Fatherland, is unholy.”

Such obedience to the law, vividly demonstrated by Socrates throughout his life and dramatic death, went back to traditional Hellenic ideas about the role of law for an orderly and just life in the polis. The Hellenes even considered respect for the law to be their main feature, which distinguished them from the "barbarians", as they called all non-Hellenes. Curious in this regard is the assessment that one of the Indian sages, Dandam, gave to his Greek colleagues during the Asian campaigns of Alexander the Great. According to Plutarch, "Having heard about Socrates, Pythagoras and Diogenes, he said that these people were, in his opinion, generously endowed, but lived their lives too obeying the laws."
True, already in the time of Socrates, polis patriotism and the authority of the laws were subject to doubts and attacks, especially strongly from the sophists. The features of cosmopolitanism, however, are noticeable not only in the views of itinerant teachers of wisdom, they were more widespread, testifying to the beginning process of the crisis of the traditional way of the polis, the Greek city-state. So, Aristippus, a listener of Socrates, said about himself: “Yes, I ... and I do not consider myself a member of society and everywhere I remain a foreigner.” And the younger contemporary of Socrates, the famous Democritus (c. 460-370 BC) spoke even more globally and definitely: “ To the wise man the whole earth is open. For for a good soul, the fatherland is the whole world. For Epicurus (341-270 BC) and the Stoics, man is already a citizen of the universe.

Remaining in the traditional horizon of polis patriotism, Socrates was critical of various contemporary cosmopolitan trends and insisted on the duties of a citizen in relation to the state. At the same time, it was about the legitimate duties of free and equal citizens in the conditions of a reasonably and fairly ordered policy. Only on this path is achievable, according to Socrates, freedom - "a beautiful and majestic asset both for a person and for the state." To act freely, Socrates explains, is to act wisely, the best way. This is prevented by intemperance, which leads to the fact that a person is controlled by bodily pleasures. Intemperance, alienating people from virtue, leads to low slavery and lack of freedom, paralyzes a person's concern for his duties and the entire legal order of polis life.

Conclusion

Every person, gifted or mediocre, should, according to Socrates, learn and practice in what he wants to achieve success. Especially significant is the upbringing and teaching of political art for gifted people. These people, being by nature often indomitable and unbridled, without proper knowledge, are capable of causing great harm to the state and fellow citizens. And, conversely, they are of great benefit to the fatherland if they have previously studied the subject of their future activities, learned the art of government, joined the political virtue.

Management of the affairs of the policy on the basis of knowledge is, according to Socrates, the only reliable way to the common good. “In my opinion,” he said, “what happens and what is done are completely opposite concepts. If someone does not seek and achieves what he wants, I call this happiness; but if anyone prospers by virtue of study and exercise, this I call prosperity; and those who lead the life of the last kind, in my opinion, do well.”

Socrates, who did not directly deal with political activities, at the same time, he was keenly interested in all polis affairs and strove for their improvement. Education of his listeners, especially young ones, in the spirit of political virtue was the main goal of Socrates' conversations, all his philosophical and educational efforts.

1. Marx K., Engels F. Op. 2nd ed., vol. 1.

2. Mishchenko F., The history of witchcraft in the ancient world. Kiev, 1881.

3. Plato. Op. M., 1970, v. 2.