What structure does the stone shell of the earth have? Stone shell of the Earth

18 The lithosphere is the rocky shell of the Earth, including the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle, extends to the asthenosphere and has a thickness of 150-200 km. In structure L, 3 main layers are distinguished; bark, mantle and core. ZK - the uppermost of the hard shells of the Earth, characterized by composition and low density rocks ... Her bottom. the boundary is considered the border of Moho (Mohorovichich). ZK consists of: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium. There are 2 mains. type of the earth's crust: continental (usually has a thickness of 35-45 km, in the regions of mountainous countries - up to 70 km) and oceanic (has a thickness of 5-10 km (together with the water column - 9-12 km)). Mainland. zk consists of 3 layers: sedimentary, granite (granite-gneiss composition) and basalt (basalt and gabbro). Oceanic zone 2-layer: sedimentary (marine sediments) and basalts (mainly gabbro). The mantle is the shell of the Earth's lit-ry, located between the earth's crust and the core of the Earth. It is separated from the earth's crust by the Moho boundary, and the surface separates the mantle from the Earth's core (at a depth of about 2900 km). MZ is divided into lower and upper mantle. The latter, in turn, is divided (from top to bottom) into a substrate, a Gutenberg layer and a Golitsyn layer. Inside the mantle, at a depth of 100-250 km under the continents and 50-100 km under the oceans, layers of increased plasticity begin, close to the melting point, the so-called mantle - the asthenosphere. The base of the asthenosphere is located at depths of about 400 km. The core is located at depths from 2900 to 6371 km, the radius of the core is about 3470 km. The core probably consists of an iron-nickel alloy (90% iron, 10% nickel). According to various estimates, the core temperature ranges from 4000 to 7000 ° C. The tectonosphere, the outer shell of the Earth, encompassing the earth's crust and upper mantle, is the main area of ​​manifestation of tectonic and magmatic processes. For her, there is a vertical and horizontal heterogeneity of physical sv-tv and the composition of the constituent rocks. Geodii-ka-branch of geology, the study of forces and processes in the crust, mantle, and core of the earth and the underlying deep and surface two masses in time and space. Geodyne isp magnetometric, seismometric, gravimetric and other data, as well as geological modeling and geochemistry. G-ka underlies the tectonics of the lit. plates (New global tectonics). The nonlinear g-ka studies the phenomena and processes associated with both irregular, chaotic and other impulses in the depths of the earth, and with the effects of extraterrestrial factors (two comets, falling meteorites, etc.). Fixism (from Lat.fixxis - solid, unchanging, fixed), one of two directions in tectonics, proceeding from the idea of ​​the inviolability (fixity) of half of the continents on the Earth and the decisive role of vertically directed tectonics two in the development of zk. F. was one of the leading directions in geology until the mid-60s. 20 century, kgd received the development of the position of the mob-zma. Supporters of F, (VV Belousov, Amer. Uchvny Kh. O. Meyerhof, and others) deny the position of mobilism about the possibility of horizontal displacements of large plates of the lithosphere; only insignificant (up to several tens of km) horizontal displacements of comparatively small areas are allowed. on thrusts (nappes) and shears, caused by the impact of vertical drives. An integral part of the concept of F is a representation of the shape of oceanic depressions in the result of subsidence of the wc without significant stretching, with the transformation of the continental crust into a thinner oceanic one. Mobn.ppch (from the Latin mobilis - mobile) hypothesis, suggesting large (up to several thousand km) horizontal movements: continental blocks of the earth's crust (lithosphere) relative to each other and in relation to the poles during geological time. The hypothesis of sub-continents began as early as the 19th century, but the scientifically developed r-for M. was first formulated in 1912 by the German geophysicist A. Wegener (Th, continental drift). L. is divided by deep faults into large blocks - lithic plates, they move in the horizon. direction from wed. a speed of 5-10 cm per year; 7 plates: Eurasian, Pacific, African, Indian, Antarctic, North American, South American. Under the lithosphere, the asthenosphere - the softened shell serves as a plastic bedding, which allows the rigid lithospheric plates to move and slide in horizontal directions relative to the deeper bowels of the Earth. Together with the lithospheric plates, the continents located on them move (drift). Where two adjacent plates diverge, the opening space is filled due to the rise of molten deep matter, the formation and growth of the oceanic lithosphere, and its spreading take place. Processes ref. are localized, mainly, within the Mid-Oceanic ridges and the oceanic crust, therefore, in these regions it is relatively young.At the border, where two lithospheric plates converge, one of them (a heavy oceanic plate) moves under the other and obliquely goes deep into the softened substance of the asthenosphere - its subduction occurs. The subduction zones are associated with b-in earthquake and many volcanoes. The geomorphological expression of the subsurface zones is deep-sea trenches. Accretion (from the Latin accretio increment-e, increased-e), the fall of the island on the cosmic body under d-m forces gravitation, accompanied by the release of gravitational E. In the accretion phase, Z. acquired approximately 95% of the modern mass, which took 17 million years. From the end of this phase 3. is considered to have entered the stage of planetary development. Collision is a collision of continental plates, which always leads to crustal collapse and the formation of mountain ranges. Pr, is the Alysh-Himalayan mountain belt, formed as a result of the closure of the Tethys ocean and collisions with the Eurasian plate of Hindustan and Africa. Relief - a set of irregularities (shapes) of the earth's surface of a certain geological structure. R. obr-Xia in rez-those complex interaction of the ZK with water and air. shells, alive. organisms and humans. R. consists of: forms - department. irregularities, representing three-dimensional bodies, occupying a certain volume (hill, ravine). Type R. is a complex of forms that have a common origin and are regularly repeated on a certain territory. R. forms are: 1. closed (hill) or open (ravine); 2. simple (small. in size) or complex (com. simple); 3. positive (elevation) or negative (beam); 4.size (morphometric): planetary (mat. Protrusions, ocean floor), mega-forms (large depression. Bed O - Gulf of Mexico, Alps, Caucasus), macroforms (ridge, depressions), meso-forms (ravines, gullies) , microforms (sinkholes, coastal ridges), nanoforms (meadow hummocks). Genetic class of FR (gerasimova, Meshcheryakova): 1. Geotecture - croup. the shape of the relief created by the process of planetary character: cosmic and endogenous processes (mat. protrusions, bed of O., transition zones, mid-oceanic mountains). 2. Morfostr-ra - croup. FR formed by endo and exogenous processes with predominantly. endo (mountains, equal). Morphoscul-ra is a form of relief, which is formed by exogenous processes (river valleys, meadow bumps). Relief formation processes: Endogenous (tectonic movements: horiz., Vertical., Obr-sy folded (plicative: anticline (pos), syncline (negative)), discontinuous (disjunctive: rift valleys), injective (intrusion of magma) dislocations; magmatism ( batholiths, laccoliths) and volcanism (lava sheets - the Deccan plateau in Central Siberia); earthquakes (formation of cracks); exogenous (depending on salt radiation - climate: fluvial (watercourses: gullies, ravine, ravine, river valley) , aeolian (by the wind: pillars, castles, dunes), cryogenic (permafrost: kurums, spots-medallions), glacial (glacial: kara, carling, sheep's foreheads), karst (washing out of rocks by water: kars, karst fields). Minerals and mineral products used by humans for their own purposes are called minerals. Depending on the physical condition, they are isolated different types minerals: solid: various ores, coal, marble, granite, salt; liquid: oil, mineral waters; gaseous: combustible gases, helium, methane; Depending on the use of PI, the following groups are distinguished: combustible: coal, peat, oil, natural gas, shale; ore (rock ores, including metallic useful components and non-metallic) - iron ore, non-ferrous metal ores, graphite, asbestos; non-metallic: sand, gravel, clay, chalk, various soaps. Precious and ornamental stones are a separate group. According to the origin, HF are divided into 3 gr: a) Magmatic, sample from molten magma during its cooling and solidification. At a depth in the earth's crust, magma cools more slowly, so dense rocks with large crystals are formed there. They are called abyssal igneous rocks, including granite. The granite layer contains a variety of non-ferrous, precious and rare metals. If the magma is published on the surface, it solidifies very quickly, while only the smallest crystals are formed, which is sometimes difficult to see with the naked eye, and the rock looks homogeneous. These formed gp are usually dense, hard, heavy. Ave, basalt. Pouring out along cracks, magma creates extensive basalt covers. Layering one on another, they form stepped heights - trappa. b) Sedimentary rocks. sample only on the surface of the earth's crust as a result of subsidence under the influence of gravity and the accumulation of sediments at the bottom of water bodies and on land. According to the sp-bu education, these gp. are divided into: - clastic. fragments of different gp, their formation is associated with processes that destroy rocks (the activity of wind, water, glacier). Depending on the size, these rocks are: large, medium, and fine-grained (crushed stone, pebbles, gravel, sand, clay) as building materials. -Chemogenic HF are formed from aqueous solutions mineral substances. This is table salt and potassium salt that settles to the bottom of reservoirs, silica falls out of the water of hot springs. Many of them are used on the farm, for example, potassium salts are raw materials for obtaining fertilizers, table salt is used for food. - organogenic, this group includes sedimentary rocks consisting of the remains of plants and living bodies that have accumulated over millions of years at the bottom of water bodies. These are gas, oil, coal, oil shale, limestone, chalk, phosphorites. G. p dann gr im of great practical importance in the household bangs. c) Metamorphic. Falling in the course of the movement of the earth's crust to great depths, sedimentary and igneous rocks can find themselves in conditions of much higher temperatures and pressures than during their formation. In the depths of the 3rd, they also fall under the influence of chemical solutions. This is causing a change physical properties these rocks (primarily crystalline structure), the appearance of the rock changes, but its chemical composition does not change significantly. At the same time, one rock is transformed into another, more resistant and solid: limestone - into marble, sandy - into quartzite, granite - into gneiss; clays into clay shales. These new gp - megamorphic (Greek. I am transformed), and the process by which they arise is metamorphic.

Mastering the knowledge, schoolchildren realize the role of the earth's crust, which gives to man metals, energy sources, building materials, and it is also the main supplier of fresh water. Knowledge about the relief in school geography is a didactically worked out system of ideas and concepts, laws and patterns that make up the main content of the science of geomorphology. Forming g-g knowledge in the 6th, 7th and 8th grades. The study of relief in the 6th grade is characterized by a number of features due to the role of the initial course in physical geography in the general system of acquired knowledge. In accordance with the program in the 6th grade, it is envisaged to acquire scientific knowledge about the relief in all its diversity. Students receive a correct idea of ​​the relief and surface of the globe. Image-education of the task: 1. To form the concept of "earth's crust. 2. To form general ideas about the main types of rocks by origin. 3. To form in children the general concepts of "mountains" and "plains", knowledge of the elementary classification of these landforms by height, their change in time, as well as ideas about the main reason for the diversity of the Earth's relief - constant interaction of internal and external processes.4. To form an idea of ​​the relief of their area as an integral part of the earth's crust. Topic: "Lithosphere". Consideration of the internal structure of the earth begins (the concepts of the earth's core, mantle and earth's crust), the processes taking place in the bowels of the earth, the rocks that make up the earth's crust. Further, endogenous processes are studied - volcanic eruptions and hot springs, earthquakes, slow land vibrations. Knowledge of endogenous processes is necessary to understand the genesis of topography and mountain building. In the process of studying general concepts students are told a certain minimum of names of geographical objects, established by the program, which they must know and be able to find on a geographical map. These geographic objects are needed to concretize general concepts and are used to form students' skills to describe a mountain, a plain according to a typical plan based on physical map... An important task of the topic "Lithosphere" is the development of students' knowledge about the relief of their area. Along with the formation of new general concepts, considerable attention is paid to practical work. All this knowledge is used as a reference in the formation of general concepts. Formation of geological and geomorphological concepts in the 7th grade. In the process of studying the geography of the continents, the further development of knowledge about the relief continues. The concepts of relief learned in the 6th grade are deepened. Students gain new knowledge about the structural elements of the earth's crust and get acquainted with tectonic maps. Knowledge and skills in reading the relief on the map are also being improved. In the 7th grade, it is very important to teach students to establish cause-and-effect relationships and patterns. At the same time, comparisons play an important role. The inclusion of new questions in geomorphology allows students to use specific examples to make sure that the relief is constantly changing and the modern structure of the surface is the result of a continuous and long-term interaction of the internal and external processes of the Earth, that the history of the development of continents has a great influence on the modern relief, that the distribution of minerals differs in a certain pattern. Formation of geological and geomorphological concepts in the 8th grade In the 8th grade, the further development of the concept of relief and relief formation factors continues. Scientific knowledge about relief in the course of physical geography of Russia is formed in the process of studying the topic "Geological structure, relief and minerals". And when considering natural conditions territories of Russia. The formation of large relief elements is genetically inextricably linked with the course historical development the earth's crust. In this regard, the information from geology that students learn in the 8th grade is of paramount importance for understanding the basic laws that take place in the origin and development of large forms of the earth's surface. In the content of the topic "Geological structure, relief and minerals", the main geological structures are distinguished as core concepts: platform and geosyncline of different ages, interconnections and relationships between them. The rest of the concepts, including the concept of relief, are considered in connection with the main structural elements of the earth's crust. The concept of geosynclines and the corresponding landforms is first considered in the 8th grade. In the process of studying the topic "Geological structure, relief and minerals", the main focus is on the genetic conditioning of large relief forms: elements of geotexture and morphostructure. For the correct organization of the educational process in the study of geological and geomorphological issues in the 8th grade, it is necessary to take into account that theoretical and factual knowledge on these issues is firmly mastered by students in the previous grades. When studying the relief of individual territories of Russia, students' knowledge of the origin and development of large landforms is consolidated and deepened. At the same time, a large share belongs to the establishment of patterns of distribution and development of small forms, the origin of which is due to the activity of external factors of relief formation.

Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere The atmosphere closest to the Earth is the air space around the Earth. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, and minor amounts of other gases. Thanks to the atmosphere, life arose on our planet. Plants, animals and humans need oxygen to breathe, which they receive from the atmosphere. Seas, oceans, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, glaciers form the hydrosphere of the discontinuous water shell of the Earth. Without the hydrosphere, life on our planet would be impossible (the human body is 65% water!). The lithosphere is the hard shell of the Earth, the land and the bottom of the oceans, it is formed by rocks, and geologists call it the crust.

In nature, minerals are also found in their pure form, but much more often they form compounds with other minerals. Such natural compounds of minerals are called rocks. If you carefully examine a pebble found by the sea or in the mountains, you will notice that it is often multi-colored or striped due to piercing veins, or spotted, or with stains irregular shape... This is because the pebble found consists of different minerals, on which natural processes have left their traces. Minerals differ in color, hardness, weight and composition. From them, as from bricks, the world of inanimate nature around us consists

Mineral agate is a beautiful ornamental stone, it is considered semi-precious. Agate is bluish-gray, dark gray, white. Coal, as it turned out, is the sibling of a shiny gem diamond. Diamond the most solid in the world. Red crystals of garnet mineral. Transparent garnet crystals are gemstones. They have high hardness, therefore they are often used as abrasives (grinding materials). People have learned to synthesize this mineral.

Mineral sapphire is a precious stone that has long been used as jewelry. Synthetic colorless sapphire is also obtained, the crystals of which are used in microelectronics, infrared technology, and other fields. Salt is not only dissolved in sea ​​water... It is also found in the mountains in the form of crystals. This rock salt is called halite. It is the only mineral that can be eaten. The name comes from the Greek "gallos" sea ​​salt... It is predominantly white in color, sometimes colorless. Sometimes, due to impurities of other minerals, it acquires an intense blue or red color. In combination with oxygen, silicon forms quartz, the most abundant mineral on Earth. The varieties of quartz are everyone's favorite semiprecious stones rock crystal, amethyst, smoky topaz (rauchtopaz), morion, chalcedony, aventurine, jasper, agate.

Groups according to the conditions of their formation. When molten rocks erupt from the interior of the Earth, igneous rocks are formed. These are granite, andesite, basalt, gabbro, peridotite. The incandescent mass rises along natural cracks, gradually cools and hardens. Sometimes molten rocks are poured onto the Earth's surface in the form of lava (during volcanic eruptions) and also solidify. 1. Magmatic Granite Massif. Rock granite is composed of quartz, mica and feldspar. A steep mountain wall, composed of igneous rock, basalt. Black basalt. Basalts also occupy vast areas of the ocean floor. It is a valuable building and cladding material.

2. Sedimentary Sedimentary rocks are formed from the fragments of ancient rocks, destroyed by wind and sudden temperature changes. Such debris and grains of sand often, together with the remains of plants and animals, accumulate on the bottom of the oceans and seas. This process is very long and continuous, therefore, the following layers are gradually applied to the already settled debris and particles, under the weight of which the lower layers are compacted. Limestone, sandstone, gypsum, clay, gravel, peat, coal, oil are formed. Small pieces of quartz turn into sand construction material and raw materials for glass. The amount of sand in the world is enormous. And its widespread use. Bituminous coal is an important mineral. Used as fuel.

3. Metamorphic If sedimentary or igneous rocks get to a great depth, then under the influence of high temperatures and pressure, they change greatly and turn into new metamorphic rocks. In this way, hard marble, iron ore, shale are formed from soft and loose limestone. marble iron ore slates

1. Construction of roads, houses (gravel, sand, clay, limestone) 2. Decoration of buildings, metro stations, making monuments (marble, granite, Labrador) 3. Medicine (diamond dust, talc) 4. Decorative items and decorations 5. Art (natural dyes - ocher, cinnabar, graphite) 6. Making dishes (clay, quartz sand) 7. Food (halite - table salt) 8. Agriculture (mineral fertilizers)

How often, in search of answers to our questions about how the world works, we look up at the sky, the sun, the stars, we look far, far away, hundreds of light years in search of new galaxies. But if you look under your feet, then under your feet there is a whole underground world of which our planet, the Earth, consists!

Bowels of the earth this is the same mysterious world under our feet, the underground organism of our Earth, on which we live, build houses, lay roads, bridges and for many thousands of years have been mastering the territories of our home planet.

This world is the secret depths of the bowels of the Earth!

Structure of the earth

Our planet belongs to the terrestrial planets, and, like other planets, consists of layers. The surface of the Earth consists of a hard shell of the earth's crust, deeper is an extremely viscous mantle, and in the center is a metal core, which consists of two parts, the outer one is liquid, the inner one is solid.

Interestingly, many objects of the Universe are so well studied that every schoolchild knows about them, spacecraft are sent into space for distant hundreds of thousands of kilometers, but it is still an impossible task to get into the deepest depths of our planet, so what is under the surface of the Earth is still remains a big mystery.

Earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun, located between Venus and Mars. She is the densest planet Solar system, the largest of the four and the only astronomical object known to contain life. According to radiometric dating and other research methods, our planet was formed about 4.54 billion years ago. The Earth interacts gravitationally with other objects in space, especially the Sun and Moon.

The earth consists of four main spheres or shells, which depend on each other and are the biological and physical components of our planet. They are scientifically called biophysical elements, namely the hydrosphere ("hydro" for water), the biosphere ("bio" for living things), the lithosphere ("litho" for land or earth surface) and the atmosphere ("atmosphere" for air). These major spheres of our planet are further divided into various sub-spheres.

Let's consider all four shells of the Earth in more detail in order to understand their functions and significance.

The lithosphere is the solid shell of the Earth

Scientists estimate that there are more than 1386 million km³ of water on our planet.

The oceans contain more than 97% of the Earth's water reserves. The rest comes from fresh water, two-thirds of which is frozen in the polar regions of the planet and on the snow-capped mountains. It is interesting to note that although water covers most of the planet's surface, it only accounts for 0.023% of the total mass of the Earth.

The biosphere is the living shell of the Earth

The biosphere is sometimes considered one big - a complex community of living and nonliving components that function as a single whole. However, most often the biosphere is described as a collection of many ecological systems.

Atmosphere - Earth's air envelope

The atmosphere is a collection of gases that surround our planet, held in place by Earth's gravity. Most of our atmosphere is near the earth's surface, where it is most dense. The air of the Earth is 79% nitrogen and slightly less than 21% oxygen, as well as argon, carbon dioxide and other gases. Water vapor and dust are also part of the Earth's atmosphere. Other planets and the Moon have very different atmospheres, and some do not have one at all. There is no atmosphere in space.

The atmosphere is so widespread that it is almost invisible, but its weight is equal to a layer of water more than 10 meters deep that covers our entire planet. The lower 30 kilometers of the atmosphere contains about 98% of its total mass.

Scientists claim that many of the gases in our atmosphere were thrown into the air by early volcanoes. At that time, there was little or no free oxygen around the Earth. Free oxygen consists of oxygen molecules that are not bonded to another element such as carbon (to form carbon dioxide) or hydrogen (to form water).

Free oxygen may have been added to the atmosphere by primitive organisms, probably bacteria, at the time. Later, more complex forms added more oxygen to the atmosphere. Oxygen in today's atmosphere probably took millions of years to build up.

The atmosphere acts like a giant filter, absorbing most of the ultraviolet radiation and allowing the sun's rays to penetrate. Ultraviolet radiation is harmful to living things and can cause burns. Nevertheless, solar energy is essential for all life on earth.

The Earth's atmosphere has. The following layers go from the surface of the planet to the sky: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Another layer, called the ionosphere, extends from the mesosphere to the exosphere. Outside the exosphere is space. The boundaries between the atmospheric layers are not clearly defined and vary with latitude and season.

Interrelation of the Earth's shells

All four spheres can be present in one place. For example, a piece of soil will contain minerals from the lithosphere. In addition, there will be elements of the hydrosphere, which is moisture in the soil, the biosphere like insects and plants, and even the atmosphere in the form of soil air.

All spheres are interconnected and depend on each other, as a single organism. Changes in one area will lead to changes in another. Therefore, everything that we do on our planet affects other processes within it (even if we cannot see it with our own eyes).

For people dealing with problems, it is very important to understand the interconnection of all the shells of the Earth.

Stone shell The earth - the earth's crust - is firmly attached to the upper mantle and forms a single whole with it. The study of the earth's crust and lithosphere allows scientists to explain the processes occurring on the Earth's surface and predict changes in the appearance of our planet in the future.

The structure of the earth's crust

Earth's crust, consisting of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, on the continents and under the oceans has a different thickness and structure.

In the continental crust, it is customary to distinguish three layers. Upper - sedimentary, which is dominated by sedimentary rocks. The two lower layers are conventionally called granite and basalt. The granite layer consists mainly of granite and metamorphic rocks. The basalt layer is made of denser rocks comparable in density to basalts. The oceanic crust is two-layered. In it, the upper layer - sedimentary - has a small thickness, the lower layer - basalt - consists of basalt rocks, and the granite layer is absent.

The thickness of the continental crust under the plains is 30-50 kilometers, under the mountains - up to 75 kilometers. The oceanic crust is much thinner, its thickness is from 5 to 10 kilometers.

The crust is found on other terrestrial planets, on the Moon and on many satellites of the giant planets. But only the Earth has two types of crust: continental and oceanic. On other planets, in most cases, it consists of basalts.

Lithosphere

The stony shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle, is called the lithosphere. There is a heated plastic layer of the mantle under it. The lithosphere seems to float on this layer. The thickness of the lithosphere in different areas The earth varies from 20 to 200 kilometers or more. In general, it is thicker under the continents than under the oceans.

Scientists have found that the lithosphere is not monolithic, but consists of. They are separated from each other by deep faults. Seven very large and somewhat smaller lithospheric plates are distinguished, which constantly, but slowly move along the plastic layer of the mantle. The average speed of their movement is about 5 centimeters per year. Some plates are completely oceanic, but most have different types of crust.

Lithospheric plates move relative to each other in different directions: either move away, or, conversely, approach and collide. As part of the lithospheric plates, their upper "floor" - the earth's crust, also moves. Due to the movement of lithospheric plates, the location of continents and oceans on the Earth's surface is changing. The continents now collide with each other, then move away from each other for thousands of kilometers.