Methods for studying psychological science 4 groups. Basic research methods in psychology

All procedures, with which the behavior of the individual is given to the norm of the social group, are called sanctions.

Social sanction - measure of exposure, the most important means of social control.

Allocate the following types of sanctions:

- negative and positive ,

- formal and informal .

Negative sanctions Directed against a person who retreated from social norms.

Positive sanctions Aims on support and approval of a person who follows these standards.

Formal sanctions imposed by official, social or state body or their representative.

Informal We usually suggest the reaction of group members, friends, colleagues, relatives, acquaintances, etc.

Thus, you can allocate four types of sanctions:

1. Formal negative,

2. Formal positive,

3. Informal negative,

4. Informal positive.

for example , Five for the student's answer in class - formal positive sanction. Example negative informal sanction may be condemnation of a person at a public opinion level.

Positive sanctions usually more influential negative sanctions.

for example, For a student, reinforcement of training success with positive estimates is more stimulating than a negative assessment for poorly performed task.

The sanctions are effective only when there is consent regarding the correctness of their application and the authority of those who apply them.

for exampleThe recovery of a nurse can perceive as due, if he considers it fair, and when recovering, not corresponding to the offense, the nurse will assume that it has been received unfairly with it, and not only does not correct behavior, but, on the contrary, can show the reaction of negativism.

Basic forms of social control

Forms of social control - these are the ways of regulating human life in society, which are due to various public (group) processes and are associated with the psychological characteristics of large and small social groups.

Forms of social control predetermine the transition of external social regulation into intrapersonal.

The most common forms of social control are:

Traditions

Morality and morals,

Etiquette, manners, habits.

Ø Law - a combination of regulations with legal strength and regulating the formal relations of people across the state.

Laws are directly related to the specific authority in society and are determined by it, which, in turn, leads to the establishment of a certain way of life. Many important events In life (marriage, the birth of a child, the end of the university, etc.) are directly related to the laws. Neglect of legal norms can lead to negative socio-psychological consequences.

For example, people living in civil marriage, with legally unformed marital relations, may face negative informal sanctions.

The law acts as an active and effective form of social control.

Ø Taboo – the system of prohibitions for performing any actions or thoughts of man.

One of the most ancient forms of social control preceding the emergence of laws is taboo. In primitive society, Taboo governed the important parties to life. It was believed that in disruption of prohibitions, supernatural forces should be switched off. At the level of modern individual consciousness, taboob is most often associated with superstitions - such prejudices, by virtue of which much of what is happening is the manifestation of supernatural forces or an omen.

for example , a student, going to take the exam, can change the way if the black cat overtakes; A young mother is afraid that someone else's look will harm the baby, etc. The person is afraid that if the ritual won't be perfect, then the consequences unfavorable for him will necessarily arise. Internal taboise is (often at the subconscious level) social prohibitions in the past.

Ø Customs -repeating, habitual methods of human behavior, common in this society.

Customs are absorbed by childhood and have the nature of the public habit. Chief sign Custom - prevalence. The custom is determined by the terms of society at the moment of time and the difference from tradition.

Ø Traditions -we have timeless character and exists long enough, transmitting from generation to generation.

The traditions understand such customs that:

First, it was historically in connection with the culture of this ethnos;

Secondly, transmitted from generation to generation;

Thirdly, determined by the mentality (spiritual warehouse) of the people.

It can be said that traditions are one of the most conservative forms of social control. But traditions can gradually change and transform in accordance with socio-economic and cultural changes affecting social behavioral patterns.

for example The tradition of the existence of the patriarchal family is gradually changing in many countries of the world. The composition of the modern family living under one roof, increasingly includes only two generations: parents are children.

Customs and traditions cover massive forms of behavior and play a huge role in society. Psychological meaning of custom or tradition – solidarity of people. Solidarity unites people of one society, makes more cohesive and, therefore, stronger. Punishment (negative sanctions), following the violation of the tradition, only contributes to the maintenance of the unity of the group. It is impossible to understand the essence of the tradition outside the culture of the people. Many customs are eliminated with a change in life in society.

Ø Moral -special customs having moral importance and related to understanding of good and evil in this social group or society.

Moral determines the fact that people are traditionally allowed or prohibited in connection with their ideas about the bad and good. Despite the variety of such representations, moral norms are very similar in most human cultures, regardless of which formations they are embodied.

Ø Conscience – special, unique quality of a person defining its essence.

According to V. Val conscience - this is a moral consciousness, moral flair or a sense of man; Inner consciousness of good and evil; Cache of the soul, in which the approval or condemnation of each act speaks; the ability to recognize the quality of the deed; a feeling that promises to truth and good, disgusted by false and evil; unwitting love for good and to the truth; inborn truth in varying degrees of development ( Dictionary Live Great Russian language. - St. Petersburg., 1997. - T. 4).

In philosophy and psychology conscience it is interpreted as the ability of the personality to carry out moral self-control, independently formulate moral duties for themselves, to require them to fulfill their implementation and to make an assessment of the actions performed (philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1983; Psychology: Dictionary. - M., 1990).

The conscience carries internal special controlling functions, it is an absolute guarantor of the implementation of moral principles. At the same time, it is impossible not to notice that, unfortunately, in modern life, it does not always contribute to the development of this unique human properties.

Ø Morals -the designation of customs having moral importance and characterizing all those forms of people's behavior in a particular social layer, which can be subjected to moral assessment.

Unlike morality, the morals are associated with certain social groups. That is, the generally accepted morality in society may be alone, and the morals are different.

for example The morals of the elite and the morals of the working part of society have significant differences.

On the individual level nrasics manifest themselves B. man's manners, the features of his behavior.

Ø Manners – a combination of habits of the behavior of this person or a certain social group.

it external forms behavior, ways to do anything, characterizing a certain social type. According to Manners, we can determine how a social group includes a person, what is his profession or the main type of activity.

Ø Habit -an unconscious effect that repeated so many times in a person's life, which has acquired an automated character.

Habits add up under the influence of the nearest environment and primarily family education. Special attention should be paid to the fact that habits acquirethe nature of the need if they are formed and fixed.

At the first stage of the formation of the habit, by virtue of its novelty, the individual is experiencing certain difficulties of assimilation. But when the action is completely absorbed, it becomes necessary. We do not pay attention to our habits, because it's somehow part of ourselves, it is something natural and necessary. The habits of other people, not similar to ours, can become a very annoying factor.

for example , newlyweds may experience some household difficulties due to the difference of habits. And in families that exist for a long time and safely, you can observe the unity of habits or, consent about their manifestations.

The famous proverb says:

"Sing the act - get the habit,

- The mechanism of maintaining public order through regulatory regulation, implying the actions of the Company aimed at preventing deviationing behavior, the punishment of devians or their correction.

The concept of social control

The most important condition and effective functioning of the social system is the predictability of social actions and social behavior of people, in the absence of which the social system is waiting for disorganization and disintegration. Society has certain means, with the help of which ensures the reproduction of existing social relationship and interactions. One of these means is social control, the main function of which is to create conditions for the sustainability of the social system, the preservation of social stability and at the same time for positive social changes. This requires flexibility from social control, including the ability to recognize positive-constructive deviations from social norms, which should be encouraged, and negative-dysfunctional deviations, to which certain sanctions should be applied (from Lat. Sanctio - the strictest decree) of a negative nature, including Legal.

- This is, on the one hand, the mechanism of social regulation, the totality of funds and methods of social impact, and on the other - the social practice of their use.

In general, the social behavior of the person proceeds under the control of society and the people around. They not only train the individual with the rules of social behavior in the process of socialization, but also act as agents of social control, observing the correctness of the assimilation of social behavior samples and their implementation in practice. In this regard, social control acts as special form and a way to social regulation of people's behavior in society. Social control is manifested in subordination of the individual to the social group in which it is integrated, which is expressed in meaningful or spontaneous consequences by social standards prescribed by this group.

Social control consists of two elements - Social norms and social sanctions.

Social norms - socially appreciated or legislatively enshrined rules, standards, samples governing the social behavior of people.

Social sanctions - means of encouragement and punishment, stimulating people to comply with social norms.

Social norms

Social norms - These are socially appropriate or legislatively enshrined rules, standards, samples governing the social behavior of people. Therefore, social norms shared on legal norms, the norms of morality and actually social norms.

Legal norms - These are norms formally enshrined in various legislation. Violation of legal norms implies legal, administrative and other types of punishment.

Moral norms - Informal norms that function in the form of public opinion. The main tool in the system of morality is public censure or public approval.

TO Social standards usually refer:

• group social habits (for example, "do not keep up your nose in front of your");
• social customs (for example, hospitality);
• social traditions (for example, subordination of children to parents),
• public morals (manners, moral, etiquette);
• social taboos (absolute prohibitions for cannibalism, detebide, etc.). Customs, traditions, morals, taboo are called sometimes common rules Social behavior.

Social sanction

Sanction It is recognized as the main tool of social control and is an incentive for compliance, expressed in the form of encouragement (positive sanction) or punishment (negative sanction). Sanctions are formal, imposed by the state or specially authorized organizations and persons, and informal, expressed by informal persons.

Social sanctions - These are means of encouraging and punishment, stimulating people to comply with social norms. In this regard, social sanctions can be called the Security Council.

Social norms and social sanctions are inextricably integer, and if some social norm has no social sanction accompanying, it loses its socially-regulating function. For example, in the XIX century. in countries Western Europe The social norm was considered the birth of children only in lawful marriage. Therefore, illegitimate were excluded from the inheritance of the property of parents, they neglected in everyday communication, they could not conclude decent marriages. However, society as its modernization and mitigation of public opinion relative to illegitimate began to gradually exclude informal and formal sanctions For violation of this norm. As a result, this social norm has ceased to exist.

Allocate the following Social control mechanisms:

• isolation - isolating deviant from society (for example, imprisonment);
• separation - restriction of deviant contacts with others (for example, room in a psychiatric clinic);
• rehabilitation is a set of measures aimed at the return of the Devian to normal life.

Types of social sanctions

Although official sanctions seem more effective, in fact, informal sanctions are more important for humans. The need for friendship, love, recognition or fear of ridicule and shame often turn out to be effective than orders or penalties.

In the process of socializing the form of external control, it is assimilated in such a way that they become part of his own beliefs. Internal control system is generated, referred to Self Control. Typical example Selfontrol - the flour of the conscience of man who has committed an unworthy act. In the developed society, self-control mechanisms prevail over external control mechanisms.

Types of social control

In sociology distinguish two main process of social control: the application of positive or negative sanctions for the social behavior of the individual; Interiorization (from FR. Interiorism - transition from outside) Individual social norms of behavior. In this regard, allocate external social control and internal social control, or self-control.

External social control It is a combination of forms, methods and actions guaranteeing compliance with social norms of behavior. There are two types of external control - formal and informal.

Formal social controlbased on official approval or condemnation is carried out by the authorities state power, political and social organizations, education system, means mass media And operates throughout the country, based on written norms - laws, decrees, decrees, orders and instructions. The ideology dominant in society can also be treated with formal social control. Speaking about the formal social control, they mean primarily actions aimed at force people to respect the laws and order with the help of representatives of the authorities. Such control is particularly effective in large social groups.

Informal social control, based on the approval or condemnation of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, public opinion, is expressed through traditions, customs or media. Agents of informal social control are such social institutions as a family, school, religion. This type of control is particularly effective in small social groups.

In the process of social control over the violation of some social norms, a very weak punishment is followed, for example, the disapproval, an unfair view, a smirk. For violation of other social norms, severe punishments are followed - the death penalty, imprisonment, exile from the country. The violation of taboos and legal laws is crueling stricter, softer than all - separate types of group habits, in particular family.

Internal social control - Independent regulation of its social behavior in society. In the process of self-control, the person independently regulates its social behavior, coordinating it with generally accepted standards. This type of control manifests itself, on the one hand, in the sense of guilt, emotional experiences, "remorse of conscience" for social actionsOn the other hand, in the form of the reflection of the individual about its social behavior.

The self-control of the individual for its own social behavior is formed in the process of its socialization and the formation of socio-psychic mechanisms for its internal self-regulation. The main elements of self-monitoring are consciousness, conscience and will.

- This is an individual form of a mental representation of reality in the form of a generalized and subjective model of the surrounding world in the form of verbal concepts and sensual images. Consciousness allows an individual to use social behavior.

Conscience- The personality ability to independently formulate their own moral duties and require them to fulfill their implementation, as well as produce self-esteem of the actions and actions. The conscience does not allow the individual to violate the established installations, principles, beliefs, according to which he builds its social behavior.

Will - Conscious regulation by man of behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome external and internal difficulties in the commission of targeted actions and actions. The will helps the individual to overcome their internal subconscious desires and needs, to do and behave in society in accordance with their beliefs.

In the process of social behavior, the individual has to constantly fight with its subconscious, who gives his behavior of a natural character, so self-control is the most important condition for the social behavior of people. Typically, self-control of individuals in its social behavior is intensified with age. But it also depends on the social circumstances and the nature of external social control: the fierce external control, the weaker the self-control. Moreover, social experience It shows that the weaker the self-control of the individual, the hard to be with respect to it external controls. However, this is fraught with large social costs, since tough external control is accompanied by social degradation of the personality.

In addition to the external and internal social monitoring of social behavior, individuals also allocated: 1) indirect social control, based on identification with the reference law-abiding group; 2) Social control based on the wide availability of various ways to achieve goals and meet the needs alternative to illegal or immoral.

The formation and functioning of small social groups is invariably accompanied by the emergence of a number of laws, customs and traditions. Their main goal is to regulate public life, the preservation of the specified order and concern for maintaining the well-being of all members of the community.

Personal sociology, its subject and object

Such a phenomenon as social control takes place in all types of society. For the first time, this term was used by the French sociologist Gabriel Tard he, calling so one of the most important means of correction of criminal behavior. Later, social control began to be considered as one of the defining factors of socialization.

In the number of social control tools are called formal and informal promotions and sanctions. Personal sociology that serves as a section social psychologyConsiders the issues and problems associated with how people interact within certain groups are interacting, as well as how the formation of a separate personality occurs. This science under the term "sanctions" also understands the promotion, that is, this is a consequence of any act, regardless of whether positive or negative coloring he has.

What is formal and informal positive sanctions

Formal control of public order is entrusted to official structures (human rights and judicial), and informal carry out members of the family, the team, the church community, as well as close and friends. While the first is based on state laws, the second is based on public opinion. Informal control is expressed through customs and traditions, as well as using media (public approval or censure).

If earlier such a type of control was the only one, today it is relevant only for small groups. Thanks to industrialization and globalization, modern groups have a huge number of people (up to several million), therefore, informal control turns out to be insolvent.

Sanctions: Definition and types

The sanctions of the Sociology of the individual calls the punishment or remuneration used in public groups in relation to individual individuals. This is a reaction to the output of the individual abroad, that is, the consequence of actions that differ from the expected. Given the types of social control, distinguish formal positive and negative, as well as informal positive sanctions and negative.

Feature of positive sanctions (promotions)

Formal sanctions (with the "plus" sign) become different kinds public approval by official organizations. For example, issuance of literacy, premiums, titles, ranks, state awards and appointment to high positions. Such promotions necessarily provide for the compliance of the individual to which they are used, certain criteria.

Unlike them, there are no clear requirements in order to earn informal positive sanctions. Examples of similar encouragements: smiles, handshakes, compliments, praise, applause, public gratefulness.

Punishment or negative sanctions

Formal punishments are the measures that are set forth in legal laws, government decisions, administrative instructions and orders. Individual, violating current laws, can be conclusion, arrest, dismissal from work, fine, official recovery, spoken, death penalty and other sanctions. The difference between such punishment measures from those provided by informal control (informal negative sanctions), in the fact that for their application it is necessary to have a specific prescription regulating the behavior of the individual. It contains criteria relating to the norm, a list of actions (or inaction), which are considered violations, as well as a measure of punishment for the act (or its absence).

Informal negative sanctions are punishments that are not fixed at the official level. It can be mockery, contempt, oral reprimand, ill-advantageous reviews, comments and others.

Classification of Application Sanctions

All existing types of sanctions are divided into repressive and preventive. The first apply after the individual has already made an action. The size of such punishment or encouragement depends on public beliefs that determine the harmfulness or usefulness of the deed. The second (preventive) sanctions are designed to prevent specific actions. That is, their goal is to incline the individual to that behavior, which is considered normal. For example, informal positive sanctions in the school education system are designed to develop in children the habit of "doorly".

Conformism becomes the result of such a policy: a peculiar "masking" of the true motives and the desires of the individual under the camouflage of graft values.

The role of positive sanctions in personality formation

Many specialists come to the conclusion that informal positive sanctions allow you to carry out more humane and effective control of individual behavior.
Applying various promotion measures and reinforcing socially acceptable actions, you can educate such a system of beliefs and values \u200b\u200bthat will impede the manifestation deviant behavior. Psychologists recommend as often as possible to apply informal positive sanctions in the process of raising children.

One way or another, each of us depends on the society in which it exists. Of course, it is not manifested in the complete conformity of certain individuals, because everyone has their own opinion and a look at one question. However, very often the public is able to influence the behavior of the person, to form and change its attitude towards their own actions. Such a phenomenon is characterized by the possibility of certain representatives of the society to respond to anything through sanctions.

They can be the most different: positive and negative, formal and informal, legal and moral, and so on. In many respects, it depends on what an individual act is concluded.

For example, for many of us the most pleasant is the informal positive sanction. What is its essence? First of all, it is worth saying that there may be positive as informal sanctions and formal. The first have a place to be, for example, at the site of a person. You can give the following example: the office worker concluded several favorable deals - the bosses for it issued a diploma, raised and raised him wages. This fact was captured in certain documents, that is, officially. Therefore, in this case, we see a formal positive sanction.

Actually, informal positive sanction

However, in addition to official approval from the authorities (or the state), a person will get praise from his colleagues, friends, relatives. It will manifest itself in verbal approval, invitation, arms, and so on. Thus, from the SOCIUM side will be given an informal positive sanction. It does not find a real manifestation, however, for most of the individuals is more significant than even the increase in wages.

There is a huge number of situations in relation to which informal positive sanctions can be applied. Examples will be given further.

Thus, it can be traced that this type of promotion of actions of a particular individual is most often manifested in ordinary household situations.

However, as in the case of wage raising, formal positive sanctions can coexist with informal. For example, a person got during the fighting. Along with the official praise from the state, he will receive approval from others, universal honor and respect.

So, we can talk about the fact that formal and informal positive sanctions can be applied to the same act.

The team of the company is a small social group, which means that the concept of sociology, including sanctions, is applicable to it. This article will answer the question of what formal positive sanctions and how they help regulate relations among employees.

What is a sanction

The sanction is a term, the order already stuffed asking and, as a rule, associated with something bad. This is the word of Latin origin: Sanctio denotes a "strictest decree".

The sanction is part of the legal norm, which provides bad consequences for the one who violates the established rules.

The term "social sanction" has almost the same meaning. Only in the meaning of social sanction is included not only punishment, but also encouraging. Social sanction manages a person not only by the "whip", but also "gingerbread". Consequently, social sanctions are an effective mechanism for social control. The goal is to subordinate a person to the social group in order to follow the established standards and rules.

Types of social sanctions

Social sanctions are divided into formal and informal, positive and negative.

Negative social sanctions provide for the punishment for a person who made undesirable actions, retreated from the norms generally accepted in a specific team. Positive sanctions, on the contrary, are aimed at supporting the individual in his desire to follow the rules.

Formal social sanctions operate at the official level, proceed from the management of the company. In contrast to them, informal sanctions are the reaction of the members of the social group.

At the "intersection" of positive and negative, formal and informal, we get another 4 species of sanctions:

• formal positive;
• informal positive;
• formal negative;
• informal negative.

Formal positive sanctions

Formal positive sanctions are the encouragement of a person's actions by the Company's leadership. For example, enhanced service, premiums and diplomas.

Basic driving force Formal positive sanctions - material.

Each employee is interested in increasing his wages. It is better to work, fit into the team - it means faster moving on the social staircase, you get recognition, respect for others. Formal positive sanctions work best in combination with informal.

Other types of sanctions

If the head pushes an employee at all, will make him a compliment - this is an informal positive sanction. Of course, to informal positive sanctions, the same elements of communication between the employees themselves should be attributed.

For compliance with the established norms and rules of a person, it is necessary to encourage, and for non-compliance - on the contrary, to punish. For the punishment, the sanctions of negative type, formal and informal are responsible.

Formal negative sanctions that can be applied to the employee is a fine, a reprimand with the workbook and without, and, of course, dismissal from work on the article. Negative sanctions "Press" for fear of man lose their work.

Informal negative sanctions include a complaint, ridicule, comments, etc. Informal negative sanctions cause discomfort in a person, up to the feeling of guilt. Following such negative experiences, the desire comes to be corrected, follow the norms and rules adopted in the team.

Summarizing the above, we come to the conclusion that the team of the company, the organization is to some extent a self-regulating system, rejecting from its "body" of individuals, which "float against the current", without entering the generally accepted framework.