From less perfect to more perfect. Social evolution is the development of the lowest to the highest, from less perfect to the more perfect
"The direction of development for which the transition from the lowest to the highest, from less perfect to the more perfect, is called in science progress (the word of Latin origin, meaning literally" movement forward "). The concept of progress is the opposite of the concept of regress. For regression, the movement from the highest to the lower, the processes of degradation, return to the forms and structures that have exhausted themselves. Progress in one of the regions of public life is not necessarily complemented by progress in other areas. What is considered progressive today, tomorrow may turn around the catastrophe - in this contradiction. Progress in the life of one of the countries does not necessarily entail progress in other countries and regions. Progressive for one person may not be progressive for another.
One of the first the theory of public progress put forward French philosopher Anne Robert Turgo (1727-1781). His contemporary French philosopher-enlightener Jacques Antoine Condorse (1743-1794) so \u200b\u200brepresented the criteria of public progress: Hist, he wrote, represents the picture of uninterrupted changes, the picture of the progress of the human mind, the path of social progress.
Hegel considered progress not only by the principle of mind, but also the principle of world events. This faith in progress perceived and K. Marx, who believed that humanity goes to an increasingly mastery of nature, the development of production and the person himself. XIX and XX centuries. marked by stormy events that gave new information on progress and regress in society.
Socialists-utopians put forward a moral progress criterion. Saint-Simon considered, for example, that society should take such a form of an organization that would have led to the implementation of a moral principle: all people should treat each other like brothers. Contemporary Socialist-Utopists German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Shelling (1775-1854) wrote that the decision of the question of historical progress was complicated by the fact that supporters and opponents of faith in improving humanity were fully entangled in disputes about progress criteria. The progress of science and technology, which, as Schelling wrote, from a historical point of view is Rady Regress. Shelling offered its solution to the problem: only gradual approximation to the legal device can serve as a criterion in establishing historical progress of the human genus. Another point of view on public progress belongs to G. Hegel. The progress criterion, he saw in the consciousness of freedom. As the consciousness of freedom increases, there is a progressive development of society.
In the XX century Sociological theories appeared, which abandoned an optimistic view on the development of society, characteristic of progress ideas. Instead, they offer the theories of a cyclic cycle, the pessimistic ideas of the "end of history", global environmental, energy and nuclear disasters.
Cyclic theories also had a certain positive value. They have aroused the chronology (lists of 30 dynasties of the ancient, middle and new kingdoms in Egypt), identify certain trends in changing the political forms of government (studying the Aristotle of the history of 158 of the Greek policies), to carry out parallels between the history of different peoples and epochs, and so on. Thus Cyclic theories contributed to the formation of a comparative historical method in public.
Historical doomes or, as researchers write, "Sunset Europe" is perceived as the death of the "Christian civilization of the West" with all its cultural and technological advances. "
(L. N. Bogolyubov)
This statement of L. Tolstoy, the Great Russian Writer is associated with the understanding of one of the criteria of progress - the development of the human mind. According to Tolstoy, over time, the mind becomes the main factor of progress. I agree with the author, because before the person developed because of the need for survival, made weapons from a stick and stone to protect against wild animals, and now mankind is progressing in various industries of science with their knowledge, developed mind.
Progress is the direction of development, which is characterized by the transition from less perfect to more perfect. For progress, the mind is very important. If humanity be followed by animal laws, a phenomenon may occur, reverse regression progress.
Recently, humanity has accomplished a big step in the field of progress. Another 1.5th century ago, people could not imagine themselves flying in heaven, and now the development of outer space is already actively.
Previously, people could not use their mind to fully, now the person himself comes up with artificial intelligence, on the basis of his knowledge. These discovery are directly related to the progress committed at the expense of the mind - the highest level cognitive activity man.
For his life, a person makes his individual progress. For example, in school, we teach various disciplines - improve our mind.
Thus, it can be said that progress can no longer be carried out without reason, otherwise it will turn into regression. The mind must be constantly developed if there is a developed mind, then progress will exist.
Updated: 2019-02-27
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Keywords: progress, regression, extensive and intensive development, revolution, evolution, inconsistency of progress.
Society never stands still. In the world it is impossible to single out a single object that would be in absolute rest. Social concerns and social actors, the whole society. The ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus about the development said: "Everything flows, everything changes. In one river, you can not enter twice - the water flows are not the same, and the person is already different."
Some people spend most of their lives, pretending that no. Not taking, he makes thousands of effort to change it and this, for the implementation of many years of career in search of the ideal that he means, and which almost never adapts to reality, to what is.
Few women can have the perfect body all their lives; In fact, even the models themselves. And even more: there are those who instead of focusing on their obsession upon receipt perfect body, They crave an ideal life: an ideal home, perfect husband and some dreamy.
Society varies. By the direction of changes, you can allocate:
Progress - development from less perfect to more perfect, complication, improvement;
Regress - the transition from more perfect to less perfect, simplification, deterioration.
Public progress contradictory. Thus, progress in one field can be turned on regress to another. For example, the progress of nuclear physics has led to the creation of nuclear weapons. The degree of defense of states increased. But the world has become more vulnerable - nuclear weapon may be in the hands of terrorists, etc. Public progress leads to improvements not in all spheres of life, it is not always beneficial to everyone. Progress is carried out nonlinear. In certain periods of social development, congestive phenomena, crises are possible. Public development is carried out by spirals - the progress follows the periods of regression, but in general, progress is ahead of and erases the negative effect of stagnant steps.
In fact, absolute perfection also does not exist. Life is moments, moments to enjoy maximum happiness when accepting yourself is the first step that we must overcome. Those who understand that the greatest attractiveness is sometimes in imperfection. If you are wondering why, the answer is simple: any small imperfection makes us unique and unique, and it is there magic.
Having accepted himself in each of our nuances, with our shortcomings and our perfections, first of all, will gain the balance with himself. Subsequently, the balance will come with the world itself and with others. Who does not accept themselves, develops a sense of uncertainty about his personality. In fact, there are many people who, having received it on the basis of exercises that limit diets and even passing through the operating, detect that it is still not accepted. It should also be noted that sometimes this need for "self-improvement" was introduced from childhood. The presence of a strict mother or a serious father makes us ultimately show that the uncertainty in itself, where we believe that perfection can be our only answer.
- Insecurity creates dissatisfaction in turn.
- No one is happier to have a perfect body.
Difficult for scientific understanding are progress criteria. So, in politics they may have the development of democracy, increasing the transparency of political processes (elections, decision-making by power), the development of civil society and the legal state. In the economy, progress criteria can recognize the development of the production, purchasing power of the population, an increase in human well-being. To progress criteria in social sphere It is possible to include an increase in the average life expectancy, the state of public health, an increase in the overall level of education of members of society, etc. More complicated with criteria in the spiritual sphere. Cultures of different nations are simply incomparable. Is it possible to say that European culture is more developed than Eastern (or vice versa)? Of course not. Cultures are different. And nevertheless, the level of development of science, education is possible. Obviously, for example, in antiquity, where the course of the school was 1-3 years and suggested the study of elementary mathematical actions and literacy, the formation was less developed than today. Currently, education, in fact, lasts a person's life - even after graduating from the university, he continues to engage in self-education, increases its qualifications.
Hence the great adventure in our lives. Where only the most favorable in emotional issues, in and in self-esteem, will promote your life Path With great honesty, open for everything that offers their lives, because, in turn, they can give a lot of their lives.
What does it mean to be more humane? It is clear that we are all people that we are all born, we are developing, and we try to learn from all aspects that surround us. To achieve this important level with which you need to contact all others, it is necessary, first of all, contact us: take us.
By speed, development happens:
Evolution - slow, smooth, gradual changes;
Revolutionary - fast, hoppy development.
Evolutionary development is more preferable because it does not lead to instability in society, it does not break the rapidly established forms of social relations. "You go quiet - you will be more" - an expression, fair and regarding public progress.
Adoption is not limited to the fact that we are happy with our body, with our appearance. Thus, the adoption of each of the aspects of our life, our and our real is inferior.
- Adoption also accepts our past, our triumphs, but also our errors.
- It is necessary to make failures, integrating them to receive training.
According to the criterion of the founding of development (causes, entities), you can allocate:
Extensive - the development of quantitative, styling, due to the increase in anything. For example, extensive development will be improved students in school due to an increase in the number of lessons;
Intensive - development due to qualitative changes, improvements. Example: Development of student performance due to the use of more advanced teaching technologies.
So, one of two: either Professor Martinez is an absolute genius in this area, or hit the same trap as many to them. Already there are open debates about the superior chain of the cryptopolis, but not even going into technical details, patent examination shows at least in my opinion that there are a lot of noise and some nuts.
There are deficiencies, errors and incorrect interpretations only in the previous description, which makes cryptography as a whole. For example, it claims that asymmetric encryption can be broken by coarse. "Rough power" is how cryptologists must say "Let's try all the keys." In the case of an open key system, the way to attack them is usually to try to solve the mathematical problem on which they base their safety. But no one is trying to destroy the system, trying to use all possible keys.
"Normal" social development is a permanent break with the past, stormy transformations and shifts. Social contradictions, conflicts, confrontation of all kinds - source of social development.
Problems revolution it takes a central place in the theory of social change Marx. Social revolutionin his interpretation is not just a transition from one, less progressive public formation to another, more progressive, not only a deep qualitative transformation of social relations, but also a certain methodsuch transformation; this is fast, sharp, conflict and totalshift in social relations. This method of social change Marx considered historically inevitable and desirable, as it allows you to speed up social progress. That is the meaning of his famous thesis: "Revolutions - Locomotives of History."
In addition to social, Marx considered economic, industrial and political revolution, an approximate social revolution is then from the first, then with the second, then with the third. But especially closely, he connects the social revolution with political, i.e. with conquest state power The progressive class and the establishment of its revolutionary dictatorship to suppress others, reaction classes.
Social and political reform Presented Marx artificial social development brake, the result of forced concessions and (or) deception on the part of the dominant classes or weakness and indecision of the oppressed classes. His ideal social development in the "prehistory" of society, which was built on the private property and exploitation of a person by a person, is a "continuous revolution", the constant revolutionation of the Company for the speedy attack of the "genuine" history, communism.
Sociology M. Weber: Theory social knowledge; theory of social action and the theory of society; Development theory; The theory of capitalism. (Zborovsky)
Max Weber (1864-1920) - German sociologist, social philosopher and historian; The founder of understanding sociology and the theory of social action - was born in Erfurt. His father was a lawyer, leaving the family of industrialists and merchants engaged in Westphalia textile business. Mother was a highly educated and cultural woman, a lot was engaged in the problems of religion and social issues
Main works: "Economy and Society" and "Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism", "Critical Studies in the Logic Science of Culture Sciences", "On some categories of" understanding "sociology", "Objectivity of socio-scientific and socio-political knowledge", "Politics as Recognition and profession, "" Protestant sects and the spirit of capitalism, "" the meaning of "freedom from evaluation" in sociological and economic science. "
Social Action Theory
The concept of "social action" in the interpretation of Weber was derived from the action in general, under which such human behavior is understood, in the course of which the current individual associates with it or, more precisely, invests subjective meaning in PEGO. Therefore, the action is to understand the man of his own behavior.
Following this judgment, it is immediately an explanation of what social action is: "" Social "we call such an action that according to the intended acting person or acting persons meaning with the action of other people and focuses on PEGO "[Weber. 1990].
social action includes two points: a) subjective motivation of the individual (individuals, groups of people); b) Orientation on other (other), which Weber calls "Expectation" and without which action cannot be considered as social. Its main subject is an individual. Teams (groups) Sociology can only be considered as derived from the components of their individuals. They (collectives, groups) are not independent reality, but rather, ways to organize actions of individual individuals.
The social action at the Weber acts in four types: a chieressational, value-rational, affective, traditional one.
Celemental action is an action, which is based on the expectation of certain behavior of objects. external world and other people and using this waiting as "conditions" or "tools" to achieve their rationally supplied and thoughtful goal "
The value-rational action is based "on faith in an unconditional - aesthetic, religious or any other - the self-sustaining value of certain behavior as such, regardless of what it will lead to"
Affective action is an action due to affects or
emotional state Individual. According to Weber, affective dei
"Located on the border and often beyond the limit of the fact that" meaningful ",
natively oriented; it may not know the obstacles of reagging
on a completely unusual irritation "
Traditional action is an action based on a long habit. Weber writes: "Most of the usual everyday behavior of people is close to this type that occupies a certain place in systematization of behavior ..."
Understanding sociology
M. Weber sociology, and for him, his followers and researchers, defines as an understanding.
the specific object of understanding sociology Weber proclaims not interior Or the external attitude of a person as such, taken by itself, and its action. Action is always a clear (or understood) attitude towards one or another objects, the ratio, which is characterized by the fact that it assumes the presence of a certain subjective point.
Revealing the main features of understanding sociology, Weber stops Pa Three of them, characterizing the existence of the human behavior and the meaning attached to it. In this regard, he writes: "It is specifically important to understanding sociology, first of all, behavior, which, firstly, on a subjectively alleged acting sense, is correlated with the behavior of other people, and secondly, it is also determined by this meaningful behavior and, thirdly maybe based on this (subjective) of the alleged sense, it is clearly explained "
In understanding Sociology Weber, the problem of value and evaluation occupies an important place.
As can be seen, understanding in sociology M. Weber is closely related to the category of the perfect type, serving as a basic system for the entire system. scientific conceptswhich operates the scientist. The perfect type is a manifestation of a kind of "Epoching", thought design, a peculiar theoretical scheme, which, strictly speaking, is not extracted from empirical reality. Therefore, it is not by chance that Weber calls the perfect type of utopia. It indicates: "By its content, this design is of the nature of utopia obtained by means of a mental strengthening of certain elements of reality"
Ideal typical designs are of particular importance for empirical science, and this circumstance Weber emphasizes specifically. It indicates the need to abandon the claim of the perfect type on the performance of the functionality, just as evidenced by empirical sociology refuses. "The empirical science can not teach anyone what he should do, she only indicates that he can, and with certain circumstances on what he wants to commit"
"The" perfect type "in our understanding ... There is something, unlike the evaluating judgment, completely indifferent and having nothing to do with any other, not a purely logical" perfection ""
Type of domination
M. Weber made a great contribution to the development of sociology of the management and sociology of power and did it primarily due to the development of teachings on the content and types of domination. Under the domination, he understood mutual expectation: those who order are that their orders will be fulfilled, and they will obey; Those who obey that orders will have a character that meets their expectations. Hence, all reasoning scientists about the domination is reasoning about legitimate domination, G.E. Such, which is recognized by managed individuals.
Weber speaks about the three types of legitimate domination allocated in accordance with the three main motives of obedience. First motive- Interests of obee, i.e. their commitmental considerations. This is the basis called Weber "legal" type of domination, which can be found in developed bourgeois states - England, France, the USA and other pure type of legal domination is bureaucracy. Weber first B. scientific literature Developed this concept. He considered bureaucratic management as domination through knowledge, in which his (management) was specifically rational. The second type is legitimate The dominance is based on other motivation of obedience - faith not only in legality, but even in the sacredity of existing orders and authorities. It is based on everyday nraws, habits for certain behavior. This type of Weber calls traditional domination. The most pure type of such domination (the perfect type on the web-ru) is the patriarchal ("Mr." - "subjects" - "servants").
Third type of domination It has an affective basis for motivation, he received the name of the charismatic name from Weer. The concept of charisma in a German sociologist is very wide. He wrote: "" Charisma "should be called the quality of personality recognized as extraordinary, due to which it is estimated as gifted by supernatural, superhuman or, at least specifically special forces and properties inaccessible to other people.
Three types of domination approximately correspond to three of the four types of social action. The legal type of domination is correlated with the celender action, traditional - with a traditional action, charismatic - with affective action.
The problem of progress is one of the most difficult in philosophy, for many centuries it attracts the attention of human thought. Progress - This is a development that is accompanied by an increase in the organization of the object or system, the transition from less perfect to more perfect, from the lower to the highest. The opposite progress concept regression - Development, accompanied by a decrease in the organization of the object or system, the transition from more perfect to the less perfect, from the highest to the lower.
The philosophical interpretations of the idea of \u200b\u200bprogress are largely related to those values \u200b\u200bthat are based on philosophers, therefore, in the history of philosophy, direct opposite opinions are found regarding the content, nature and conditions of progress.
The idea of \u200b\u200bprogress appeared in antique philosophy. The Greeks spoke about the possibility of progress in the intellectual sphere and tied it with an increase in knowledge. Intellectual progress was supposed to be accompanied by the progress of moral, because in the ancient worldview, knowledge of the good guarantees him. At the same time, the concepts of progress in society appeared in antiquity. So, for example, the historian Hesiod represented the story as a downward movement. The Golden Age, where the pious and high morality reigned, but his opinion, alas, remained behind. Then came silver Agein which the fall of morality and piety began. Now the time of the Iron Age - the time of full collapse of morality. In the ancient philosophy there was no idea of \u200b\u200bthe linear development of society, for the Greek philosophers, the space of space is cyclically, therefore, the progressive or regressive development of history thought in the rivers of a closed space cycle, which was to be inevitably changed by a new one, and the story should have started again.
The idea of \u200b\u200bthe linear development of history is clearly pronounced in medieval philosophy. According to the Christian worldview, the story is a line, the beginning of which is the fall of the first people, and the end is the second coming of Christ, a terrible court and the offensive of the kingdom of God on Earth. The idea of \u200b\u200bprogress in the entire subsequent Western European philosophy is based on the Christian idea of \u200b\u200bthe linearity of the historical process.
Enlightenment argued faith in progress is akin to faith in God. Most philosophers of this time have been positively assessed progress and tied it with the development of the mind. In the worldview of enlighteners, as well as in a medieval look at the history, the development of society has its own crown, only now it is not the kingdom of God, but the kingdom of mind. The achievement of the kingdom of God is possible thanks to the righteous life, and the realm of the mind is created by people by enlightenment.
Philosophy of the late XIX century. Crites the ideas of enlighteners, including the idea of \u200b\u200bprogress. An increasing number of philosophers is inclined to thoughts about the illusion of progress and meaninglessness of this idea. Criticism of progress has grounds. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. In the progress of technology and science saw the only way for the better future. But progressive illusions quickly dissipated, disappointment in progress is associated primarily with disappointment in the possibilities of science and technology, with which the humanitarian problems of humanity failed to solve.
Disappointment in progress pushed philosophers to create nonlinear concepts of social development. So, B. late XIX. in. Friedrich Nietzsche I insisted on the falsity of the very idea of \u200b\u200bprogress, arguing that progress is an illusion, the delusion of the mind that history cannot develop linearly, since its goal is not at the end, but in the best, most advanced samples. According to Nietzsche, it is incorrect to believe that the subsequent stages of culture are more valuable than the previous ones, and there are no progress in the world of culture and spiritual values, this world is completed at every moment of time. To explain how the story happens, Nietzsche proposed an idea of \u200b\u200beternal return.
Oswald Spengler Also denies the concept of historical progress and offers a cyclic concept of history. The idea of \u200b\u200bhistorical pattern, he replaces the idea of \u200b\u200bfate, and the idea of \u200b\u200bprogress is the idea of \u200b\u200ba cycle. The story does not develop linearly, it represents a number of independent, unique and closed cultures. Each culture – the body having an individual fate and a soul, experiencing periods of occurrence, flourishing and dying. The soul of culture is expressed in the symbols, thanks to which this culture can be comprehended. For example, the ancient culture of Spengler calls the culture of Apollo, the main idea of \u200b\u200bthis culture is a form, equilibrium, harmony, and the main symbol is a statue. Western European culture Spengler calls the Faust culture, its main idea is infinity, the main architectural form is the Gothic Cathedral, and most importantly scientific achievement - mathematics. All these ideas, images and shapes express the soul of Western man and the essence of the Faustsky culture. According to Spengler, there were eight independent cultures in history. " Arab, Maya, Babylonian, Indian, Egypt, Antique, Chinese, Western European. All of them are equal, none of the crops can prefer the other.
Arnold Toynbee In his concept, the historical cycle allocates no longer eight, but 21 cultural and historical units. In modern times, in his opinion, Indian, Chinese, Islamic, Russian and Western civilization coexist. Each civilization is a holistic system, all elements of which are interconnected. Civilization passes the stages of occurrence, dorms, decomposition and death, and then replaces the other. The same fate waits and all modern civilization. According to Toynby, civilization is a challenge abandoned by divine mind to different peoples, a specific answer to these challenges and determines the content of the historical process.
Despite the criticism of the idea of \u200b\u200bprogress, theories committed to her remain in modern philosophy. For example, Karl Jaspers She adhered to the linear concept of history, which develops progressively. Jaspers emphasized the unity of mankind and the following of this community historic path. The main historical issue is the question of whether the Vera is possible for all nations. Such a unifying faith, according to the German philosopher, should be the philosophical faith. The philosophical faith is different from religious. If religion announces a revelation faith, then in the Faith philosophy exists in alliance with knowledge, representing a special act of will. The philosophical faith of the NA can be a dogma, because it is awareness of the Being and its origins, seeks to understand itself. It is the philosophical faith, according to Karl Jaspers, can unite humanity. Each historic era is unique, but in different cultures there is a formation of situations close to the spirit, which become prerequisites for similar historical processes. As Jaspers believes, about the 800s. BC. Simultaneously in India, China, Greece and Persia are formed spiritual movements, determined the appearance of modern humanity. At this time, philosophy arises, and with it the phenomenon of the philosophical faith. This historical moment Jaspers calls the "axial era." After it, the history of mankind finds unity, and local cultures are poured into a single historical process.
In concepts defending the progressive nature of history, one of the main is the topic of progress criteria. The same society, depending on the criterion chosen, can be considered progressive or as regressive. Jean Jacques Rousseau put forward the thesis that the progress of science and art brings irreparable harm to a person, destroys the harmony and integrity of his natural existence, thereby the French enlightener emphasized the controversial nature of progress. Society – a complex system, therefore, a comprehensive criterion is used to determine the progressiveness or regressiveness of social development. Each of the public subsystems requires its own criterion. Thus, in the economic sphere, the criterion of the development of the productive forces is applied, in the political degree of freedom of personality, in social - the level of harmonization of human and society relations, the degree of coherence of their interests, in the spiritual - the possibility of human self-realization, the degree of spirituality and humanist society. But none of these criteria is sufficient, and the progress in some public subsystems does not automatically lead to progress in others.
- See paragraph 6.5.
- See paragraphs 7.7 and 7.9.
- See paragraph 6.2.
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