Medieval city formation and development. The rise and growth of medieval cities

1) Choose the correct answer. Give an explanation.

Medieval cities arose as a result of:

1. raids of the Normans, Hungarians, Arabs. To protect themselves from enemies, the lords moved their dependent peasants to the cities under the reliable protection of the city walls;

2. separation of handicrafts from agriculture. The following factors led to this:

* development of agriculture, an increase in its production,

* the need for high-quality tools, weapons,

* population growth, reduction of arable land,

* trade development;

3. politicians royal power... Each vassal of the king was obliged to resettle some of his dependent peasants in the cities for crafts and trade. Taxes from townspeople went to the royal treasury.

Answer: 2. since many artisans fled from their villages from their masters, or moved from place to place in search of new job... They did not need to have land, they could feed themselves by selling or exchanging their products. So cities began to be created.

2) Read an excerpt from the document, write necessary information and answer the questions.

If any man or woman stays unhindered in the city of Bremen during

Answer: years and days

... and if anyone after that decides to challenge his freedom, then let him be left to prove his freedom by reference to the above-mentioned period.

* The document records the most important achievement that the cities have achieved. What is it about? What is the proverb in the Middle Ages in relation to this?

Answer: The most important achievement is the liberation of townspeople from seigneurial dependence. "The city air makes free."

* Find Bremen on the map. Think about when it was founded and why it is here. Imagine what were the main occupations of its inhabitants.

Answer: The city of Bremen was founded in 787 by Charlemagne. He was at the river crossing and at the crossroads of several roads. Since the city is built on the river, then it is a port, people were engaged in agriculture, handicrafts, trade there.

3) What associations of city dwellers do you know? Divide the blank column of the table into as many parts as required and write down the answers.

• Comparison questions
  Purpose of creation	A closed association, managed by a general meeting, was created to enhance its reputation, to protect itself from visitors.	An open voluntary association with an elected leadership was created for protection from robbers and mutual assistance
  Who was part of the association	Artisans
  What did they do	Regulation of activities, organization of public life, protection of interests, mutual assistance	Protection of activities, joint trading operations, protection of interests
  What role did they play	Strict regulation of production and protection of shop interests	Strengthening the economic and political role of guild members

4) Explain the origin of the expression "eternal apprentice". When and why did it appear?

Answer: The eternal apprentice is a hired worker who has already studied the craft, an assistant to the master who could not open his workshop. With the increase in rivalry between the workshops, they began to prevent the transition of apprentices to craftsmen, sometimes they could become masters only by inheritance. Therefore, many remained "eternal apprentices"

The medieval city was not like the cities to which it was accustomed modern man... It obeyed other laws and had a different layout.

Medieval European cities - education

Scientists identify two factors that contributed to their appearance. The first is the overproduction of agricultural products. The fact is that peasant farms produced so many products that they could easily feed both the feudal lords and the clergy, and other people who did not need to work on the land.

The second factor is high level the need for items that were produced by artisans, and the centers of the development of crafts were precisely the cities.

Thus, cities arose where it was convenient not only to produce handicraft products, but also to sell them. Often forming medieval towns Europe took place on the ruins of Roman settlements, because the Romans built them according to strict rules. One of the most striking examples of this is the French city of Arles.

Rice. 1. Arles.

Also, city walls began to be erected near the river, around an overgrown feudal estate, at the intersection of trade routes, or not far from a well-fortified monastery.

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Characteristics of a medieval town

In such a place there was always work for carpenters, weavers, bakers, jewelers, blacksmiths and other artisans. Competition contributed to the rapid development of urban handicrafts.

As for urban development, usually high stone walls were complemented by a moat with water - this gave residents additional protection. At night, all the city gates were closed and opened only at sunrise, then the guards began to collect duties from anyone who wanted to enter or call. The city had a main gate, as well as two or three others, usually located on the cardinal points. Nearby was the place of execution - the square where public executions were carried out.

Rice. 2. Public execution in the Middle Ages.

It is difficult to answer the exact question of what parts the medieval city consisted of. But, as a rule, it was divided into quarters depending on what the people who lived there were doing: there were quarters of artisans, merchants, students, poor people, merchants.

Self-government in cities

Life here was quite democratic: the council was chosen by the townspeople themselves, who, in turn, chose the mayor.

Medieval motto: "The city makes free!" lawfully embodied in practice: it was enough for a person to live in it for one year and one day to become free, even if earlier he was in personal dependence.

Thanks to the cities, such a class of people as the bourgeois appeared. The reason for the appearance of such people was the way of thinking of the city dweller, which was radically different from the peasant's worldview.

The two main problems of the medieval city

The first problem was sewage, because there was no sewage system for a very long time, everything was thrown out and poured out into the street, which became the cause of the spread of epidemics. In response to this, people appeared in the city who cleaned toilets and took their contents outside the city walls.

And the second problem is fires. Since the houses were wooden, they easily caught fire, and the density of buildings led to the fact that entire neighborhoods were burnt out because of one careless person.

Rice. 3. Fire in a medieval city.

While preparing a report on city fires, one cannot but tell that the political struggle for a seat in the city council was often accompanied by arson. To stop them, people caught in arson were burned alive.

What have we learned?

In the article, we examined the topic of medieval town planning of the 6th class of history - the basic principles of the organization of cities, the way of life and customs of its population, differences from the peasants. We got information about what rights the townspeople had and how they lived during the Middle Ages.

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The era of "dark ages" has begun in Europe. During this period, almost all cities fell into decay and became empty. Feudal lords preferred to live in their residences. The importance of money in the economy has greatly diminished. The monasteries simply exchanged gifts. If iron products were forged in one abbey, and beer was brewed in another, for example, they sent each other part of the production. The peasants were also engaged in the exchange trade.

But gradually crafts and trade began to revive, which resulted in the formation of medieval cities. Some of them were rebuilt on the site of ancient city-states, others arose next to monasteries, bridges, port villages, busy roads.

Ancient and medieval towns

In the Roman Empire, the development of policies was carried out in accordance with a pre-approved plan. In each big city there was an arena for sports and gladiatorial fights, water supply, sewerage. Streets were made flat and wide. The emergence and growth of medieval cities took place in a different scenario. They were built up chaotically, without any single plan.

Interestingly, during the period early middle ages many ancient buildings began to be used not for the purposes for which they were originally built. So, spacious ancient Roman baths were often turned into Christian churches. And inside the Colosseums, right in the arena, they built residential buildings.

Role of trade

The revival of cities in Europe began with Italy. Sea trade with Byzantium and the Arab countries led to the emergence of money capital from merchants from the Apennine Peninsula. Gold began to flock to Italian medieval cities. The development of commodity-money relations has changed the way of life in the northern Mediterranean. Regional specialization replaced when each feudal inheritance independently provided itself with everything necessary.

Crafts development

Trade had a key influence on the formation of medieval cities. Urban craft has become a full-fledged way of earning money. Previously, the peasants were forced to engage in agriculture and other trades. Now there is an opportunity to be professionally engaged in the manufacture of any specialized product, to sell their products and to buy food products with the proceeds.

Craftsmen in cities united in guilds called workshops. Such organizations were created for the purpose of mutual assistance and fight against competition. Only members of the guilds were allowed to engage in many types of crafts. When the enemy army attacked the city, self-defense units were formed from the guild members.

Religious factor

The Christian tradition of pilgrimage to religious shrines also influenced the formation of medieval cities. At first, most of the highly revered relics were in Rome. Thousands of pilgrims came to the city to worship them. Of course, only people who were not poor could go on a long journey in those days. Many hotels, taverns, shops with religious literature were opened for them in Rome.

The bishops of other cities, seeing what income pious travelers bring to Rome, also sought to acquire some kind of relic. Sacred objects were brought from distant lands or miraculously found on the spot. These could be the nails with which Christ was crucified, the relics of the apostles, the clothes of Jesus or the Mother of God, and other similar artifacts. The more pilgrims it was possible to attract, the higher was the income of the city.

Military factor

The history of the Middle Ages is largely composed of wars. A medieval city, among other functions, could be an important strategic site that protects the country's borders from enemy invasion. In this case, its outer walls were made especially strong and high. And in the city itself, a military garrison and a large supply of provisions were placed in barns in case of a long siege.

During the period late middle ages many armies consisted of mercenaries. This practice is especially widespread in wealthy Italy. The inhabitants of the local cities did not want to put themselves at risk on the battlefields and preferred to maintain a mercenary army. Many Swiss and Germans served in it.

Universities

Educational institutions also contributed to the formation of medieval cities. The story begins in the 11th century. And the championship here is also with the Italians. In 1088, the oldest university in Europe was founded in Bologna. He continues to teach students today.

Later, universities appeared in France, England, and then in other countries. They taught theological and secular disciplines. Universities existed on private money, and therefore had a sufficient degree of independence from the authorities. In some European countries, there are still laws that prohibit the police from entering the territory of higher educational institutions.

Townspeople

So, there were several estates, thanks to which the emergence and development of medieval cities in Europe took place.

1. Merchants: transported various goods by sea and by land.

2. Class of artisans: craftsmen who made industrial products were the foundation of the urban economy.

3. Clergy: churches and monasteries were engaged not only in the administration of religious rituals, but also scientific and economic activities and also participated in political life.

4. Soldiers: The troops not only participated in campaigns and defense operations, but also maintained order within the city. The rulers involved them in the capture of thieves and robbers.

5. Professors and Students: Universities have had a significant impact on the formation of medieval cities.

6. Class of aristocracy: palaces of kings, dukes and other noble persons were also located in cities.

7. Other educated philistines: doctors, scribes, bankers, surveyors, judges, etc.

8. The urban poor: servants, beggars, thieves.

Struggle for self-government

The lands on which the cities arose originally belonged to local feudal lords or church abbeys. They levied taxes on the bourgeoisie, the amount of which was set arbitrarily and was often too high. In response to oppression by landowners, the communal movement of medieval cities emerged. Craftsmen, merchants and other residents united to jointly oppose the feudal lords.

The main requirements of urban communes were feasible taxes and non-interference of the landowner in the economic and economic activities of residents. Usually negotiations ended with the drafting of the Charter, which spelled out the rights and obligations of all estates. The signing of such documents completed the formation of medieval cities, providing the legal foundation for their existence.

Democratic governance

After the right to self-government was won back from the feudal lords, it was time to determine on what principles the medieval city itself would be built. The guild organization of the craft and the guild of traders were the institutions from which the system of collegial decision-making and the election of power grew.

The positions of mayors and judges in medieval towns were elective. At the same time, the election procedure itself was often quite complex and multi-stage. For example, in Venice, the doge elections were held in 11 stages. The right to vote was not universal. Almost everywhere there was a property and class qualification, that is, only rich or well-born citizens could participate in the elections.

When the formation of medieval cities was finally completed, a system took shape in which all the levers of government were in the hands of a limited number of aristocratic families. The poor were unhappy with this state of affairs. sometimes it poured into revolts of the mob. As a result, the urban aristocracy had to make concessions and empower the poor.

Historical meaning

The active development of cities began in Europe in the X-XI centuries in central and northern Italy, as well as in Flanders (the territory of modern Belgium and Holland). Driving forces this process was trade and handicraft production. A little later, cities flourished in France, Spain and German lands. As a result, the continent was transformed.

It is difficult to overestimate the influence that the formation of medieval cities had on the development of Europe. Urban handicrafts contributed to technological progress. Trade led to the improvement of shipbuilding, and ultimately to the discovery and development of the New World. Traditions of city self-government have become the basis of the democratic structure of modern Charters and Liberties Charters, which determined the rights and freedoms of various estates, formed the system of European law. And the development of science and art in the cities prepared the arrival of the Renaissance.

Formation
medieval towns

Lesson plan

Changes in public life
The rise of cities in Europe
Fighting cities with lords
Craftsman workshop
Workshops - unions of artisans
The role of workshops in the life of the city

Since the 11th century, with the growth of the population, the space occupied by forests and swamps has decreased. The peasants now have more tools made at least partially of iron. A heavy wheel plow with large plowshares was used more widely, which plowed the soil deeper.

1. Changes in social life

It took a lot of metal to make items from iron. Mines appeared in Europe, smelting and metal processing improved. They began to make more fabrics from wool. At first, the peasants made the necessary things themselves.

1. Changes in social life

Later, “craftsmen” stood out in the village - connoisseurs of the craft, which became their main occupation.
So the development of the economy led to the gradual separation of handicrafts from agriculture.

2. The emergence of cities in Europe

Settlements of artisans arose at crossroads, at river crossings, near convenient sea harbors, at the walls of large monasteries and castles of feudal lords, near the residences of the king, bishop, and governor of the region. Behind the walls of the fortresses, one could find protection in case of war.

Here artisans could sell their products and buy raw materials, traders could sell and buy goods.
So a new stratum of society appeared - the townspeople and the new kind settlements - a city.

3. Fighting cities with lords

The city ended up in the land of a king or another feudal lord, a monastery. The entire urban population was under the rule of the lord. At first, the lords patronized "their" cities.

As the cities grew and became richer, the lords tried to get more income from them. They tried the townspeople, charged them with duties, court fines, dues with handicrafts, money and goods.

3. Fighting cities with lords

The townspeople sought to free themselves from the power of the lords. V XII-XIII centuries the struggle of cities with lords took place in all countries Western Europe.

The liberated cities in France and Northern Italy were called communes. Having won independence, the townspeople created self-government - an elected city council. The head of the city council in France and England was called the mayor, in Germany - the burgomaster.

4. Craftsman workshop

Urban artisans produced their products in small workshops, usually in their own home. Everything was done by hand, using the simplest devices. The specialty of the father was usually inherited by the son.

The master and chief worker in the workshop was the master; he took orders and sold his goods on the market. The shop was a shop where the master worked and traded. Students and apprentices helped him. To master the skill, one had to study from two to eight years.

Slide number 10

5. Workshops - unions of artisans

Craftsmen settled nearby, creating their own streets. Craftsmen of one specialty often united in unions - workshops. On general meeting the craftsmen adopted the charter - the rules that are binding on all members of the workshop.

Slide number 11

6. The role of workshops in the life of the city

The members of the workshop organized joint celebrations, participated in the wedding celebrations of the master, attended the baptism, buried the members of the master's family, and put out fires together. The workshop helped the sick, impoverished artisans, orphaned families of craftsmen.
The workshops carried out a guard service in the city and made up the detachments of the city army. The workshop had a coat of arms, a banner, and large workshops had their own church and cemetery.

Slide number 12

6. The role of workshops in the life of the city

For a long time, the workshops contributed to the development of the craft. New craft specialties arose in the cities. In the 13th century, there were 100 workshops in Paris, and in the 14th century there were already 350.

With the increase in the number of craftsmen in the cities, the rivalry between them intensified. Workshops began to hinder the transition of apprentices to a master. Only the sons of the masters received the title of master without hindrance; it has become almost hereditary.

Slide number 13

7. "What has fallen from the cart is gone"

Trade in the Middle Ages was profitable, but very difficult and dangerous. The space between the settlements was covered with huge, impenetrable forests, teeming with predators and robbers. The roads were narrow and unpaved, covered with impassable mud.

For travel through the possessions of feudal lords, for the use of bridges and crossings, it was necessary to pay duties many times. To protect themselves from robbers and help each other, merchants united in trade unions - guilds.

Slide number 14

8. Expansion of trade ties

The city became a center of trade exchange with the surrounding area, with other cities, individual lands, with other countries.
Subsistence farming continued in Europe. But gradually a commodity economy developed, in which products were produced for sale on the market and exchanged, including through money.

In the first centuries of the Middle Ages, there were few cities in Europe, but from the 10th - 11th centuries their number began to grow. The emergence and growth of medieval cities is associated with major changes in life and culture. European nations during the heyday of the Middle Ages.

1. Success in the economy. The craft is separated from agriculture. Since the 11th century, with the growth of the population, the space occupied by forests and swamps has decreased. The peasants now have more tools made at least partially of iron. A heavy wheel plow with large plowshares was used more widely, which plowed the soil deeper.

Agricultural products became more varied; harvests have more than doubled. In England, for example, they harvested 4-5 times more grain than they sowed. Many mills appeared, first water mills and later windmills. They ensured faster grinding of grain and higher quality flour. The number of livestock on the farms has increased. Since the 12th century, after the invention of the comfortable yoke, horses have been used not only in military affairs, but also for the transportation of goods. Horseshoes came into use, which saved the hooves from damage. They began to harness the horses to the plows - this accelerated the plowing of the land. The horse was the peasant's true helper.

It took a lot of metal to make items from iron. Mines appeared in Europe. The extraction of iron ore has increased, the smelting and processing of metals has improved. More fabrics were now made from wool. There is even a saying among the people: "The sheep won the flax."

At first, the peasants themselves made the things necessary for them and the masters. But for the manufacture of a wheel plow or for making cloth, complex devices, special knowledge and skills were required. In the village, "craftsmen" stood out - connoisseurs of the craft, which became their main occupation.

Now the peasant could exchange some of his products for the products of artisans. An artisan could feed on his craft. So the development of the economy led to the gradual separation of handicrafts from agriculture.

2. Cities appear in Europe. Many artisans fled the villages, fleeing from their masters, or moved from place to place in search of work. Settlements of artisans arose at crossroads, at river crossings, near convenient sea harbors, at the walls of large monasteries and castles of feudal lords, near the residences of the king, bishop, and governor of the region. The gentlemen gave orders for the manufacture of expensive things: furniture, clothing, weapons, jewelry. Behind the walls of the fortresses, one could find protection in case of war. Merchants often came and settled here. Peasants came from the nearest villages to sell agricultural products and buy the necessary things or collect money in payment to the lord. In these places, artisans could sell their products and buy raw materials, merchants - to sell what they brought and buy new goods. This is how a new stratum of society appeared - the townspeople and a new type of settlement - the city.

To protect themselves from attacks, the townspeople fenced their village with a moat, rampart and palisade above. These fortifications were later replaced with stone walls. The only way to enter the city was via a drawbridge through a massive gate, which was always vigilantly guarded by guards. Only a large army, which had siege weapons, was able to storm the city fortifications.

First of all, already in the 9th century, the ancients revived and new cities arose in Italy and in the south of France. Many cities arose along the banks of the large navigable rivers Rhine and Danube. In the X-XI centuries, cities appeared in other countries of Western and Central Europe.

In the XII-XIII centuries, there were already many thousands of cities in Europe.

3. Fighting cities with lords. Wherever a city appeared, it ended up in the land of a king or another feudal lord, a monastery. The seigneur's castle, where his court with vassals and servants was located, towered over the city. The entire urban population was also under the rule of this lord as a lord. It happened that the king granted a vassal for service or a monastery a part of the city located on his land.

At first, the lords patronized "their" cities: in the first years they exempted settlers from payments and gave market privileges. Kings especially patronized the cities, seeing them as sources of cash.

As the cities grew and became richer, the lords tried to get more income from them. They tried the townspeople, charged them with duties, court fines, dues with handicrafts, money and goods. Often, the senor simply took everything he liked from the shops of merchants and workshops.

The townspeople sought to free themselves from the power of the lords. In the XII-XIII centuries, the struggle of cities with lords took place in all countries of Western Europe. Some cities sought independence as a result of uprisings and long wars, others bought off the lord, limited their rights. But many small cities remained under the rule of the feudal lords.

The cities that had freed themselves from the power of the lords in France and in Northern Italy were called communes (from the Latin word "communis" - common). Having won independence, the townspeople created self-government - an elected city council. The head of the city council in France and England was called the mayor, in Germany - the burgomaster. The council was in charge of the court, the collection of taxes and the treasury, the militia of the townspeople; supervised the market, crafts, construction and supervised order.

An important result of the struggle of cities with seigneurs was the liberation of the townspeople from seigneurial dependence. If a peasant who ran away from his master managed to live in the city “for a year and a day,” he became a free man. No wonder in the Middle Ages there was a saying: "The city air makes free." Personal freedom attracted people from the countryside to cities. Many peasants received new professions and free positions in the cities.

4. Workshop of an artisan. Urban artisans produced their products in small workshops, usually in their own home. Everything was done by hand, using the simplest devices, and very carefully: otherwise the master would lose clients. The specialty of the father and the secrets of craftsmanship were usually inherited by the son.

Handicraft techniques, tools and working methods developed faster than agricultural ones. Improvements were made all the time. Urban artisans often created real works of art: soft multi-colored wool and silk, intricately decorated armor and swords, fine jewelers, stone and wood carvers, locksmiths. Medieval artisans were proud of their products: they were a matter of honor for them.

The master and chief worker in the workshop was the master; he also accepted orders from buyers, and later sold his goods on the market. The shop was a shop where the master worked and traded. Students and apprentices helped him. To master the skill, one had to study from two to eight years. Giving his son to study, the father left him for many years in the master's house, where the student also performed auxiliary work.

An apprentice, a worker who had already learned the craft, received a salary for his labor. Having accumulated the necessary amount of money, or by marrying the owner's daughter or widow, an apprentice could open his own workshop and become a master. But he had to pass a difficult test: to make a masterpiece1 - the best sample of a product with his own funds.

5. Workshops - artisans' unions. The artisans had many common interests: to improve their reputation in the market, to protect themselves from the rivalry of rural and other visiting artisans, to fight for privileges and for participation in the management of the city. They often settled nearby, creating their own streets. Craftsmen of the same specialty who lived in the same city often united in unions - workshops1 (although not in all cities). At the general meeting, the craftsmen adopted the charter - the rules that are mandatory for all members of the workshop: to do things according to the same model, to have no more than the permitted number of machines, apprentices and apprentices, not to entice buyers, apprentices and apprentices from each other. The charter prohibited work on holidays and by candlelight. The workshop prescribed the sale price of products and wages for apprentices, often bought raw materials and distributed them among the craftsmen at the same price.

With the help of these rules, the guilds tried to prevent competition between the masters, in which some of them would get richer, while others became poorer and ruined. And of course, the workshop took care of the high quality of the products. The foremen elected by the foremen monitored the observance of the charter and punished violators. If a London baker was selling a bul-

underweight, he was taken around the city in a cage to everyone's ridicule. In Paris and many other cities, products of poor quality were displayed at a pillar in the marketplace. The most common punishment was fines. The foremen vigilantly watched that non-workshop artisans did not sell their products on the market.

6. The role of workshops in the life of the city. The members of the workshop organized joint holidays (the word “workshop” at first meant “feast”), participated in the wedding celebrations of the master, were present at the baptism of his children, saw off the members of the master's family on their last journey, together they put out fires. The workshop helped the sick, needy craftsmen, orphaned families of craftsmen.

The workshops carried out a guard service in the city and made up the detachments of the city army. The workshop had a coat of arms, a banner, and large workshops had their own church and even a cemetery.

For a long time, the workshops contributed to the development of the craft. New craft specialties arose in the cities, and the division of labor between workshops grew. In the 13th century there were 100 workshops in Paris, and in the 14th century there were already 350. Thus, gunsmiths separated from blacksmiths, and armor makers and cutters from the latter. The shops of shoemakers, belts, handbags and others "spun off" from tanners.

With the increase in the number of craftsmen in the cities, the rivalry between them intensified. Workshops began to hinder the transition of apprentices to a master. Only the sons and sons-in-law of the craftsmen freely received the title of the master; it has become almost hereditary.

The workshops did not allow the craftsmen to expand their workshops and introduce new tools. There were cases when workshops destroyed valuable

inventions and cracked down on inventors. By the end of the Middle Ages, guilds began to delay the growth of industrial production in cities. But this was not always and not everywhere. Bypassing prohibitions, under the cover of shop regulations, in practice, new forms of production made their way. So, already in the XIV century, woolen and cloth workshops in the cities of Italy, England, the Netherlands actually turned into organizations of wealthy entrepreneurs and merchants.

7. "What has fallen from the cart is lost." Trade in the Middle Ages was profitable, but very difficult and dangerous. The space between the settlements was covered with huge, impenetrable forests, teeming with predators and robbers. The roads were narrow and unpaved, covered with impassable mud. A good road was considered, along which, as they said at the time, “the bride could have passed without hitting the wagon with the deceased.” Goods that fell to the ground or washed off the ship were considered the prey of the owner of that land. In the Middle Ages, they said: "What fell from the cart is gone."

For travel through the possessions of feudal lords, for the use of bridges and crossings, it was necessary to pay duties many times. To increase their income, the feudal lords sometimes erected bridges on dry places, demanded payment for the dust raised by the carts of merchants.

To protect themselves from robbers and help each other, "merchants united in trade unions - guilds (from the German word" gille "- feast). At the meetings, members of the guild selected leaders, hired guards, helped each other from the general treasury (for example, victims at sea, their families). Guild members arranged partnerships with each other, where they became companions for one or more trade operations.

8. Expansion of trade ties. The city became a center of trade exchange not only with the surrounding area, but also with other cities, individual lands, with other countries.

Subsistence farming continued in Europe. But gradually a commodity economy developed, in which products were produced for sale on the market and exchanged, including through money.

The revival of trade required the improvement of roads. The same was demanded by the military and administrative needs of the state. In some countries, kings ordered the main roads to be paved with stones. Strong bridges were built across the rivers. Heavy loads they were no longer carried on the backs of horses, but in carts. It was cheaper and more convenient to transport goods along rivers and seas. Replacing rectangular sails with oblique sails allowed ships to move in a crosswind and even a headwind, and special tools made it possible to sail on the open sea.

Profitable trade routes to the East (to the ports of Syria and Egypt, Crimea and the Caucasus) were seized by the merchants of the Italian cities - Venice and Genoa. These cities competed and fought for centuries with Byzantium and with each other. Venice and Genoa were independent city-republics in which power belonged to wealthy merchants who owned fleets of ships, dozens of houses, warehouses and shops. In the East, merchants acquired lucrative luxuries and spices for wealthy Europeans. The spices were weighed on a pharmaceutical balance and sold in small portions. It is not for nothing that in the Middle Ages a very rich person was mockingly called "a bag of pepper".

Important trade routes passed through the North and Baltic Seas - to Eastern Europe... Other goods prevailed here: salt, furs, wool, wax, timber, iron. This trade was occupied by merchants of cities and countries of Northern Europe - from Novgorod in Russia to London. The center of northern trade was the city of Bruges with its huge international fair.

In the XIV century, merchants from more than 70 German cities united in the Hansa ("union", "partnership") to protect their property and drive out rivals. Hansa consisted of several branches.

In Novgorod, Bruges, London and other cities, Hanseatic merchants had well-fortified trading yards - trading posts. In such a courtyard, residential and office premises, barns, warehouses, and a church were erected. Possessing a large fleet, the Hansa often by force of arms achieved favorable terms of trade in neighboring countries, suppressed pirates, and until the end of the 15th century, the Northern Hansa actually dominated the Baltic trading region both economically and politically.

9. Fairs and banks. The busiest places of trade in Europe were fairs, which were attended by hundreds of large merchants from different countries.

Until the end of the 13th century, the most famous fairs were in the County of Champagne in northeastern France. They continued almost all year round. Then they were replaced by the fair in Bruges. At international fairs, goods were traded both from all over Europe and from the East.

The fairs were noisy and crowded. Between the rows of merchant shops, there were tables for money changers - specialists in monetary affairs: after all, in every country coins of various weights and minting were in use. Money changers also lent money at high interest rates. So the money changers became usurers (their money seemed to "grow").

The first bank owners emerged from the money changers and usurers in the 14th-15th centuries1. Bankers took money for safekeeping, transferred money to merchants from one country to another. Great wealth was accumulated in the hands of merchants and bankers. Often they lent large sums of money to kings and feudal lords. The very first banks originated in Northern Italy, in Lombardy (where the word "pawnshop" came from).

Now, along with the main property of the Middle Ages - "immovable" (land and buildings on it), the "movable property" created in cities (money, goods, ships, etc.) is beginning to acquire increasing importance. Gradually, but steadily, money corroded the subsistence economy, and with it changed the feudal way of life, the motives of people's behavior.