solar system

The central object of the solar system is the Sun - Star the main sequence Spectral class G2V, yellow dwarf. The overwhelming part of the entire mass of the system is concentrated in the Sun (about 99.866%), it holds its planet and other bodies belonging to the solar system. The four largest objects are gas giants - amount to 99% of the remaining mass (while most of the Jupiter and Saturn are about 90%).

Comparative sizes of the bodies of the solar system

The largest, after the sun, objects in the solar system are planets

The composition of the solar system includes 8 planets: Mercury, Venus, Land, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune (Listed in the order of removal from the Sun). The orbits of all these planets lie in the same plane called plane of ecliptic.

Mutual location of the planets of the solar system

In the period 1930 - 2006 it was believed that in the solar system there are 9 planets: the planet was added to 8 listed Pluto. But in 2006, the definition of the planet was made at the Congress of the International Astronomical Union. According to this definition, the planet is a heavenly body, which simultaneously corresponds to the three conditions:

· rates around the Sun along an elliptical orbit (i.e. the planets are not satellites planets)

· it has enough gravity in order to provide a form close to spherical (that is, the planets are not most asteroids, which, although they rotate around the Sun, but do not have a spherical form)

· are gravitational dominates In his orbit (i.e., in addition to this planet, there are no comparable celestial bodies in the same orbit).

Pluto, as well as happy asteroids (ceres, Vesta, etc.) correspond to the first two conditions, but do not correspond to the third condition. Such objects refer to dwarf Planets. As of 2014, dwarf planets in the solar system 5: Ceres, Pluto, Haumet, Makemak and Erid; Perhaps in the future, Vesta, Sedna, Orc and Quat will also be counted for them. All other celestial bodies of the Solar System, which are not stars, planets and dwarf planets, are called small bodies of the solar system (satellites planets, asteroids, planets, objects of the bed belt and the deer clouds).

Distances inside the solar system are usually measured in astronomical units (but ..). The astronomical unit is called the distance from the ground to the Sun (or, in the exact language, the larger part of the earth's orbit), equal to 149.6 million km (approximately 150 million km).

Briefly tell about the most significant objects of the solar system (more than each of them will be studied next year).

Mercury -the nearest planet to the sun (0.4 a. e. from the sun) and the planet with the smallest mass (0.055 mass of the Earth). One of the worstly studied planets, which is explained by the fact that, because of the proximity to the Sun, Mercury is very difficult to observe from the ground. The relief of Mercury is similar to the lunar - with a large number of shock crater. The characteristic details of the relief of its surface, besides shock crater, are numerous visional ledges, stretching for hundreds of kilometers. Objects on the surface of Mercury, as a rule, are called in honor of cultural and art figures.

With great likelihood, Mercury always turn to the sun with one side as the moon to the ground. There is a hypothesis that once Mercury was a satellite of Venus as the moon in the earth, but later he was torn off the power of attraction of the Sun, but there is no confirmation.

Venus - The second distance from the sun planet solar system. In size and strength of attraction slightly less than the Earth. Venus is always covered tight atmosphere, through which its surface is not visible. The satellite does not have. A characteristic feature of this planet is a monstrously high atmospheric pressure (100 terrestrial atmospheres) and the surface temperature reaching up to 400-500 degrees Celsius. Venus is considered the hottest, not counting the sun, the body of the solar system. Apparently, such a high temperature is explained not so much close to the Sun, how much greenhouse effect - The atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon dioxide does not produce infrared (thermal) radiation of the planet.

On the earthly sky Venus is the most bright (after the sun and the moon) by the celestial body. In the heavenly sphere, it can be removed from the sun by no more than 48 degrees, so in the evenings it is always observed in the West, and in the morning - in the east, so Venus is often called the "morning star".

Land - Our planet, the only one, having an oxygen atmosphere, hydrosphere and is the only one on which life has been detected. Earth has one large satellite - Moonlocated at a distance of 380 thousand km. ON Earth (27 terrestrial diameters), rotating around the earth with a period of one month. The moon has a mass of 81 times less than that of the Earth (which is the smallest difference among all satellites of the planets of the solar system, so the "Earth / Moon" system is sometimes called a double planet). The strength of gravity on the surface of the moon is 6 times less than on Earth. The atmosphere of the moon has no.

Mars - the fourth planet of the solar system, located at a distance from the sun 1.52 A .. and significantly smaller land in size. The planet is covered with a layer of iron oxides, which is why its surface has a clear orange-red color, noticeable even from the ground. It is because of this color that resembles the color of blood, the planet and received its name in honor of the ancient Roman god of the war of Mars.

Interestingly, the duration of the day on Mars (the period of its rotation around its axis) is almost equal to the earth and is 23.5 hours. Like the earth, the axis of rotation of Mars is tilted to the plane of the ecliptic, so there is also a change of seasons. On the poles of Mars there are "polar hats", consisting, however, not from water ice, but from carbon dioxide. Mars has a weak atmosphere consisting mainly from carbon dioxide, the pressure of which is approximately 1% of the earth, which, however, is sufficient for periodically repeated strong dust storms. The surface temperature of Mars may vary from plus 20 degrees Celsius Summer Day at the equator with a lot of evidence that there was water once on Mars (there are channels of dried rivers and lakes) and, possibly, the oxygen atmosphere and life (testimonies that have not yet been received) .

Mars has two satellites - Phobos and Demos (these names in Greek mean "fear" and "horror").

These four planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars - wearing a generalized name " planets of the earth group" From the following follows behind them, they are distinguished by their giants, firstly, relatively small dimensions (the land is the largest of them), and secondly, the presence of a solid surface and a solid iron absorbate kernel.

Comparative dimensions of the planets of the earth group and dwarf planets

There is a common belief that Venus, Earth and Mars are three different stages Development of planets of this type. Venus is a model of the Earth, what it was at the early stage of its development, and Mars is the model of the Earth, what it can ever become someday via billions of years. Venus and Mars also represent two diametrically opposite cases of climate formation in relation to Earth: atmospheric flows are made on Venus the main contribution to climate formation, while for Mars with its rarefied atmosphere plays weak solar radiation. A comparison of these three planets will allow, among other things, it is better to know the laws of climate formation and predict the weather on Earth.

After Mars goes asteroid belt. It is interesting to remind the story of its discovery. In 1766, the German astronomer and mathematician Johann Tizius said that he revealed a simple pattern in the rise of the radii of near-bearer orbits. It began with a sequence of 0, 3, 6, 12, ..., in which each next term is formed by doubling the previous one (starting with 3; that is, 3 ∙ 2N, where n \u003d 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ), then added to each member of the sequence 4 and divided the amounts received by 10. As a result, it turned out very accurate predictions (see table), which was confirmed after the uranium was opened in 1781:

Planet		2 N - 1	Radius of orbits ..), calculated by the formula	Real radius orbit
Mercury				0,39
Venus				0,72
Land				1,00
Mars				1,52
Jupiter				5,20
Saturn			10,0	9,54
Uranus			19,6	19,22

As a result, it turned out that between Mars and Jupiter should be a previously unknown planet, rotating around the Sun in orbit with a radius of 2.8 A .. In 1800, a group of 24 astronomers, which conducted round-the-clock daily observations on several of the most powerful telescopes in that era. But the first small planet, contacting the orbit between Mars and Jupiter, was not discovered, and the Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi (1746-1826), and it did not ever happen, and on New Year's Eve on January 1, 1801, and the discovery marked the offensive X 9 century. New Year's gift was removed from the sun for a distance of 2.77 a. e. However, during just a few years after the discovery of Piazzi, a few more small planets were discovered who called asteroidsAnd today there are many thousands of them.

As for the rule of Tizius (or, as it is also called, " titius Bode Rule"), It was subsequently confirmed for Saturn, Jupiter and Uranus satellites, but ... not confirmed for later open planets - Neptune, Pluto, Erides, etc. It is not confirmed and for exoplanet (Planets rotating around other stars). What is his physical meaning - it remains unclear. One of the probable explanations of the rules is as follows. Already at the stage of the formation of the solar system as a result of gravitational perturbations caused by protoplane and their resonance with the Sun (tidal forces arise, and the rotation energy is spent on tidal acceleration or, rather, a slowdown), a regular structure of alternating regions was formed in which Stable orbits could not exist according to the rules of orbital resonances (that is, the ratio of the radii of the adjacent planets of equal 1/ 2, 3/2, 5/2, 3/7, etc.). However, part of astrophysics believes that this rule is just a chance coincidence.

Over the belt asteroids follow 4 planets, which are called planets giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Jupiter It has a mass of 318 times more earthly, and 2.5 times more than all other planets, combined. It consists mainly of hydrogen and helium. The high internal temperature of Jupiter causes many semi-permanent vortex structures in its atmosphere, such as cloud strips and a large red stain.

As of the end of 2014, Jupiter numbers 67 satellites. Four largest - Ganymed, Callisto, Io and Europe - were open to Galileo Galileem in 1610 and therefore called galilean satellites. Nearest of them to Jupiter - And about - It has the most powerful volcanic activity of all bodies of the solar system. The farthest - Europe - on the contrary, covered with a multi-kilometer layer of ice, under which there may be an ocean with liquid water. Gamed and Callisto occupy the intermediate state between them. Gamornad, the largest satellite in the solar system, exceeds the size of Mercury. With the help of terrestrial telescopes over the next 350 years, another 10 satellites of Jupiter were opened, so since the middle of the twentieth century, it was believed that Jupiter had only 14 satellites. The remaining 53 satellites were opened with the help of automatic interplanetary stations that visited Jupiter.

Saturn - Planet, following Jupiter and famous thanks to his rings system (which are a huge number of small satellites of the planet - a belt similar to the asteroid belt around the Sun). Such rings are also available in Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune, but only Saturn rings are visible even in a weak telescope or binoculars.

Although the volume of Saturn is 60% of Jupitorian, the mass (95 masses of the Earth) is less than a third of Jupitorian; Thus, Saturn is the least dense planet of the solar system (its average density Less water density).

As of the end of 2014, Saturn knows 62 satellites. The largest of them is titanium, more than Mercury size. This is the only satellite of the planet, which has an atmosphere (as well as water and rains, however, not from water, but from hydrocarbons); And the only satellite of the planet (not counting the moon), to which a soft landing was carried out.

When studying the planets from other stars it turned out that Jupiter and Saturn belong to the class of planets, which are called " jupiter" They are combined by the fact that these gas balls with a mass and volume significantly exceeding the earthly, but with a small average density. They do not have a solid surface and consist of gas, the density of which increases as the planet approaches the center, possibly in their depths, hydrogen is compressed by a metal state.

Comparative dimensions of planets-giants with planets of the earth group and dwarf planets

The following two giant planets - Uranus and Neptune - refer to the class of planets that are called " neptune " In size, mass and density, they occupy an intermediate position between "Jupiter" and the planets of the earth group. It remains an open question, whether they have a solid surface (most likely, from water ice) or they are the same gas balls as Jupiter and Saturn.

Uranus With a mass of 14 times more than the earth, is the easiest of the external planets. The unique among other planets does it makes that he rotates "Lyzhka on the side": the inclination of the axis of its rotation to the ecliptic plane is approximately 98 °. If other planets can be compared with rotating tops, then the uranium looks like a rolling ball. It has a much colder core than other gas giants, and radiates very little heat into space. As of 2014, uranium has 27 satellites; The largest - Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda (are named after the characters of the works of Shakespeare).

Comparative dimensions of the Earth and the largest satellites of the planets

NeptuneAlthough a little less uranium in size, more massive (17 masses of the Earth) and therefore more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn. Neptune has 14 famous satellites. Two largest - Triton and NereidOpen with terrestrial telescopes. Triton is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen. The rest of the satellites were opened by the Voyager-2 spacecraft, flying past Neptune in 1989.

Pluto - Dwarf planet, opened in 1930 and until 2006, who was considered a full-fledged planet. The Pluto orbit differs sharply from other planets, firstly, by the fact that it does not lie in the plane of the ecliptic, but tilted to it by 17 degrees, and, secondly, if the orbits of the rest of the planets are close to circular, then Pluto can approach the Sun at a distance of 29.6 a. e., turning to it closer to Neptune, then removed by 49.3 a. e.

At Pluto, there is a weak atmosphere, which in winter falls on its surface in the form of snow, and in the summer, it envelops the planet again.

In 1978, Pluton opened a satellite, called Charon. Since the Mass Center of the Pluto - Haron system is outside their surfaces, they can be considered as a double planetary system. Four smaller satellites - Nikta, Hydra, Kerber and Stims - turn around Pluto and Charon.

Pluto repeated the situation, which in 1801 occurred with the cerebral, which was first considered a separate planet, but then it turned out to be only one of the objects of the asteroid belt. In the same way, Pluto turned out to be only one of the objects of the "second belt of asteroids", called " belt Coeper" Only in the case of Pluto period, the uncertainty stretched out for several decades, during which the question remained open, is there a tenth planet of the solar system. And only at the turnXX and XXI centuries It turned out that the "tenth planets" there are many, and Pluto is one of them.

Caricature "Exile pluton from the number of planets"

Belt Kuiper extends between 30 and 55 a. e. from the sun. Mainly small bodies of the solar system, but many of its largest objects, such as Kvarvar, Varun and Orc, can be reclassified In dwarf planets after clarifying their parameters. According to estimates, more than 100,000 binding objects of the koyper have a diameter of more than 50 km, but the total weight of the belt is equal to only one tenth or even one cell mass of the earth. Many belt objects have multiple satellites, and most orbit objects are located outside the ecliptic plane.

In addition to Pluto, from the objects of the bed belt, the status of a dwarf planet has Hawmer (less than pluto, has a strongly elongated form and a period of rotation around its axis about 4 hours; two satellites and at least eight transneptunovy objects are part of the Hawmer family; orbit has a great inclination to the plane of the ecliptic - 28 °); Mchamak (It is the second on the visible brightness in the belt of the bed after pluton; has a diameter of from 50 to 75% of the pluto diameter, orbit is tilted 29 °) and Erida (The radius of the orbit is an average of 68 a. e., the diameter is about 2,400 km, that is, 5% more than at Pluto, and it is its discovery that the dispute gave rise to that the planet should be called). Erides has one satellite - disdominal. Like the Pluto, its orbit is extremely elongated, with a perihelium 38.2 a. e. (approximate distance of the Pluto from the Sun) and Appliances 97.6 a. e.; and orbit strongly (44,177 °) is tilted to the plane of the ecliptic.

Comparative sizes of Kuiper belt

Specific transneptunov The object is Sedna , having a very strong elongated orbit - from about 76 a. e. perihelia to 975 a. e. In Aflia and the period of appeal over 12 thousand years.

Another class of small bodies of the solar system is cometconsisting mainly of volatile substances (ice). Their orbits have a large eccentricity, as a rule, with the periecelium within the orbits of the internal planets and Apliax far beyond the Pluto. When the comet enters the inner region of the solar system and approaches the Sun, its ice surface begins to evaporate and ionized, creating a long cloud from gas and dust, often visible from the ground with a naked eye. The most famous comet of Gallei, which returns to the sun every 75-76 years ( last time Was in 1986). Most comets the rotational period can be several thousand years.

The source of comet is oorta cloud. This is a spherical cloud of ice objects (up to trillion). The estimated distance to the outer borders of the Sun cloud from the sun is from 50,000 a. e. (approximately 1 light year) to 100,000 a. e. (1.87 s. years).

The question of where the solar system is ends and the interior space begins, is ambiguous. The key in their definition takes two factors: solar wind and solar gravity. The outer border of the solar wind - heliophausa For her, the solar wind and the interior substance are mixed, dissolving mutually. Heliophause is about four times further than pluto and is considered the beginning of the interstellar medium.

Questions and tasks:

1. List the planet solar system. Name the main features of each of them

2. What is the central object of the solar system?

3. What are the distances inside the solar system? What is 1 astronomical unit?

4. What is the difference between the planets of the earth group, giant planets, dwarf planets and small bodies of the solar system?

5. What differs from each other classes of planets called "land", "Jupiters" and "Neptune"?

6. Name the main objects of the belt of asteroids and the belt of the bed. Which of them belong to dwarf planets?

7. Why did Pluto ceased to be considered a planet in 2006?

8. Some satellites of Jupiter and Saturn in size are more than Planet Mercury. Why then these satellites are not considered planets?

9. Where does the solar system ends?

(Lat. Sol) is the only star in. And seven others rotate around the sun. In addition to them, comets, asteroids and other small objects rotate around the Sun.

Sun like a star

The sun is the central and massive body of the solar system. His weight is approximately 333,000 times more masses Earth and 750 times the mass of all other planets, combined. The sun is a powerful source of energy that it constantly emits in all parts of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves - from X-ray and ultraviolet rays to radio waves. This radiation affects all the bodies of the solar system: heats them, it affects the atmospheres of the planets, gives the light and heat required for life on Earth.

Together, the Sun is the closest star to us, who, unlike all other stars, you can observe the disk, and with the help of a telescope to study small details on it, up to several hundred kilometers. This is a typical star, so her study helps to understand the nature of the stars in general. According to the star classification, the Sun has a spectral class G2V. In popular literature, the Sun is often classified as a yellow dwarf.

The visible angular diameter of the Sun varies somewhat through the ellipticity of the Earth orbit. On average, it is about 32 "or 1/107 radian, i.e. the diameter of the Sun is 1/107 AE, or approximately 1400,000 km.

Structure of the Sun.

Like all stars, the sun is a hot gas ball. The chemical composition (by the number of atoms) is determined from the analysis of the solar spectrum:

• hydrogen is about 90%,
• helium - 10%,
• the remaining elements are less than 0.1%.

The substance in the sun is very ionized, i.e. Atoms lost their external electrons and with them became free particles of ionized gas - plasma.

The average density of the solar substance ρ ≈ 1400 kg / m ³. This value is close to the density of water and a thousand times more air density at the surface of the Earth. However, in the external layers of the Sun, the density is millions of times less, and in the center - 100 times more average.
Calculations that take into account the growth of density and temperature to the center show that in the center of the Sun the density is about 1.5 × 10 5 kg / m ³, the pressure is about 2 × 10 18 pa, and the temperature is about 15 million K.

With this temperature of the kernel of hydrogen atoms (protons and deuteron), there are very high speeds (hundreds of kilometers per second) and they can approach each other, despite the action of the electrostatic repulsion force. Some collisions ends with nuclear reactions, as a result of which helium is formed from hydrogen and a significant amount of energy is released, which turns into heat. These reactions are the source of energy of the Sun at the present stage of its evolution. As a result, the amount of helium in the central part of the luminaire gradually increases, and hydrogen - decreases.

The flow of energy that occurs in the depths of the sun is transmitted to the outer layers and is distributed to the increasing area. As a result, the temperature of the solar plasma is reduced by removal from the center. Depending on the temperature and nature of the processes, which are determined, the sun can be divided into 4 parts:

• internal, central part (kernel), where pressure and temperature provide the course of nuclear reactions, it extends from the center to
• distance approximately 1/3 radius
• radiant zone (distance from 1/3 to 2/3 of the radius), in which the energy is transmitted to the outside of the sequential absorption and radiation of electromagnetic energy quanta;
• convective zone - from the top of the "radiant" zone almost to the visible surface of the sun. Here, the temperature is quickly reduced with the approach to the visible surface of the shone, as a result of which the concentration of neutral atoms increases, the substance becomes more transparent, the radiant of the transfer becomes less efficient and the heat is transmitted mainly due to the mixing of the substance (convection), like the boiling of fluid in the vessel, which is heated from below;
• the solar atmosphere, which begins immediately behind the convective zone and goes far beyond the visible disk of the sun. The lower layer of the atmosphere is a photosphere, a thin layer of gases, which we perceive as the surface of the Sun. The upper layers of the atmosphere are not directly visible due to significant affairs, they can be observed or with full solar Eclipseor with special devices.

Solar atmosphere and solar activity

Solar flash

The solar atmosphere can be divided into several layers.
The deep layer of the atmosphere, a thickness of 200-300 km, is called a photosphere (light sphere). Almost all the energy is emitted from it, which is observed in the visible part of the spectrum.

In photographs of the photosphere, its fine structure in the form of bright "grains" - the granules of about 1000 km, separated by narrow dark intervals. This structure is called granulation. It is the result of the movement of gases, which occurs in the convective zone located under the atmosphere.

In the photosphere, as in the deepest layers of the Sun, the temperature decreases with the removal from the center, changing from about 8,000 to 4000 K: the outer layers of the photosphere are cooled due to radiation from them into the interplanetary space.

In the spectrum of visible radiation of the Sun, almost completely formed in the photosphere, the temperature lines of the absorption correspond to the temperature lines in the outer layers. They are called Fraunher in honor of the German optics I. Fraunhofer (1787-1826), for the first time in 1814, several hundreds of such lines sketched. For the same reason (decrease in temperature from the center of the Sun), the solar disk closer to the edge seems darker.

In the highest layers of the photosphere, the temperature is about 4000 K. at such a temperature and density of 10 -3 -10 -4 kg / m ³ hydrogen becomes almost neutral. Ionized only about 0.01% of atoms, mainly metals.

However, higher in the atmosphere, the temperature, and with it and ionization, begin to rise again, first slowly, and then very quickly. Part of the solar atmosphere in which the temperature rises and hydrogen, helium and other elements are ionized successively, is called chromosphere, its temperature is tens and hundreds of thousands of Kelvin. In the form of a brilliant pink border, the chromosphere can be seen around a dark disk to rare moments of complete solar eclipses. Above the chromosphere. The temperature of the solar gases is 10 6 - 2 × 10 6 to and then for many radii of the Sun almost no change. This sparse and hot sheath is called solar crown. In the form of a radiant pearl radiance, it can be observed during the full phase of the eclipse of the Sun, then it represents an unusually beautiful sight. "Evracing" into the interplanetary space, the crown gas forms the flow of a hot sparse plasma, constantly flowing from the sun and is called solar wind.

The chromospher and the crown is better observed from satellites and orbital space stations in ultraviolet and X-rays.
Time in some areas of the photosphere. Dark gaps between the granules increase, small round pores are formed, some of them develop into large dark spots, surrounded by a stitching, consisting of oblong, radially elongated photospheric granules.

Watching the sunny stains into the telescope, Galilee noticed that they move along the visible disk of the sun. On this basis, he concluded that the sun revolves around his axis. Angular velocity The rotation of the luminaries decreases from the equator to the poles, the point on the equator is carried out by a complete turn in 25 days, and near the poles, the stellar period of circulation of the Sun increases to 30 days. The Earth moves in its orbit in the same direction in which the sun rotates. Therefore, relative to the earth observer, the period of its rotation is larger and the stain in the center of the solar disk will be held through the central meridian of the Sun in 27 days.

Interesting Facts

• The average density of the sun is only 1.4 g / cm ³, i.e. equal to the density of the water of the Dead Sea.
• Every second, the sun radiates 100,000 times more energy than humanity has developed in its entire history.
• Specific (per unit mass) Sun energy consumption - only 2 × 10 -4 W / kg, i.e. Approximately the same as the heap of rotten leaves.
• On April 8, 1947, the largest cluster of solar spots was recorded on the surface of the southern hemisphere of the Sun for all the time of observations.
• His length was 300,000 km, and width - 145,000 km. It was about 36 times more square The surfaces of the Earth and it could be easily viewed with the naked eye at sunset.
• In honor of the Sun named the new currency of Peru (new salt)

The solar system is the "star - planet" system. In our galaxy approximately 200 billion stars, among which experts believe, some stars have planets. The solar system includes the central body, the sun, and nine planets with their satellites (more than 60 satellites are known). The diameter of the solar system is more than 11.7 billion km.

At the beginning of the XXI century. In the solar system, an object was found, which astronomers called Sedna (the name of the Eskimo goddess Ocean

on the). Sedna has a diameter of 2000 km. One of her turn around the sun is

10 500 Earth years.

Some astronomers call this object of the planet of the solar system. Other astronomers are called planets only space objects with a central kernel with relatively high temperatures. For example, temperature

in the center of Jupiter, according to calculations, it reaches 20,000 k. because at present

Sedna is located at a distance of about 13 billion km from the center of the Solar System,

that information about this object is sufficiently scarce. In the largest point of the orbit, the distance from Sedna to the Sun reaches a huge amount - 130 billion km.

Our star system includes two small planets (asteroids) belts. The first is located between Mars and Jupiter (contains more than 1 million asteroids), the second - behind the orbit of the planet Neptune. Some asteroids have a diameter of more than 1000 km. The external borders of the solar system are surrounded by the so-called oort cloud,named by the name of the Netherlands Astronomer, expressed in the last century a hypothesis about the existence of this cloud. As the astronomers are believed, the edge of this clouds closest to the solar system consists of water and methane ice floes (nuclei of comet), which, like the smallest planets, turn around the Sun under the action of its strength at a distance of over 12 billion km. The number of similar miniature planets is calculated billions.

The literature often meets the hypothesis about the Satellite Satellite Nemesis. (Nemesis in Greek. Mythology is a goddess punishable for violation of morality and laws). Some astronomers claim that Nemesis is located at a distance of 25 trillion km from the Sun in the most remote point of its orbit around the sun and 5 trillion km - in the closest point of its orbit to the Sun. As these astronomers believe, the passage of nemesides through the Oort cloud causes a catastrophe

in the solar system, since the celestial bodies from this clouds fall into the solar system. Astronomers from ancient times are interested in remnants of extraterrestrial origin, meteorites. Daily, according to researchers, it falls on the Earth about 500 extraterrestrial bodies. In 1947, a meteorite, named Sikhote-Alilsky (southeastern part of the Primorsky Krai), weighing in 70 tons, with the formation of 100 crater at the scene of the fall and the set of debris, which were scattered on the square of 3 km2. All his fragments were collected. More than 50% of falling

meteorites are stone meteorites, 4% - iron and 5% - iron.

Among the stone they allocate chondrites (from the corresponding Greek. Words - a ball, grain) and ahondrita. Interest in meteorites is associated with the study of the origin of the solar system and the origin of life on Earth.

Our solar system does at a speed of 240 km / s full turn around the center of the Galaxy for 230 million years. It is called galactic year.In addition, the solar system is moving along with all objects of our galaxy

at approximately 600 km / s around some common gravitational center of the accumulation of galaxies. This means that the speed of the earth's movement relative to the center of our galaxy several times more of its speed relative to the sun. In addition, the sun revolves around his axis

at a speed of 2 km / s. In its chemical composition, the Sun consists of hydrogen (90%), helium (7%) and heavy chemical elements (2-3%). Here are approximate numbers. By weight, the helium atom is almost 4 times larger than the mass of the hydrogen atom.

Sun - Star of the spectral class G, located on the main sequence of stars of the Herzshprung chart - Resell. Sun weight (2 ·

1030 kg) is almost 98.97% of the entire mass of the solar system, on all other education in this system (planet, etc.) have only

2% of the total mass of the solar system. In the summary mass of all planets, the main share is the mass of two planets-giants, Jupiter and Saturn, about 4,12.45 terrestrial masses, and only 34 terrestrial masses have to the rest. Earth weight

6 · 1024kg, 98% of the moment of the amount of movement in the solar system

it belongs to the planets, and not the sun. The sun is the naturally created natural thermonuclear plasma reactor having a ball shape with an average density of 1.41 kg / m3. This means that the average density in the sun is slightly more density of the usual on our land of water. Sun luminosity ( L.) It is approximately 3.86 1033,8 / s. The radius of the Sun is rounded 700 thousand km. Thus, two radius of the sun (diameter) 109 times more terrestrial. Acceleration of free fall in the sun - 274 m / s2, on Earth - 9.8 m / s2. This means that the second cosmic speed to overcome the strength of the sun is 700 km / s, for the Earth - 11.2 km / s.

Plasma- This is a physical condition when the nuclei of atoms coexist separately with electrons. In layered gasplasma

education under the action of gravity force occurs significant

deviations from average values \u200b\u200bof temperature, pressure, etc. in each layer

Thermonuclear reactions go inside the sun in the ball area with a radius of 230 thousand km. In the center of this area, the temperature is about 20 million K. It decreases to the boundaries of this zone to 10 million K. Next ball area with long

280 thousand km has a temperature of 5 million K. In this area, thermonuclear reactions do not occur, since the threshold temperature for them is 10 million K. This area is called the region of transfer of radiant energy, which is from within the preceding area.

This area follows the area convection(Lat. convectio.- prison,

transfer). In the field of convection, the temperature reaches 2 million K.

Convection- this is physical process Transferring energy in the form of heat to a specific environment. Physical I. chemical properties Convective medium can be different: liquid, gas, etc. The properties of this medium determine the rate of energy transfer process in the form of heat into the next area of \u200b\u200bthe sun. Convective area or zone has a length of approximately

150-200 thousand km.

The speed in the convective environment is comparable with sound speed (300

m / s). The value of this speed plays a major role in the heat of heat from the bowels of the Sun

in its subsequent areas (zones) and in space.

The sun does not explode due to the fact that the combustion rate of nuclear fuel inside the sun is noticeably less than the heat removal rate in the convective zone, even with very sharp weights of energy mass. Convective zone physical properties It is ahead of the possibility of an explosion: the convective zone is expanding several minutes ahead of the possible explosion and thereby transfers excess energy in the next layer, the area of \u200b\u200bthe Sun. In the core to the convective zones of the Sun, the mass density is achieved by a large number of light elements (hydrogen and helium). In the convective zone, the process of recombination (formation) of atoms, thereby increasing molecular mass Gas in the convective zone. Recombination(Lat. recombinare.- to connect) comes from the plasma cooled substance, providing thermonuclear reactions inside the Sun. Pressure in the center of the Sun is 100 g / cm3.

On the surface of the Sun, the temperature reaches approximately 6000 K.

the temperature from the convective zone drops to 1 million to and reaches 6000 to

at the level of the total radius of the sun.

Light is electromagnetic waves of different lengths. The area of \u200b\u200bthe sun, where the light occurs is called photosphere(Greek. Photos - light). The region over the photosphere is called chromosphere (from Greek. - Color). Photosphere is occupied

200-300 km (0.001 of the radius of the Sun). The density of the photosphere 10-9-10-6 g / cm3, the temperature of the photosphere decreases from its lower layer up to 4.5 thousand k. In the photoosphere, sun spots and torches occur. Reducing the temperature in the photoosphere, i.e. in the lower layer of the atmosphere of the Sun, a fairly typical phenomenon. The next layer is a chromosphere, its length is 7-8 thousand km. IN

this layer temperature begins to grow to 300 thousand, K. Next atmospheric

the layer is a solar crown - in it the temperature already reaches 1.5-2 million k. Solar crowns spreads to several tens of radii of the Sun and then dissipated in the interplanetary space. The effect of increasing the temperature in the solar crown of the Sun is associated with such a phenomenon as

"sunny wind". This is a gas forming a solar crown, consists mainly of protons and electrons, the speed of which increases according to one of the points of view, the so-called waves of light activity from the convection zone, warming the crown. Every second, the Sun loses 1/100 part of its mass, i.e. approximately 4 million τ per second. The "parting" of the Sun with its energy is manifested in the form of heat, electromagnetic radiation, solar wind. The farther from the Sun, the smaller the second space speed required to exit the particles forming the "sunny wind", from the field of the sun. At the distance of the earth's orbit (150 million km), the speed of solar particles reaches 400 m / s. Among the many problems of the study of the Sun, an important place is occupied by the problem of solar activity with which a number of such phenomena is associated as sun spots, activity magnetic field Sun and solar radiation. Solar spots are formed in the photoosphere. The average annual number of solar spots is measured by 11-year period. For its length, they can reach 200 thousand km in the diameter. The temperature of solar spots is lower than the temperature of the photosphere, in which they are formed, by 1-2 thousand k, that is, 4500 K and below. Therefore, they look dark. Appearance

solar spots are associated with a change in the magnetic field of the sun. IN

solar spots The tension of the magnetic field is significantly higher than in other fields of the photosphere.

Two points of view in explaining the magnetic field of the Sun:

1. The magnetic field of the Sun originated during the formation of the sun. Since the magnetic field streamlines the energy of the mass energy emission in environmentAccording to this position, the 11-year cycle of appearance of spots is not a pattern. In 1890, the director of the Greenwich Observatory (founded in 1675 in the suburb of London) E. Mauder noticed that with

1645 to 1715 there are no mention of 11-year cycles. Greenwich Meridian -

this is a zero meridian, which is conducted by a countdown of longitude on earth.

2. The second point of view represents the sun as a kind of dynamo machine, in which electrically charged particles included in the plasma create a powerful magnetic field, increasingly increasing through 11-year cycles. There is a hypothesis

on the special cosmic conditions in which the sun and solar system is located. We are talking about the so-called corncircle (eng. corotation.- joint rotation). In a cornist circle, on a certain radius, according to some studies, there is a synchronous rotation of the spiral sleeves and the galaxy itself, which creates special physical conditions for the movement of the structures included in this circle where the solar system is located.

IN modern science The point of view of the close connection of processes is developing,

taking place in the sun, with the life of a person on earth. Our compatriot A.

L. Chizhevsky (1897-1964) is one of the founders of helicobiology that studies the influence of the energy of the Sun on the development of living organisms and humans. For example, researchers drew attention to temporary coincidences of major events in the social life of a person with periods of outbreaks of solar activity. In the past century, the maximum activity of the Sun accounted for

1905-1907, 1917, 1928, 1938, 1947, 1968, 1979 and 1990-1991.

The origin of the solar system.The origin of the solar system from a gas-penetrating cloud of the interstellar medium (MZS) is the most recognized concept. It is expressed that the mass of the original for education

The solar cloud system was equal to 10 masses of the sun. In this cloud

the chemical composition was decisive (about 70% was hydrogen, about 30%

Helium and 1-2% - heavy chemical elements). Approach

5 billion years ago from this cloud formed dense thickening,

named protoo-olardisk. As they believed, the explosion of a supernova in our galaxy gave this cloud a dynamic impetus of rotation and fragmentation: formed protocoland protoplanetic disk.According to this concept, the education process protosprixand the protoplanetary disk occurred quickly, for 1 million years, which led to the concentration of all the energy of the future star system in its central body, and the moment of movement is in the protoplanetary disk, in future planets. It is believed that the evolution of the protoplanetic disk occurred in 1 million years. The sticking of the particles in the central plane of this disk, which later led to the formation of particle concentrations, first small, then larger bodies that geologists call planetsames. Of these, the future planets believed. This concept is based on the results of computer models. There are other concepts. For example, in one of them it says that at the birth of the sun-star it took 100 million years, when the reaction of thermonuclear synthesis appeared in Proto the Sun. According to this concept of the planet of the Solar System, in particular the Earth Group, arose for the same 100 million years, from the mass remaining after the formation of the Sun. Part of this mass was kept by the Sun, the other was dissolved in the interstellar space.

In January 2004there was a message in foreign publications about the opening in the constellation of Scorpio stars,in size, luminosity and mass like a similar sun. Astronomers are currently interested in the question: Does this star planet?

There are several mysteries in the study of the solar system.

1. Harmony in motion planets. All planets of the solar system are treated around the Sun on elliptical orbits. The movement of all planets of the solar system occurs in the same plane, the center of which is located in the central part of the equatorial plane of the sun. Plane formed by orbits planets is called the plane of the ecliptic.

2. All planets and the sun rotate around their own axis. The axis of rotation of the sun and the planets, with the exception of the Uranian planet, are directed, roughly speaking, perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. The axis of uranium is directed to the plane of the ecliptic almost in parallel, that is, he rotates lying on his side. His one feature - he rotates around his axis in another direction as

and Venus, unlike the Sun and the rest of the planets. All other planets and

The sun rotates against the direction of the arrow of the clock. Uranium has 15

satellites.

3. There is a belt of small planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This is the so-called asteroid belt. Small planets have in diameter from 1 to 1000 km. Their total weight is less than 1/700 mass of the Earth.

4. All planets are divided into two groups (earth and unearthly). First- These are planets with high density, in their chemical composition, heavy chemical elements occupy the main place. They are small in size and slowly rotate around their axis. This group includes Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Currently, the assumptions that Venus are the past land, and Mars is its future.

Ko second groupbelow: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. They consist of light chemical elements, quickly rotate around their axis, slowly turn around the sun and get less radiant energy from the sun. Below (in the table) provides data on the average surface temperature of the planets on the Celsius scale, duration of the day and night, the duration of the year, the diameter of the planets of the solar system and the mass of the planet relative to the mass

Earth (adopted for 1).

The distance between the orbits planets is approximately doubled during the transition

from each of them to the subsequent. This was noted back in 1772 by astronomers.

I. Titius and I. Bode, from here a name appeared "Titsius Rule - Bode",observed in the location of the planets. If you take the distance of the Earth to the Sun (150 million km) for one astronomical unit, then the following location of the planets from the Sun for this rule is obtained:

Mercury - 0.4 a. e. Venus - 0.7 a. e. Earth - 1 a. e. Mars - 1.6 a. e. Asteroids - 2.8 a. e. Jupiter - 5.2 a. e. Saturn - 10.0 a. e. Uranus - 19.6 a. e. Neptune - 38.8 a. e. Pluto - 77.2 a. e.

Table. Data on Planets of the Solar System

When considering the true distances of the planets to the Sun, it turns out that

Pluto in some periods is closer to the Sun than Neptune, and,

consequently, it changes its sequence number according to Titius rule - Bode.

Mystery of the planet Venus.In ancient astronomical sources of age in

3.5 thousand years (Chinese, Babylonian, Indian) are not mentioned about Venus. American scientist I. Velikovsky in the book "Stinking Worlds", which appeared in the 50s. The twentieth century, expressed the hypothesis that Planet Venus ranked his place just recently, during the formation of ancient civilizations. Approximately once every 52 years, Venus is suitable close to Earth, a distance of 39 million km. During the greatest confrontation period, every 175 years, when all the planets are built in each other in one direction, Mars approaching the earth at a distance of 55 million.

Astronomers enjoy a siderial time to observe the position of stars and other sky objects, as they appear innight sky in the same and

also sideric time. Sunny time- time measured

regarding the sun. When the land de. marks full turn around his axis

regarding the sun, take one day. If the turnover of the land is considered regarding the stars, then for this turnover, the Earth will move in its orbit on 1/365 part of the path around the sun, i.e., for 3 minutes 56 p. This time is called Siderician (Lat. siederis- Star).

1. The development of modern astronomy is constantly expanding knowledge about the structure and objects accessible to the universe study. This explains the difference in data on the number of stars, galaxies and other objects, which are given in the literature.

2. There are several dozen planets located in our galaxy and outside it.

3. The opening of Sedna as the 10th Solar System Planet significantly changes our ideas about the sizes of the solar system and its interaction with

other objects of our galaxy.

4. In general, it should be said that astronomy only from the second half of the last century began to study the most distant objects of the universe on the basis of more modern means

observations and research.

5. Modern astronomy is interested in explaining the observed effect of motion (drift) of significant masses of a substance at high speed relative

relic radiation. We are talking about the so-called great

wall. This is a gigantic accumulation of galaxies located at a distance of 500 million light years from our galaxy. A fairly popular statement of approaches to explain this effect is published in the articles of the magazine "In the World of Science" 1. 6. Unfortunately, the military interests of a number of countries are again manifested in the study of space.

For example, US Space Program.

Questions for self-testing and seminars

1. Forms of galaxies.

2. What factors depends the fate of the star?

3. Concepts for the formation of the solar system.

4. Supernovae and their role in the formation of the chemical composition of the interstellar medium.

5. The difference between the planet from the star.

Universe (Space) - This is the whole world around us, limitless in time and space and infinitely diverse in forms that make forever moving matter. The infinity of the Universe is partly able to submit to a clear night with billions of different magnitudes of luminous flickering points in the sky representing distant worlds. Rays of light at a speed of 300,000 km / s from the most remote parts of the universe reach the ground for about 10 billion years.

According to scientists, the Universe was formed as a result of the "Big Explosion" 17 billion years ago.

It consists of clusters of stars, planets, cosmic dust and other cosmic bodies. These bodies form systems: planets with satellites (for example. Solar system), galaxies, metagalaxy (accumulation of galaxies).

Galaxy (Lategrech. galaktikos.- Milk, Milky, from Greek gala- Milk) - an extensive star system that consists of a variety of stars, star clusters and associations, gas and dust nebulae, as well as individual atoms and particles scattered in the interstellar space.

In the Universe there are many galaxies of various sizes and shapes.

All stars visible from the Earth are part of the Milky Way Galaxy. She received her name due to the fact that most stars can be seen with a clear night in the form of a Milky Way - whites blurred stripes.

In total, the Milky Way Galaxy contains about 100 billion stars.

Our galaxy is in constant rotation. The speed of its movement in the Universe is 1.5 million km / h. If you look at our galaxy from its north pole, the rotation occurs clockwise. The sun and the nearest stars coming to him make a complete turn around the Galaxy Center for 200 million. This period is considered to be Galactic year.

In size and shape similar to the Galaxy, the Milky Way of the Galaxy Andromeda, or the nebula of Andromeda, which is at a distance of about 2 million light years from our galaxy. Light year - The distance flowed by the light for the year, approximately 10 13 km (the speed of light is 300,000 km / s).

For clarity of the study of the movement and location of stars, planets and other celestial bodies use the concept of heavenly sphere.

Fig. 1. The main lines of the celestial sphere

Celestial sphere - This is an imaginary scope of how much larger radius, in the center of which is the observer. Stars, sun, moon, planets are projected into the heavenly sphere.

The most important lines on the celestial sphere are: a sheer line, Zenith, Nadir, Heavenly Equator, Ecliptic, Heavenly Meridian, etc. (Fig. 1).

Sheer line - Direct, passing through the center of the heavenly sphere and coinciding with the direction of a plumb thread at the observation site. For an observer located on the ground surface, the sheer line passes through the center of the Earth and the observation point.

The sheer line intersects with the surface of the celestial sphere in two points - zenit Observer's head, and Nadir -diametrically opposite point.

A large circle of heaven sphere, the plane of which is perpendicular to the sheer line, is called mathematical horizon. It divides the surface of the celestial sphere into two halves: visible to the observer, with a vertex in Zenith, and invisible, with a vertex in Nadir.

The diameter around which the heavenly sphere is rotated - The axis of the world. It intersects with the surface of the heavenly sphere in two points - North Pole of the world and southern Pole World. North Pole It is called that from which the rotation of the heavenly sphere occurs clockwise, if you look at the sphere from outside.

Big circle of heaven sphere, the plane of which is perpendicular to the axis of the world, is called Heavenly Equator. He divides the surface of the heavenly sphere for two hemispheres: North with a vertex in the northern pole of the world, and south With a vertex in the southern pole of the world.

A large range of heavenly sphere, the plane of which passes through the sheer line and the axis of the world, - heavenly meridian. He divides the surface of the heavenly sphere for two hemispheres - Eastern and Western.

Line of intersection of the plane of the celestial meridian and the plane of the mathematical horizon - midday line.

Ecliptic (from Greek. ekieipsis- Eclipse) - a large circle of heaven sphere, according to which the visible annual movement of the sun occurs, more precisely - its center.

The plane of the ecliptic is tilted to the plane of the celestial equator at an angle of 23 ° 26 "21".

To make it easier to remember the location of stars in the sky, people in antiquity came up with uniting the brightest of them in constellations.

Currently, 88 constellations are known, which are the names of the mythical characters (Hercules, Pegasus, etc.), signs of the zodiac (Taurus, Fish, Cancer, etc.), items (scales, lira, etc.) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Summer autumn constellations

The origin of galaxies. Solar system and its individual planets, still remained unspecified secret nature. There are several hypotheses. Currently it is believed that our galaxy was formed from a gas cloud consisting of hydrogen. At the initial stage of the evolution of the galaxy from the interstellar gas-dust medium, the first stars were formed, and 4.6 billion years ago - the solar system.

Composition of the solar system

The combination of celestial bodies moving around the Sun as a central body forms Sunny system. It is located almost on the outskirts of the Galaxy Milky Way. The solar system participates in rotation around the center of the Galaxy. The speed of the CE movement is about 220 km / s. This movement occurs in the direction of the Swan Constellation.

The composition of the solar system can be represented as a simplified scheme shown in Fig. 3.

Over 99.9% of the mass of the substance of the solar system fall into the sun and only 0.1% - to all other elements.

Hypothesis I. Kant (1775) - P. Laplas (1796)	Hypothesis D. Jeans (beginning of the XX century)	Hypothesis Academician O. P. Schmidt (40th. XX century)	Gi Piece and Kale Mika V. G. Fesenkov (30s. XX century)
The planets were formed from gas-dusty matter (in the form of a chicken nebula). Cooling is accompanied by compression and increasing the speed of rotation of some axis. In the equator of the nebula, rings arose. The rings of the rings was collected in hot bodies and gradually cooled	A larger star passed by the Sun, the SS attraction broke out of the sun with a rush of a hot substance (Protuberenets). Conditions were formed, of which later - planets	A gas-dust cloud rotating around the Sun should have taken a continuous form as a result of the colliding of the particles and their movement. Particles united in condensation. The attraction of smaller complication particles should contribute to the growth of the surrounding substance. Condication orbits should have become almost circular and lying in almost one plane. The thickening came in the buds of the planets, fucked by almost the BCR substance from the gaps between their orbits	From the rotating clouds, the sun occurred, and the planets from the secondary concentrations in this cloud. The sun further decreased and cooled to the current state.

Fig. 3. Composition of solar systems

The sun

The sun - This is a star, a giant red-colored ball. Its diameter is 109 times more than the diameter of the Earth, weight of 330,000 times more mass of the earth, but the average density is small - only 1.4 times the density of water. The sun is at a distance of about 26,000 light years from the center of our galaxy and turns around it, making one turn around about 225-250 million years. The orbital speed of the sun is 217 km / s - thus it takes place one light year for 1400 Earth years.

Fig. 4. Sun chemical composition

The pressure in the sun is 200 billion times higher than that of the earth's surface. The density of the solar and pressure is rapidly increasing deep into; The pressure growth is explained by weight of all overlapping layers. The temperature on the surface of the Sun is 6000 K, and inside 13,500,000 K. The characteristic time of the star of the Sun type is 10 billion lay.

Table 1. General About Sun.

The chemical composition of the Sun is about the same as in most other stars: about 75% is hydrogen, 25% - helium and less than 1% - all other chemical elements (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.) (Fig. 4 ).

The central part of the Sun with a radius of about 150,000 km is called solar core. This is a zone of nuclear reactions. The density of the substance here is approximately 150 times higher than the density of water. The temperature exceeds 10 million K (on the Celvin scale, in terms of degrees Celsius 1 ° C \u003d K - 273.1) (Fig. 5).

Above the core, at distances about 0.2-0.7 of the radius of the sun from his center, is located Zone of radiant energy. Energy transfer here is carried out by absorbing and radiation of photons with separate layers of particles (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Structure of the Sun.

Photon (from Greek. phos.- Light), elementary particle capable of exist, only moving at the speed of light.

Closer to the surface of the Sun there is a vortex stirring of plasma, and the transfer of energy to the surface is performed

mostly by the movements of the substance itself. This method of energy transmission is called convection and the layer of the sun, where it happens - convective zone. The power of this layer is approximately 200,000 km.

Above the convective zone is a solar atmosphere, which constantly fluctuates. Here are distributed both vertical and horizontal waves with lengths of several thousand kilometers. Oscillations occur with a period of about five minutes.

The inner layer of the sun atmosphere is called photosphere.It consists of light bubbles. it Granules. Their size is small - 1000-2000 km, and the distance between them is 300-600 km. About a million granules can be observed at the same time, each of which exists a few minutes. Granules are surrounded by dark intervals. If a substance rises in the granules, then around them is lowered. The granules create a general background on which such large-scale education can be observed as torches, solar spots, protuberans, etc.

Solar spots - Dark areas in the sun, the temperature of which is lowered compared to the surrounding space.

Sunny torches Call bright fields surrounding sunny spots.

Protuboyrans (from lat. protubero. - Swimming) - dense condensation relative to the cold (compared to the surrounding temperature) substances that rise and hold over the surface of the Sun by a magnetic field. To the emergence of the magnetic field of the Sun can lead that various layers of the sun rotate at different speeds: the internal parts rotate faster; The kernel rotates especially quickly.

Protubereans, solar spots and torches are not the only examples of solar activity. It also includes magnetic storms and explosions called Flash.

Above the photospheres is located chromosphere - Outer shell of the Sun. The origin of the name of this part of the solar atmosphere is associated with its reddish color. The thickness of the chromosphere is 10-15 thousand km, and the density of the substance is hundreds of thousands of times less than in the photosphere. The temperature in the chromosphere is growing rapidly, reaching tens of thousands of degrees in its upper layers. On the edge of the chromosphere are observed Spikula, Presents elongated columns from compacted glowing gas. The temperature of these jets is higher than the temperature of the photosphere. Specules first rise from the lower chromosphere by 5000-10,000 km, and then fall back, where they fade. All this happens at a speed of about 20,000 m / s. Sleep Coula lives 5-10 minutes. The number of sprockets existing in the sun at the same time is about a million (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. The structure of the external layers of the Sun

Chromosphere surrounds Solar crown - Outer layer of the atmosphere of the sun.

The total amount of energy emitted by the Sun is 3.86. 1026 W, and only one two-billion part of this energy gets the earth.

Solar radiation includes corpuscular and Electromagnetic radiation. Vaccular main radiation - this is a plasma stream, which consists of protons and neutrons, or differently - sunny wind, Which reaches the near-earth space and flows around the entire magnetosphere of the Earth. Electromagnetic radiation - This is the radiant energy of the sun. It in the form of direct and scattered radiation reaches ground surface and provides thermal regime on our planet.

In the middle of the XIX century. Swiss astronomer Rudolf Wolf(1816-1893) (Fig. 7) calculated the quantitative indicator of solar activity, known worldwide as a number of Wolf. Processing accumulated by the middle of the last century, materials of observation of sun spots, Wolf was able to install the average and summer solar activity cycle. In fact, the time intervals between the years of maximum or minimum wolf numbers range from 7 to 17 years. Simultaneously with the 11-year-old cycle, the age-old, more precisely, 80-90-year-old, the solar activity cycle. It is inconsistently superimposed on each other, they make noticeable changes in the processes committed in the geographical shell of the Earth.

On the close relationship of many earthly phenomena with solar activity in 1936, A. L. Chizhevsky (1897-1964) (Fig. 8), who wrote that the overwhelming majority of physicochemical processes on Earth represents the result of the exposure of cosmic forces. He was also one of the founders of such science as Helobiology(from Greek. helios. - Sun) studying the influence of the sun on a living matter geographic shell Earth.

Depending on solar activity, such physical phenomena on Earth are flowing like: Magnetic storms, frequency of polar beams, the amount of ultraviolet radiation, intensity of thunderstorm activity, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, level of lakes, rivers, groundwater, salinity and seas and Dr.

The life of plants and animals is connected with the periodic activity of the Sun (there is a correlation between solar cyclicity and the period of the growing season in plants, reproduction and migration of birds, rodents, etc.), as well as a person (disease).

Currently, the relationship between solar and earth processes continues to be studied with the help of artificial satellites of the Earth.

Planets of the earth group

In addition to the Sun in the composition of the solar system, planets are isolated (Fig. 9).

In size, geographic indicators and chemical composition of the planet are divided into two groups: Planets of the earth group and Planets giants. The planets of the earth group include, and. About them and will be discussed in this subsection.

Fig. 9. Solar System Planets

Land - Third planet from the sun. She will be devoted to a separate subsection.

Let's summarize. From the location of the planet in the solar system depends the density of the substance of the planet, and taking into account its size - and weight. Than
closer planet To the Sun, the higher it has the average density of the substance. For example, in Mercury, it is 5.42 g / cm \\ Venus - 5.25, Earth - 5.25, Mars - 3.97 g / cm 3.

The total characteristics of the planets of the earth group (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are primarily: 1) relatively small dimensions; 2) High temperatures on the surface and 3) high density of substance planets. These planets relatively slowly rotate around their axis and have few satellites or do not have them at all. In the structure of the planets of the earth group, four main shells are distinguished: 1) dense kernel; 2) covering its mantle; 3) Cora; 4) Light gas-water shell (excluding Mercury). On the surface of these planets, traces of tectonic activity were detected.

Planets giants

Now let's get acquainted with the giants planets, which are also included in our solar system. It , .

Planets giants possess the following common characteristics: 1) large sizes and mass; 2) quickly rotate around the axis; 3) have rings, many satellites; 4) the atmosphere consists mainly of hydrogen and helium; 5) The center has a hot core from metals and silicates.

They are also distinguished: 1) Low temperatures on the surface; 2) Small density of substance planets.

3. Sun - the central body of our planetary system

The sun is the star closest to the ground, which is a hot plasma ball. This is a giant energy source: its radiation power is very large - about 3.8610 23 kW. Every second sun radiates such a number of heat, which would be enough to melt the layer of ice surrounding the globe, a thousand km thick. The sun plays an exceptional role in the emergence and development of life on Earth. An insignificant part of solar energy falls on the ground, due to which the gaseous state of the earth's atmosphere is maintained, the surfaces of the sushi and water bodies are constantly heated, livelihoods of animals and plants are ensured. Part of solar energy is stored in the depths of the Earth in the form of coal, oil, natural gas.

Currently, it is considered that in the depths of the sun at the huge temperatures - COIO 15 million degrees - and monstrous pressures flow thermonuclear reactions, which are accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy. One of these reactions may be the synthesis of hydrogen nuclei, in which the kernel of the helium atom is formed. It is estimated that in every second in the depths of the Sun 564 million tons of hydrogen are converted to 560 million tons of helium, and the remaining 4 million tons of hydrogen turn into radiation. Thermonuclear reaction will occur until the hydrogen reserves run out. Currently, they constitute about 60% of the mass of the Sun. Such a reserve should be enough for at least several billion years.

Almost all the energy of the Sun is generated in its central region, from where it is transferred to radiation, and then in the outer layer - is transmissated by convection. Efficient surface temperature of the Sun - photosphere - about 6000 K.

Our sun is the source not only light and heat: its surface radiates the streams of invisible ultraviolet and x-ray rays, as well as elementary particles. Although the amount of heat and light sent to the Earth by the Sun, over the stretch of many hundred billion years remains constant, the intensity of its invisible radiation changes significantly: it depends on the level of solar activity.

Cycles are observed, during which solar activity reaches the maximum value. Their frequency is 11 years. In the years of the greatest activity, the number of spots and outbreaks on the solar surface increases, magnetic storms arise on Earth, the ionization of the upper layers of the atmosphere is enhanced, etc.

The sun has a noticeable impact not only for natural processes such as weather, earthly magnetism, but also on the biosphere - animal and vegetable world Earth, including man.

It is assumed that the age of the Sun is at least 5 billion years. Such an assumption is based on the fact that, in accordance with the geological data, our planet exists at least 5 billion years, and the Sun has been formed even earlier.

Algorithm for calculating the trajectory of the flight to limited orbit with specified characteristics

Analyzing the solution (2.4) of the linearized system (2.3), it can be concluded that the amplitudes of the orbit on the X and Y axes depend on each other in linearly, and the amplitude of Z is independent, and the oscillations of X and on Y occur with one frequency ...

Algorithm for calculating the trajectory of the flight to limited orbit with specified characteristics

It is known that the flight into the orbit around the L2 L2 Point System of the Sun-Earth can be carried out by the commission of a single pulse at a low near-earth orbit ,,,. In fact, this flight is carried out in orbit ...

Stars and constellations are united

In this section, we consider how the stars / constellations can, like harm and help, which we should expect from the universe. In the 12th question "Stars can harm or help?" Many noted the equal to the stars as they can harm ...

Earth - Planet Solar System

The sun is the central body of the solar system - is a typical representative of the stars most common in the universe. Like many other stars, the sun is a huge gas ball ...

In this work, the movement of the spacecraft located in the orbit in the surrounding point of the L1 L1 system of the Sun-Earth system will be considered in the rotating coordinate system, the illustration is shown in Figure 6 ...

Modeling orbital traffic

The spacecraft in the neighborhood of the point of the libration may be in limited orbits of several types, the classification of which is given in slave. Lyapunov vertical orbit (Fig. 8) - flat limited periodic orbit ...

Modeling orbital traffic

As mentioned in paragraph 2.4, one of the main conditions when choosing a limited orbit in the neighborhood of the L1 L1 point, suitable for the implementation of a space mission, continuously observed from the surface of the Earth ...

Our solar system

In order to understand the structure of such a giant object, like the Sun, it is necessary to imagine a huge mass of the grilled gas, which concentrated in a certain place of the universe. The sun is 72% composed of hydrogen ...

Surface Sun Characteristics

The sun is the central body of the solar system - represents a hot gas ball. It is 750 times higher than the mass of all other solar body bodies combined ...

Creating a model for the emergence of the solar system from interstellar gas on the basis of numerical modeling, taking into account the gravitational interaction of particles

As a result of the research (including those not included in the materials of this publication), within the framework of adopted main representations of the formation of the solar system, a model of education of planetary bodies was proposed ...

Solar system. Sun activity and its effect on the climate-forming factor of the planet

Nine large cosmic bodies called planets are treated around the Sun, each in their orbit, in one direction - counterclockwise. Together with the Sun, they make up the solar system ...

Solar-earth ties and their effect on man

What does science about the sun tell us? How far the sun from us and how is it great? The distance from the ground to the Sun is almost 150 million km. Easy to write this number, but it is difficult to imagine such a large distance ...

The sun, its composition and structure. Solar-earth

The sun is the only star of the solar system, around which other objects of this system are treated: planets and their satellites, dwarf planets and their satellites, asteroids, meteoroids, comets and cosmic dust. The mass of the sun is 99 ...

Sun, its physical characteristics and impact on the Earth's magnetosphere

The sun is the closest star to Earth, is an ordinary star of our galaxy. This is the dwarf of the main sequence of the Herzshprung Ressel chart. Belongs to the spectral class G2V. Her physical characteristics: · Mass 1 ...