What is the Baltic question. The moral character of the Cossacks

Baltic question

The Little Russian question, by its direct or indirect action, complicated Moscow's foreign policy. Tsar Alexei, starting a war with Poland for Little Russia in 1654, quickly conquered all of Belarus and a significant part of Lithuania from Vilna, Kovna and Grodna. While Moscow was taking the eastern regions of the Commonwealth, it was attacked from the north by another enemy, the Swedish king Charles X, who just as quickly conquered the whole of Great and Lesser Poland with Krakow and Warsaw, expelled King Jan Casimir from Poland and proclaimed himself Polish king finally, he even wanted to take Lithuania away from Tsar Alexei. So two enemies, who were beating Poland from different sides, collided and quarreled over the booty. Tsar Alexei remembered the old idea of Tsar Ivan about the Baltic coast, about Livonia, and the struggle with Poland was interrupted in 1656 by the war with Sweden. So again the forgotten question of extending the territory of the Muscovite state to its natural border, to the Baltic coast, came to the fore. The question did not move a step towards a solution: Riga could not be taken, and soon the king ceased hostilities, and then made peace with Sweden (in Kardis, 1661), returning all his conquests to her. No matter how fruitless this war was and even harmful to Moscow in helping Poland to recover from the Swedish pogrom, it nevertheless prevented the two states from uniting under the rule of one king, although equally hostile to Moscow, but constantly weakening their forces by mutual enmity.

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Baltic Fleet With the beginning of the Northern War, the Azov squadron was abandoned, and after the Prut the Sea of Azov was also lost. All efforts of Peter turned to the creation of the Baltic fleet. Back in 1701, he dreamed that he would have up to 80 large ships here. The crew was hastily recruited:

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1. Baltic question and oprichnina. Questions foreign policy... Crimea and Livonia It is not possible for us to expound at length all the circumstances of the great struggle of the 16th century for trade routes and the shores of the Baltic Sea. In this struggle, Moscow was only one of many participants. Sweden,

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Chapter 5. The Baltic Knot While Russia was waging wars in the east, the western neighbors did not intervene. But it was difficult to call them indifferent observers either. Sigismund II sourly congratulated Ivan IV on the "Christian victories" over the "common" enemy, and he himself pushed the khan to attacks

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QUESTIONS BALTIC AND EASTERN Baltic question. The Little Russian question, by its direct or indirect action, complicated Moscow's foreign policy. Tsar Alexei, starting a war with Poland for Little Russia in 1654, quickly conquered all of Belarus and a significant part of Lithuania from Vilna,

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Stalin White Sea-Baltic Canal History of construction 1931–1934 Edited by M. Gorky, L. Averbakh, S.

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Chapter II The South Baltic Trade Route For many centuries, the life of the Slavs who lived on the southwestern coast of the Baltic Sea, on the territory of modern Germany and Poland, was connected with Eastern Europe and the lands of Northern Russia by close trade

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Chapter 5 The Baltic Crusade Throughout the history of the Teutonic Order, the German spirit was clearly manifested: romantic ideals carried out with the utmost ruthlessness. Tradition tells that in 1127 St. Mary's Hospital was founded in Jerusalem

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Slavic and Baltic Indo-European languages and above all - to the Baltic. The scheme or model of these relations accepted by linguists fundamentally determines

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VI.4. The Baltic experience of Governor-General E.A. E.A. Golovina Golovin served as governor-general in the Baltic region for less than three years: from May 1845 to February 1848. His appointment followed in the year of the highest approval of the Code of Local Legislation for the Baltic region,

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………… ..3

CHAPTER 1. The place of the Baltic issue in European politics of the 15th - first half of the 16th century ………………… ..11

CHAPTER 2. The Baltic issue in European politics in the second half of the 16th century ………………………………………… 18

CHAPTER 3. Struggle for domination in the Baltic in the 17th century

3.1. The pan-European situation …………………………………………… 25

3.2. Russia in the Struggle for Outlets to the Baltic Sea in the 17th Century ………… .37

CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………… .42

List of used sources and literature ... ..45

Appendix …………………………………………………………… .49

INTRODUCTION

The relevance of the work.

The relevance of the study is due to the special role that the Baltic Sea has always played in the history of the peoples of Europe, as well as the fact that in the period of the XV-XVII centuries. the importance of the Baltic Sea has become especially great in connection with the growing role of trade in the economy and politics of European states. According to the Russian historian G.V. Forsten, the Baltic issue, i.e. the question of military and economic predominance in the Baltic Sea, “has since then acquired both mercantile and political significance. It is entering a new stage of its development, not being limited to commercial domination and predominance at sea, but capturing both politics and religion, determining, in fact, the entire foreign policy of the northern states. "

At various times, they fought for domination over the Baltic Hanseatic League, Denmark, Sweden, Livonian Order, Germany, Poland, Russia. V early middle ages the main role in trade and navigation in the Baltic Sea belonged to the Scandinavians and Slavs, from the end of the X-XI centuries. the German merchants became more and more active. Largest centers Early medieval Baltic trade was Hedeby (on the Jutland Peninsula), Birka (on Lake Mälaren), Visby (on the island of Gotland), somewhat later - Sigtuna, Schleswig, Wolin, Novgorod, Gdansk, etc. The offensive in the 12-13th centuries. German, Danish and Swedish feudal lords in the Baltic, the seizure of the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea by the Teutonic Order dealt a serious blow to the positions of the Slavic states in the Baltic Sea.

From 13-14 centuries. the dominant role in the Baltic trade began to be played by the North German Hansa and its main center- Lubeck.

Great geographical discoveries led to the fact that trade routes from the North, Baltic and Mediterranean seas moved to the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans... This predetermined the fast pace economic development European countries located on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and slowed down the development of Germany, the Scandinavian countries, southern Germany and especially Italy, which remained feudal.

From the second quarter of the 17th century. for leading states of Eastern Europe the Baltic issue in its various aspects - economic, strategic, military - has become one of the main problems in their international relations. Denmark, Russia, Sweden and Poland began a long struggle among themselves for dominance in the Baltic; the state that emerged victorious from it would assert its dominant position in the entire north. As G.V. Forsten, in relation to the Baltic issue, the European states were divided into two halves, one of which wanted to resolve it through war, the other through peaceful negotiations. The war party prevailed. The struggle for hegemony in the Baltic Sea ("Dominium maris Baltici") played a major role in the pan-European and regional conflicts of the 15th-17th centuries. - in the Livonian War of 1558-83, in numerous Danish-Swedish and Polish-Swedish wars, in the Thirty Years War. 1618-48, etc. As a result of these wars from the middle of the 17th century. the Swedish hegemony over the Baltic Sea was established. The victory of Russia over Sweden in Northern war 1700-1721 provided her with access to the Baltic Sea and hegemony in the Eastern Baltic.

Thus, the relevance of the chosen topic is determined by the fact that the question of domination in the Baltic Sea both in the 15th century, when Danish kings and Hanseatic cities were the factors of the struggle, and in the 16th-17th centuries, when Sweden, Denmark, Russia were contenders for domination and Poland has always been a question of the strength and might of states, their life question.

In addition, the relevance historical study the struggle for domination in the Baltic Sea is due to the increased attention that has always been in Russian diplomacy to this region, and the fact that in the XV-XVII centuries. relations between the Moscow state and its closest neighbors in the Baltic region played a decisive role in Russia's foreign policy.

The geopolitical changes that took place in the Baltic region in the 15th-17th centuries led to an increased interest of researchers in this topic. Among the names of pre-revolutionary historians who raised questions of the struggle for domination in the Baltic Sea, one should name S.M. Solovyova, N. Lyzhina, A.I. Zaozersky, M.N. Polievktova; Kirchhoff G., Yakubova and others.

Especially noteworthy are the works of G.V. Forsten (1857-1910) - Russian historian of Swedish origin, one of the founders of the study of the history of the Scandinavian countries in Russia, professor at St. Petersburg University. On the Baltic issue, Forsten published works that still have not lost their significance: "The struggle for domination of the Baltic Sea in the XV-XVI tables." (St. Petersburg, 1884), "The Baltic question in the XVI and XVII tables.", 2 volumes (St. Petersburg, 1893-1894), "Acts and letters on the history of the Baltic question in the XVI and XVII tables." (SPb., 1889, 1892). G. Forsten was the first Russian researcher to draw attention to the importance of the possession of the sea coasts for the Moscow principality.

In the post-revolutionary period, in the Soviet historiography of the 1920s and 1930s, the study of the history of the Baltic issue, like many other topics, ceases. With the outbreak of the Second World War, interest in international politics increased again. In particular, the authors of "History of Diplomacy" investigated the main directions of the Baltic policy of the Moscow state in the 15th-17th centuries. Periodicals published articles that introduced the reader to various aspects of the struggle for the Baltic. So, in 1945 B.F. Porshnev published a series of articles on Russian-Swedish relations of this period. In 1976, his work on the Thirty Years' War was published. In 1947, the work of O.L. Weinstein. In the 60s. XX century a number of works by I.P. Shaskolsky. In most works of this period, the regularity of wars for Russian state due to the "urgent need" to get access to the Baltic Sea. Among the journal publications, one should note the work of OL Vaistein "Economic preconditions for the struggle for the Baltic Sea and Russia's foreign policy in the middle of the 17th century (1951).

In the 70s they are published general work on the history of the Scandinavian countries and Sweden A.S. Kahn, in which much attention is paid to the Baltic issue. In the 80s - 90s of the XX century, several works were published, touching upon certain topics of diplomatic relations between Russia and Sweden.

E.I. Kobzareva in her book "Russia's Diplomatic Struggle for Access to the Baltic Sea in 1655-1661" considered the struggle around Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century, the possibility of making alternative decisions at various stages. The author left a controversial question whether the struggle for the Baltic was in line with the economic and political interests of Russia (the point of view of O.L. Vainshtein) or was a mistake in the policy of Russia (the point of view of B.F. Porshnev). The author shows how Russia was being drawn into the European system of international relations.

In the monographs of B.N. Flory is a specialist in the history of international relations of European countries in the 16th-17th centuries. the struggle of Russia for access to the Baltic Sea and the influence of relations between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on the course and results of this struggle are considered. The author analyzes the actions of Russian diplomacy against the background of a range of international problems. The book is written on the basis of a rich source base of Russian and Polish archives and allows, in particular, to give an answer to the question of what factors led to the establishment of Swedish domination in the Baltic in the 17th century.

In 2010, the Moscow publishing house "Quadriga" published a collection scientific articles"The Baltic question at the end of the XV-XVI centuries." ... The collection contains materials of the international scientific conference "The Baltic issue at the end of the XV-XVI centuries." state university in November 2007.

Also during term paper A. Shtenzel's work “History of wars at sea” was widely used. This edition is based on the five-volume work of the German Admiral Alfred Stenzel "The History of Wars at Sea in its Most Important Manifestations from the Point of View of Naval Tactics", published in Petrograd (1916-1919). The first volume covers the period from the beginning of navigation in antiquity to the first Anglo-Dutch War(1652-1654). The second volume is devoted to the history of naval wars from 1660 to 1900.

The question of the struggle for domination in the Baltic Sea was considered in general works on the history of Russia and Russian diplomacy. The general picture of foreign policy Russia XVII v. given by S.V. Bakhrushin in the 1st volume of "History of Diplomacy", Yu.A. Tikhonov and L.A. Nikiforov in II and III volumes of "History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day", A.A. Novoselsky in "Essays on the history of the USSR during the period of feudalism, XVII century." These works are written based on published sources and research. They, in particular, raise the question of the role of the Baltic issue in Russian diplomacy in the 17th century.

A large history of the Baltic issue is given in the collection "History of Europe".

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………… ..3

CHAPTER 1. The place of the Baltic issue in European politics of the 15th - first half of the 16th century ………………… ..11

CHAPTER 2. The Baltic issue in European politics in the second half of the 16th century ………………………………………… 18

CHAPTER 3. Struggle for domination in the Baltic in the 17th century

3.1. Pan-European situation …………………………………………… 25

3.2. Russia in the Struggle for Outlets to the Baltic Sea in the 17th Centuries ………… .37

CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………… .42

List of used sources and literature ... ..45

Appendix …………………………………………………………… .49

INTRODUCTION

The relevance of the work.

The relevance of the study is due to the special role that the Baltic Sea has always played in the history of the peoples of Europe, as well as the fact that in the period of the XV-XVII centuries. the importance of the Baltic Sea has become especially great in connection with the growing role of trade in the economy and politics of European states. According to the Russian historian G.V. Forsten, the Baltic issue, i.e. the question of military and economic predominance in the Baltic Sea, “has since then acquired both mercantile and political significance. It is entering a new stage of its development, not confining itself to trade domination and predominance at sea, but capturing both politics and religion, determining, in fact, the entire foreign policy of the northern states ”1.

At various times, the Hanseatic League, Denmark, Sweden, the Livonian Order, Germany, Poland, Russia fought for domination over the Baltic. In the early Middle Ages, the main role in trade and navigation in the Baltic Sea belonged to the Scandinavians and Slavs, from the end of the X-XI centuries. the German merchants became more and more active. The largest centers of early medieval Baltic trade were Hedeby (on the Jutland Peninsula), Birka (on Lake Mälaren), Visby (on the island of Gotland), somewhat later - Sigtuna, Schleswig, Wolin, Novgorod, Gdansk, and others. ... German, Danish and Swedish feudal lords in the Baltic, the seizure of the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea by the Teutonic Order dealt a serious blow to the positions of the Slavic states in the Baltic Sea.

From 13-14 centuries. the dominant role in the Baltic trade began to be played by the North German Hansa and its main center, Lübeck.

The great geographical discoveries led to the fact that trade routes from the North, Baltic and Mediterranean seas moved to the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. This predetermined the rapid pace of economic development of the European countries located on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and slowed down the development of Germany, the Scandinavian countries, southern Germany and especially Italy, which remained feudal.

From the second quarter of the 17th century. For the leading states of Eastern Europe, the Baltic issue in its various aspects - economic, strategic, military - has become one of the main problems in their international relations. Denmark, Russia, Sweden and Poland began a long struggle among themselves for dominance in the Baltic; the state that emerged victorious from it would assert its dominant position in the entire north 2. As G.V. Forsten, in relation to the Baltic issue, the European states were divided into two halves, one of which wanted to resolve it through war, the other through peaceful negotiations. The war party prevailed. The struggle for hegemony in the Baltic Sea ("Dominium maris Baltici") played a major role in the pan-European and regional conflicts of the 15th-17th centuries. - in the Livonian War of 1558-83, in numerous Danish-Swedish and Polish-Swedish wars, in the Thirty Years War. 1618-48, etc. As a result of these wars from the middle of the 17th century. the Swedish hegemony over the Baltic Sea was established. The victory of Russia over Sweden in the Northern War of 1700-1721. provided her with access to the Baltic Sea and hegemony in the Eastern Baltic.

In addition, the relevance of the historical study of the struggle for dominance in the Baltic Sea is due to the increased attention that has always been in Russian diplomacy to this region, and the fact that in the 15th-17th centuries. relations between the Moscow state and its closest neighbors in the Baltic region played a decisive role in Russia's foreign policy.

The geopolitical changes that took place in the Baltic region in the 15th-17th centuries led to an increased interest of researchers in this topic. Among the names of pre-revolutionary historians who raised questions of the struggle for domination in the Baltic Sea, one should name S.M. Solovyova 3, N. Lyzhina 4, A.I. Zaozersky 5, M.N. Polievktova 6; Kirchhoff G. 7, Yakubova 8 and others.

In the post-revolutionary period, in the Soviet historiography of the 1920s and 1930s, the study of the history of the Baltic issue, like many other topics, ceases. With the outbreak of the Second World War, interest in international politics is growing again. In particular, the authors of the History of Diplomacy 9 investigated the main directions of the Baltic policy of the Moscow state in the 15th-17th centuries. Periodicals published articles that introduced the reader to various aspects of the struggle for the Baltic. So, in 1945 B.F. Porshnev published a series of articles on Russian-Swedish relations of this period. In 1976, his work on the Thirty Years' War was published 10. In 1947, the work of O.L. Weinstein 11. In the 60s. XX century a number of works by I.P. Shaskolsky 12. In most of the works of this period, the regularity of wars for the Russian state was determined by the "urgent need" to gain access to the Baltic Sea.13 Among the journal publications, one should note the work of OL Vaistein "Economic preconditions for the struggle for the Baltic Sea and Russia's foreign policy in the middle of the 17th century ( 1951) 14.

In the 70s, general works on the history of the Scandinavian countries and Sweden by A.S. Cana 15, in which great attention is paid to the Baltic issue. In the 80s - 90s of the XX century, several works were published, touching upon certain topics of diplomatic relations between Russia and Sweden 16.

E.I. Kobzareva in her book "Russia's Diplomatic Struggle for Access to the Baltic Sea in 1655-1661" 17 considered the struggle around Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century, the possibility of making alternative decisions at various stages. The author left a controversial question whether the struggle for the Baltic was in line with the economic and political interests of Russia (the point of view of O.L. Vainshtein) or was a mistake in the policy of Russia (the point of view of B.F. Porshnev). The author shows how Russia was being drawn into the European system of international relations.

In the monographs of B.N. Flory is a specialist in the history of international relations of European countries in the 16th-17th centuries. 18 examines Russia's struggle for access to the Baltic Sea and the impact of relations between Russia and the Commonwealth on the course and results of this struggle. The author analyzes the actions of Russian diplomacy against the background of a range of international problems. The book is written on the basis of a rich source base of Russian and Polish archives and allows, in particular, to give an answer to the question of what factors led to the establishment of Swedish domination in the Baltic in the 17th century.

In 2010, the Moscow publishing house "Quadriga" published a collection of scientific articles "The Baltic issue at the end of the XV-XVI centuries." 19 . The collection contains the materials of the international scientific conference "The Baltic issue at the end of the 15th-16th centuries", held at the history department of St. Petersburg State University in November 2007.

Also in the course of the course work, the work of A. Stenzel "History of wars at sea" 20 was widely used. This edition is based on the five-volume work of the German Admiral Alfred Stenzel "The History of Wars at Sea in its Most Important Manifestations from the Point of View of Naval Tactics", published in Petrograd (1916-1919). The first volume covers the period from the beginning of navigation in antiquity to the first Anglo-Dutch war (1652-1654). The second volume is devoted to the history of naval wars from 1660 to 1900.

The question of the struggle for domination in the Baltic Sea was considered in general works on the history of Russia and Russian diplomacy. 21 The general picture of the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. given by S.V. Bakhrushin in the 1st volume of "History of Diplomacy", Yu.A. Tikhonov and L.A. Nikiforov in II and III volumes of "History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day", A.A. Novoselsky in "Essays on the history of the USSR during the period of feudalism, XVII century." These works are written based on published sources and research. They, in particular, raise the question of the role of the Baltic issue in Russian diplomacy in the 17th century.

A large history of the Baltic issue is given in the collection "History of Europe".

Scientists specializing in the study of the Livonian War of 1558-1583 made their contribution to the study of the history of the struggle for domination in the Baltic. Among the works of this direction one can note the brochures of VD Korolyuk 22 and GA Novitsky 23, the monograph of VD Korolyuk "The Livonian War", published in 1954 24. ... Among contemporary works devoted to the Livonian War, two articles by A. Filushkin should be noted: "The Order of Discord" and "Russian Paris against the whole of Europe", published in 2002 and 2003. respectively in the magazine "Rodina" 25.

The three largest works on the "Baltic issue in the 16th century belong to the Swedish historians A. Atman and S. Svensson and the American historian W. Kirchner. 26 ... A. Atman in his work pays much attention to the economic prerequisites of the Livonian War.

S. Svensson in his work "Economic reasons for Russia's attack on the Livonian state in 1558", using sources of Western origin, shows that the urge of the Russian state to enter the Baltic Sea was dictated primarily by economic considerations.

The work "The Rise of the Baltic Question" by the American historian W. Kirchner is devoted to the relationship of Russia with Western countries in the 16th century in the Baltic region. The author comes to the conclusion that this region will be an arena of interstate struggle for a long time to come.

A number of works by Polish historians of the 19th and early 20th centuries are also devoted to the Baltic issue. In them, within the framework of the struggle for dominium maris Baltici, the policy of the Polish Crown at the mouth of the Vistula, actions against the Duchy of Prussia, for Livonia are considered. 27

Object of research: the Baltic region of the XV-XVII centuries.

Subject of research: the history of the struggle for domination in the Baltic Sea in the 15th-17th centuries.

The purpose of the course work is to explore the history of the Baltic issue and its place in European politics in the 15th-17th centuries.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks should be solved:

Consider the place of the Baltic issue in European politics of the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries;

Describe the main directions of European policy in the Baltic region in the second half of the XVI century;

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Notes of the Faculty of History and Philology of the Imperial St. Petersburg University. The Baltic question in the 16th and 17th centuries (1544-1648)

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Notes of the Faculty of History and Philology of the Imperial St. Petersburg University. The Baltic question in the 16th and 17th centuries (1544-1648)

Forsten Georgy Vasilievich

Notes of the Faculty of History and Philology of the Imperial St. Petersburg University. The Baltic question in the 16th and 17th centuries (1544-1648)

Publisher: Type of. V.S. Balasheva and Co.

Place of publication: St. Petersburg.

Year of publication: 1893-1894

Notes of the Faculty of History and Philology of the Imperial St. Petersburg. universities have been published since 1876.

Part thirty-three of the Notes is devoted to the Baltic issue in the 16th and 17th centuries. The task of this work is to investigate its history, which turned out to be the basis of the foreign policy of such northern states as Russia, Poland, Sweden and Denmark.

The Baltic issue, which was not limited only to claims to commercial dominance and dominance at sea, encompassed politics, religion, and territorial possession of the Baltic coasts. The first period of the Baltic issue is the Livonian War, materials about which are contained in the first volume of this study. The second volume deals with the Baltic issue with late XVI centuries and before the Peace of Westphalia, when the struggle between Sweden and Poland and the Habsburg house unfolds.