The main prerequisites for the formation of a single centralized Russian state. Reasons, features and stages of the formation of a unified Russian state

Russian education centralized state took place in several stages:

• The rise of Moscow - late 13th - early 11th centuries;
• Moscow - the center of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatars (second half of the XIU-first half of the XU centuries);
• Completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow under Ivan III and Vasily III - the end of the ХУ - the beginning of the ХVI centuries.

Stage 1.Rise of Moscow. By the end of the 13th century, the old cities of Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir are losing their importance. The new cities of Moscow and Tver are rising. The rise of Tver began after the death of Alexander Nevsky (1263), when his brother, Prince of Tver Yaroslav, received a label from the Tatars for the Great Vladimir reign.

The beginning of the rise of Moscow is associated with the name of the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniel (1276-1303). Alexander Nevsky distributed honorary destinies to the eldest sons, and Daniil, as the youngest, inherited a small village of Moscow with a district on the far border of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Daniel rebuilt Moscow, developed agriculture and started crafts. The territory tripled and Moscow became a principality, and Daniel was the most authoritative prince in the entire North-East.

Stage 2. Moscow is the center of the fight against the Mongol Tatars. Strengthening of Moscow continued under the children of Ivan Kalita - Simeon Gord (1340-1353) and Ivan II Red (1353-1359). This inevitably had to lead to a clash with the Tatars. The collision took place under the grandson of Ivan Kalita, Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389). Dmitry Donskoy received the throne at the age of 9 after the death of his father Ivan II Red. Under the young prince, the position of Moscow was shaken, but he was supported by the powerful Moscow boyars and the head of the Russian Church, Metropolitan Alexei. The Metropolitan was able to obtain from the khans that the great reign would henceforth be transferred only to the princes of the Moscow princely house.

This increased the authority of Moscow even after Dmitry Donskoy, at the age of 17, built a Kremlin out of white stone, the authority of the Moscow principality became even higher. The Moscow Kremlin became the only stone fortress in the entire Russian Northeast. He became unapproachable.

In the middle of the 14th century, the Horde entered a period of feudal fragmentation. From its composition, independent hordes began to stand out, which waged a fierce struggle for power among themselves. All khans demanded tribute and obedience from Russia. Tension arose in relations between Russia and the Horde.

Stage 3. Completion of the formation of the Russian centralized state. The unification of the Russian lands was completed under Dmitry Donskoy's great-grandson Ivan 3 (1462-1505) and Vasily 3 (1505-1533).

Under Ivan 3:

1) The annexation of the entire North-East of Russia

2) In 1463 - Yaroslavl principality

3) In 1474 - Rostov principality

4) After several campaigns in 1478 - the final elimination of the independence of Novgorod

5) Mongolo dropped - Tatar yoke... In 1476 - Russia refused to pay tribute. Then Khan Akhmat decided to punish Russia and entered into an alliance with the Polish - Lithuanian king Casimir and with a large army set out on a campaign against Moscow. In 1480 - the troops of Ivan 3 and Khan Akhmat met along the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). Akhmat did not dare to cross to the other side. Ivan 3 took a wait and see attitude. Help to the Tatars did not come from Casimir, and both sides understood that the battle was pointless. The power of the Tatars dried up, and Russia was already different. And Khan Akhmat took his troops back to the steppe. This was the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

6) After the overthrow of the yoke, the unification of the Russian lands continued at an accelerated pace. In 1485 the independence of the Tver principality was liquidated.

Under Vasily 3, Pskov (1510) and the Ryazan principality (1521) were annexed

In parallel with the unification of the Russian lands, the creation of the spiritual foundation of the national state, there was a process of strengthening the Russian statehood, the formation of a centralized Russian state. The preconditions for this process were laid down during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

Researchers note that the vassal dependence of the Russian lands on the Golden Horde to a certain extent contributed to the strengthening of Russian statehood. During this period, the volume and authority of the princely power within the country increases, the princely apparatus overwhelms the institutions of people's self-government, and the veche, the oldest organ of democracy, is gradually disappearing from practice throughout the entire territory of the historical core of the future Russian state.

During the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, city liberties and privileges were destroyed. Outflow of money into The Golden Horde prevented the emergence of the "third estate", the support of urban independence in the countries Western Europe.

Significant changes took place in the main sphere of production - agriculture. Agriculture became more productive. Trade in grain and other agricultural products acquired a more lively character. In the localities (including in peasant villages), rich buyers of bread and other products appeared. The largest of them conducted trade operations not only within the parish, but also in larger areas. A large consumer of imported bread, meat and other products was Moscow with its 100,000 population. Some monasteries, especially Trinity-Sergievsky and Solovetsky monasteries, conducted large trading operations in bread and other products.

An important indicator of the strengthening of the social division of labor in the XV - XVI centuries. was the development of handicraft production. Trades and crafts developed both in the tree and especially in the city. Such largest cities like Moscow, Novgorod, there were thousands of craft yards; compared with Ancient Rus the number of handicraft specialties has increased several times. At the same time, some of the artisans broke ties with agriculture and began to work specifically for the market.

The development of handicraft production and trade led to an increase in the number of cities and an increase in their role in the life of the country. In about a century, by the middle of the 16th century, the number of cities more than doubled. At the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries. on the ground, rows, torzhok, settlements grew rapidly, gradually turning into cities.

In Russian cities of the late 15th - mid-16th centuries. hardly more than 2-3% of the population lived, but many cities became centers of economic ties in the region, administrative and cultural centers, objectively turned into strongholds for the unification of the state, although, unlike Western Europe, they did not become the main force of this process.

Thus, the main objective prerequisites for the formation of a unified Russian state were economic development, the economic rapprochement of the Russian lands. However, this process until the middle of the XVI century. was still far from completion and developed more slowly than in a number of Western European countries (England, Holland, France, etc.).

The slower development of production and commodity-money relations in Russia is primarily due to the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which destroyed and slowed down the development of productive forces for a long time. Constant raids were a big obstacle to the normal economic development of the southern regions of Russia. Crimean Tatars, which continued in the 15th - 16th centuries, which ruined everything in their path and diverted significant forces of the Russian state to themselves.

The influence of other factors also affected. While in Western Europe in the XV - XVI centuries. the peasant community was intensively destroyed, in Russia it still retained its isolation, which also hindered the development of commodity-money relations. The countries of Western Europe were also in more favorable natural and climatic conditions for the development of production, had more convenient sea and other communication routes. Russia, with its vast expanses and harsh winters, was cut off from the seas, land roads stretched with the thinnest threads, the rivers were covered with ice for six months. This created additional difficulties for the development of production and trade.

The consequence of the economic development of Rus at this stage was not decomposition, but the strengthening of the feudal system, a certain restructuring of the forms of feudal economy and the exploitation of the peasants. The value of land and labor increased. The need for land grew, especially on the part of the serving nobility. The grand dukes began to distribute widely service people black-grained, state lands. But this fund could not be spent endlessly, since the "sovereign tax" and treasury revenues were reduced. The struggle for land and for workers' hands within the class of feudal lords intensified. The lordly plowing increased due to the reduction of peasant lands. If before the XV century. the predominant form was rent in kind (natural rent), then from the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. labor rent - corvee - began to gain widespread acceptance. In Western Europe, it was already disappearing at this time.

Along with the corvée system, money rent began to develop, especially in the northeastern regions of Russia. The size of corvee and monetary dues grew.

All this led to an increase in the intensity of feudal exploitation of the peasants and the process of their enslavement, which in turn was accompanied by an exacerbation of class contradictions and class struggle. The class protest of the peasants and the urban lower ranks took various forms. These were open demonstrations of townspeople and peasants (a series of urban uprisings in 1547-1550, numerous attacks by peasants on the possessions of feudal lords, arson, etc.), and the flight of peasants and townspeople to the outskirts of the state (at this time the Don Cossacks began to take shape), and numerous cases of unauthorized plowing by peasants of the lands of feudal lords, monasteries, felling of forests, etc., and the intensification of the ideological struggle, which took the form of heresies (the appearance of the sects of Josephites and non-possessors at the end of the 15th - early XVI centuries). To suppress the class protest of the lower classes, to ensure the exploitation of the peasants in the new conditions, the feudal class needed a strong, unified state.

The formation of the Russian centralized state in time coincided mainly with the formation of the Great Russian nationality (the beginning of its formation dates back to the XIV-XV centuries). The formation of the Great Russian nationality on the basis of an economic, cultural, linguistic, territorial community accelerated the growth of national self-awareness, and contributed to the unification of the Russian lands. In turn, the unified state contributed to the creation of a political community and the formation of the Great Russian nationality.

These are the internal socio-economic and political prerequisites for the formation of the Russian unified state.

An important role in this process was played by the foreign policy position of Rus. Not a single large state of Western Europe at the time of centralization was in such unfavorable external conditions as Russia, over which the Tatar-Mongol yoke gravitated for more than two hundred years and which for centuries had to ensure its security from the constant mass raids of the Crimean Tatars and the threat such at that time large and strong countries, like Sweden, Turkey, etc. History of the State and Law of the USSR / Ed. Kalinina G.S. - M .: Legal Literature, 1972. - P. 148 All this led to severe destruction of the economy, to the death of thousands and thousands of people, to the diversion of huge forces and resources to fight external enemies, for centuries pressed on the consciousness of Russians of people. The need for liberation from the Tatar-Mongol yoke and defense against the constant threat of invasions by other foreign conquerors accelerated the formation of a unified Russian state.

The totality of all these reasons developed and clearly manifested itself by the second half of the 15th century. By this time, the forces that were able to ensure the unification of Russia had formed.

In Western Europe, the decisive force for the formation of centralized states was the union royal power and cities supported by petty chivalry. In Russia, growing cities also often united around the great princely power in the struggle for unification. Residents of a number of cities (Tver, Novgorod, etc.) active participation contributed to the annexation of lands to Moscow. But one can hardly speak of a strong and permanent alliance of the cities with the Grand Duke. In Russia, XV century. in contrast to Western Europe, the townspeople have not yet become "more necessary to society than the feudal nobility." The main political force in the creation of the Russian unified, and then the centralized state was the growing feudal nobility in alliance with the grand princely power with the support of the cities. Some boyars, whose interests were closely connected with the great Moscow prince, also stood for a strong unified state. The Russian Church as a whole also needed a strong state power to secure your privileges. However, she also entered into a struggle with the princely power, when it affected the land and other interests of the church and monasteries.

At the center of the entire economic and political process of the unification of Rus were the peasants and urban townspeople. Their labor created economic conditions for unification. The centuries-old military labor, exploits and sacrifices of the people led to the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The masses stood for the elimination of civil strife, for a strong state capable of defending the country's independence.

On the way of the unification process, it was necessary not only to overthrow the foreign yoke, but also to overcome the resistance of significant internal forces of the great and appanage princes, the boyar elite. These elements were strong not in numbers, but in their economic and political power, their influence on various groups of the population associated with them, and the strength of age-old traditions and habits.

The most developed and strong Moscow principality, which led all the Russian lands in the struggle against the Tatar-Mongols, became the center of the unification of the Russian lands.

The final disintegration of Russia in 1132 was inevitable. The development of feudal society always leads to this. In itself, this phenomenon is not negative for the society of the corresponding era. Of course, history lessons in school, as well as the study of ancient literature, instill in descendants a negative shade of fragmentation. Suffice it to recall some of the authors who "reconciled" the princes, warned them about the danger of fragmentation of the state. However, this process, on the contrary, leads to the development of the periphery, the flourishing of culture, productive forces in each land. Fragmentation "squeezes" the maximum out of the specific principalities before uniting into a stronger state with a single market.

Fragmentation coincides with invasion

The centralized formation was not quick, despite all the prerequisites. All the fault is the invasion in the 30s of the 13th century by hordes of Mongol-Tatars. Their expansion postponed the formation of a centralized Russian state for several centuries, and the specific centers of Russia from powerful rich cities turned into seedy villages. During the Mongol occupation, the princely administration ceased to care about the territories entrusted to them. Its main task is to collect tribute to the conquerors in time, while not forgetting about itself. The stronger the principality became, the more dangerous it was considered in the eyes of the Mongols.

Forgotten "exploits" of Alexander Nevsky

The history of this time includes several cases of total destruction of entire cities that dared to rebel against the power of the khans. The most remarkable thing is that such conspiracies were "drowned in blood" by the Russian princes. One of the main accomplices of the Mongols is our "defender" of the faith, Alexander Nevsky. Several times, by order of the khans, he personally led punitive expeditions against the rebels. However, it was Alexander Nevsky who began a new dynasty, with which the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow is connected.

Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state

Former Russia could not but unite into a single state. This was facilitated by:

• One language.
• Common faith.
• Joint traditions, laws.
• Unified measures of account.
• Family ties, etc.

Agricultural development

Until the development of productive forces reaches its peak in the regions, it is too early to talk about unification. But from the beginning, active economic cooperation begins between the once united lands. The reason for this is the intensive development of agriculture.

The earth has already learned to live under oppression. However, one should not forget that the “Mongolian cap” reliably protected against large-scale wars and invasions. Peaceful development has led to the fact that the once empty territories began to develop again. In addition, the invaders showed new industries that the Russians had not previously mastered - animal husbandry and horse breeding. An economic regionalization has taken place, without which active economic interaction would be simply useless. Therefore, the formation of a centralized Russian state was influenced by the need to create a single market. But most of all this was needed by the large feudal lords. The largest of these was the church. We will talk about it later.

The role of the church

The church plays a huge role in the formation of the Russian centralized state. This is due to the fact that the invaders did not touch her during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. On the contrary, they gave her complete freedom and independence. The wisdom of the Mongols has no analogues in history - they never changed the conquered peoples. Being, as a rule, lower in cultural and technical development than the conquered peoples, the Mongol-Tatars tried to adopt all the significant results of their development. However, even what they did not need remained: religion, literature, art. Only political liberties were limited. With regard to economic and cultural development, here was given absolute freedom choice, if only the "exit" is paid on time.

Having adopted Islam, the Horde never raised the issue of infringing Orthodoxy in Russia and imposing another religion. They understood that tribute is considered a common thing for a common man. It doesn't matter where she goes - to Kiev or to Sarai. However, an attempt on faith, on the soul - a person could not put up with this. Life was perceived as a temporary haven before eternal bliss. Try to change this - and the Russian people will die fighting against the invaders.

The occupation of Russia leads to the rise of the church

For this reason, the church in Russia not only did not die out, but, on the contrary, became rich. She was given empty lands, which were ravaged by war and devastation. In addition, the church was a powerful feudal lord. Offended and oppressed people came running to her. Here they received shelter, shelter, but were obliged to work for her good. The conditions, of course, are much milder than those of ordinary feudal lords. The Church was exempted from paying the obligatory Mongolian "exit", and the holy fathers were more modest than the secular aristocrats.

The growing power of the feudal lords demanded a single state

The power of monasteries and large feudal lords demanded a single state in order to legally consolidate their privileged position not in each separate principality, but on a single vast territory with a powerful administrative apparatus. Therefore, the church was the first of the feudal lords to support the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow. It is precisely the move here from Vladimir of the metropolitan, who is the only one for all Russian lands, long before its rise that allows us to draw such conclusions.

Creation of a unified state: stage one (late 13th century - 1462)

The creation of a centralized Russian state took place in several stages. First, the question of the future capital was decided. Today it is hard to believe, but the formation of a centralized Russian state could have happened under the flag of Tver, and not Moscow, since it had much more chances for this:

• favorable geographic location;
• large center;
• initial support of the khans;
• economic and military strength.

Weakness is the main advantage

However, the peculiarities of the formation of the Russian centralized state are that the aforementioned advantages in the struggle for leadership often turned into disadvantages. The khans were suspicious of such centers. First, they disarmed the city of Vladimir, making it only a nominal center. Let us remind you that the main title in Russia was called “The Grand Duke of Vladimir”. With him, Russian princes received a label for administrative leadership in all cities. However, the city of Vladimir itself turned into a village, as the Mongols watched over the impossibility of its rise. They feared that he might become the banner of the liberation struggle against the khans.

Winners are not judged

Under the first Daniil Alexandrovich (1282-1303), only the surrounding villages within a radius of 40 km retreated to Moscow. However, the descendants of the victorious Germans and Swedes for 80 years have done, perhaps, everything that is possible: they became related with the khan, accumulated cash, bought up all the free boyar estates in other principalities, transferred the metropolitan's residence to themselves, and also brutally suppressed the uprising in Tver against the khan, razing this city to the ground.

First resistance

By 1380, believing in his own strength, Prince Dmitry decided to give resistance to the Horde. Of course, no matter what the chronicles and ancient Russian authors said, she was not against the khan, but against one of the Horde murza - Mamai. Speaking modern language, An "upstart" who had no legitimate authority in the entire Horde. But the very fact of disobedience gave rise to the fact that, already officially, 2 years later, in 1382, he personally took part in the campaign against Moscow and burned it to the ground. History textbooks talk a lot about the Battle of Kulikovo, its meaning, victory. However, only two lines in them mention the punitive reprisals against the Russians after this event.

Unification cannot be stopped

In addition to the battle with the Golden Horde, Dmitry Donskoy continued the formation of the centralized Russian state. Dmitrov, Uglich, Starodub, Kostroma, and the territory of Beloozero were annexed to Moscow.

By the end of the 14th century, the first steps were being taken to annex it.However, it was not even possible to secure the right to the Dvina land. Novgorod is a serious richest shopping center not only Russia, but also the world. Huge finances allowed her to give any rebuff to the invaders. Only later, after the annexation of all the lands that supplied bread for the freedom-loving republic, Moscow, with the help of blackmail and an economic blockade, made a breach in the defense of Novgorod. Novgorod's dependence on grain played a cruel joke on the republic.

The final stage

The final stage of the unification is attributed to the year 1462-1533 - from the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) to the end of the reign of his son Vasily III (1505-1533). After them, a single state will exist peacefully only under Ivan the Terrible. If, of course, this time can be called peaceful. After that, there will be a long period of the Time of Troubles and interventions.

The formation of the Russian centralized state (14-15 centuries) is associated with the following major events:

• Accession of Tver.
• Accession of Novgorod.

After the overthrow of the Horde in 1480, there was no longer a force capable of interfering with such a process as the formation of a centralized Russian state.

Chronology of accession

• 1478 - Ivan III annexes Novgorod by force. Moscow is doubling geographically.
• 1485 - the main political enemy of Moscow - Tver - finally joins.
• 1489 - Vyatka land with a large non-Russian population.
• 1510 - Pskov, which at one time separated from Novgorod. After that, the accession of the latter remained only a matter of time.
• 1514 - Moscow, during the war with Lithuania, conquers the ancient Russian city of Smolensk. In the future, this city will still become a stumbling block in the foreign policy of the Russian state and will lead to constant wars with the Commonwealth.
• 1521 - Ryazan formally joins, although in fact a long time ago the Moscow princes won over to their side all the Ryazan boyars.

I would like to say that Muscovy, as our country was then called, was the largest in Europe. But the formation and development of the Russian centralized state was not peaceful. The processes were accompanied by constant wars, bribery, executions, betrayal.

Formation of a centralized Russian state. The politics of Ivan III and Vasily III

After the completion of the unification process, a policy of enslavement of the peasants began. Actually, what the feudal lords wanted, including the church. It was in the code of law of Ivan III of 1497 that the restriction of the right to leave the peasants from the landowners was first recorded. Of course, they did not tighten the screws to the end, but such a restriction itself was already a serious shock. For the time being, the peasants were allowed to move one week before St. George's Day, at the end of November, and one week later, at the beginning of December. However, the Code of Law of 1550 by Ivan the Terrible will also abolish this rule. Hence the saying: "Here's to you, grandmother, and St. George's Day", which rightly reflects the initial mistrust when it was introduced.

Peasants transition rules

As for the timing of the transition, everything is logical here. The agricultural cycle was limited. If the workers leave the landlord in the middle of the cycle, it will turn into ruin for him. There were two innovations during the transition:

• A short period of time, equal to two weeks of autumn.
• The need to pay for the "senior".

The last point means that the peasant did not have the right to just leave the feudal lord. It was also necessary to pay for the hands of the workers, plus for the post, that is, for living in the house. If the employee occupied the yard for more than four years, then he was obliged to pay the full cost of the new building.

Thus, the formation of a single state led to the beginning of the enslavement of the peasants on the land, as there was an administrative opportunity to control their movements.

21. Formation and strengthening of the service centralized state in the 14-16 centuries

Unification of Russian lands around Moscow

The formation of a centralized state is an important stage in the development of Russian statehood. The centralization process has been going on for two centuries. A centralized state can be considered a state in which there are laws recognized in all its parts, a government apparatus that ensures the implementation of laws. The rationale for centralization is the idea of ​​a national community.

The formation of a centralized state chronologically coincides with the formation of monarchies in a number of Western European countries. In Russia, a special, different from the general European, type of feudal society with autocracy at its head was formed, high degree exploitation of the peasantry.

The birth of the state took place in civil strife, the struggle with the Golden Horde, the Kazan, Crimean (from the beginning of the XVI), the Lithuanian principalities, the Livonian Order, the Swedish kingdom.

The originality of statehood was determined by:

1. The length and openness of easily accessible borders.

2. Confessional isolation of Russian Orthodoxy.

3. The Russian state could become centralized only by dropping the economic and political dependence of the Horde

The reasons for the formation of a centralized state are not only the need for the country's independence, but also:

1. The interest of the feudal lords in a centralized apparatus for enslavement.

2. The development of cities dictated an interest in the elimination of feudal fragmentation

3. The interest of the peasantry in stabilizing power.

Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state.

Economic preconditions 1) The emerging local land tenure 2) The need to eliminate customs borders between principalities in order to create favorable conditions for the development of trade 3) The gradual disruption of the naturalness of agricultural production 4) The need to introduce a single monetary system, uniform measures of weight, volume and length in order to ensure favorable conditions for development trade 5) Growth and strengthening of cities as trade and craft centers

Political prerequisites 1) Preservation by North-Eastern Russia, which is under the Mongol-Tatar yoke, of its Orthodoxy and statehood 2) The experience of the Golden Horde from the end of the 14th century of feudal fragmentation.

At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, the Golden Horde split into separate khanates: the Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian, Crimean and Nogai Hordes. 3) The need to fight for national independence 4) The far-sighted policy of the Moscow princes 5) The transformation of Moscow into the religious center of the Russian lands as a result of the transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow 6) The transformation of the Moscow principality into a national center that raised the banner of the liberation struggle Social prerequisites 1) The need of the feudal lords for a strong princely power, with an effective administrative apparatus and an army to suppress the popular uprising 2) The need of boyars and free servants for a powerful and wealthy prince, distributing estates for service 3) The need for feudal lords to consolidate the working hands 4) The need of the townspeople for a strong princely power, capable of overcoming the disunity of the Russian lands, providing conditions for the exchange of goods, as well as the independence of the country.

Factors that influenced the formation of the centralized Russian state. a) Natural, climatic and economic factors.

Low fertile soils

Undercut farming system -> steam three-field (yield reduction) -> the need for community labor

Effects:

1) Commodity production developed slowly. The volume of the total surplus product was extremely low. And this was of tremendous importance for the formation of a certain type of statehood on the territory of the historical core of Russia, forcing the ruling class to create rigid levers of the state mechanism, allowing to withdraw that share of the surplus product that went to the needs of the development of the state itself, society and the ruling class. This is the origin of the strict regime of serfdom and the colonization of new territories, for it was possible to increase the surplus product only through the growth of the agricultural population and the development of new spaces while maintaining the extensive nature of agriculture.

2)The development of the Russian economy as predominantly agricultural led to a slowdown in the process of separation of industry from agriculture, which led to a slowdown in the process of urban formation. The economic development of the Russian lands was negatively influenced by the Tatar-Mongol conquest. The Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the economic life of Russia, to a sharp reduction in population, to the outflow of a significant share of the surplus product to the Horde in the form of tribute, although the Mongols refused to directly include Russian lands in the Golden Horde and did not encroach on the Orthodox faith.

The peculiarities of natural and climatic conditions largely predetermined the peculiarities of the formation of the Russian centralized state.

Unlike the countries of Western Europe, the growth of cities, the development of trade, the formation of a single national market and the formation of economic unity on this basis were not the main reasons for the formation of a centralized state in Russia.

b) Socio-political factors Centralization is not a spontaneous process carried out by historical subjects.

Land tenure on patrimonial and conditional holding is interspersed in the sea of ​​peasant communities, until the end of the 15th century. in North-Eastern Russia, the black lands prevailed. Black lands: communal land tenure of peasants with individual ownership of a personal plot and arable land. Relations in the community were regulated through elective peasant volost self-government under the control of representatives of the prince's administration - governors and volostels.

In the XIV century, the term "peasants" appears.

Black peasants who lived in communities in villages that did not belong to individual feudal lords paid the tax;

Owning peasants who lived on allotment land in the system of feudal estates, dependent on the feudal lord

During the formation of a centralized state, the main form of dependence was field corvee.

The end of the XIII-XIV centuries - the emergence of the need for labor to cultivate specific land in the field corvee, the peasants are still free and do not want to work for the landowner. Motivation requires the power of coercion, namely, state power.

The landowners were interested in attracting the agricultural and handicraft population to their territories, as well as in the development of new lands and colonization. In this sense, the colonization of the population in the Northeastern lands found support from those who sought to unite the lands and create a single state power.

Combining stages (briefly (1) + additions (1.1))

1) (late XIII-80g. XIV) economic upsurge, the struggle between the strongest Russian principalities for the throne (Moscow, Tverskoe, Ryazansk.), 1301 - the rise of Moscow, the beginning of unification around it.

The reasons for the rise of Moscow: Vladimir-Suzdal principality - the center of arable farming and handicrafts, trade; Favorable geographical position: security, control over river and trade routes, developed economic ties with other principalities .; Constant influx of population, growth of villages, settlements, estates; Metropolitan's residence; The active policy of the Moscow princes; Patronage of the Horde. Moscow is becoming an economic, political, spiritual and cultural center.

Ivan Kalita(1325-1340). He kept in touch with the Golden Horde, paid tribute, enlisted her support, received a label to reign.

Dmitry Ivanovich (1359-1389). The rallying of the principalities around Moscow to fight the Golden Horde. The victory of 1380 (the Battle of Kulikovo) became possible because the army was an all-Russian territory. and nationwide in composition, the motive for the defense of a single Russian land determined the victory. Victory value: the revival of the national consciousness of Russia, a new ethnic community - Moscow Russia.

1.1 The initial stage of integration(end of XIII-first half of XIV centuries)

In North-Eastern Russia, the unification of large feudal centers and the selection of the strongest among them

The main rivals in the struggle for the role of the center: Moscow and Tver

Population growth due to the influx of peasants and artisans (economic and political upsurge)

NB! The important role of the Horde. To keep Russia in subjection and to draw income from it, a centralized power was needed. But a strong prince would be dangerous, and the unity of Russia under his rule is a direct threat to the dominion of the Horde. The Horde could not allow the strengthening of one prince and constantly intervened in the rivalry between the Moscow and Tver princes. After the reign and struggle of Yuri Danilovich of Moscow and Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tverskoy, the time of Ivan Kalita came.

Ivan I Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340) (brother of Yuri, (1328-1340), grandson of Nevsky, laid the foundation of the centralized state and the foundations of the future power of the Moscow state, had an ally in the form Orthodox Church).

Main directions of activity - Implementation of two principles: Peace - and - Order.

Expansion of the borders of the Moscow principality

Purchase large territories- Galich, Uglich, Beloozero (1328). Accession of part of the Rostov principality (1331)

Maintaining good relations with the Horde

Fighting Tver for a shortcut

Participation together with the Horde army in a punitive campaign against Tver (1327)

Obtaining the right to collect tribute from the Russian lands and deliver it to the Horde

Close cooperation with the Orthodox Church

Transfer of the center of Russian Orthodoxy from Vladimir to Moscow (from 1328)

Construction of five white-stone churches in Moscow (from 1326 to 1333)

An alliance with Novgorod was reached in 1335. Due to the maintenance of communication with the Horde, the positions of the Moscow principality were strengthened.

Semyon Proud(1340-1353, son of Kalita)

Continuation of the policy of Ivan Kalita

Good relationship with the Horde  Possessing a great reign label

Conducting a balanced foreign policy  No military clashes with neighboring principalities

Submission of Novgorod through the appointment of Moscow governors

Result: Raised the importance of Moscow to the level of an all-Russian capital

IvanIIRed(1353-1359, son of Kalita)

Continuation of the policy of Kalita and Proud

Possession of the Great Reign Label

The beginning of hostilities with Lithuania

Conducting a peace-loving policy in relation to neighboring principalities

Second half of the XIV century The northeastern lands with the center in Moscow received the name "Great Russia".

Basis: Moscow's defeat of its political rivals, the transition from the assertion of Moscow's political supremacy in Russia to the state unification of the Russian lands around it and the organization of a nationwide struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke.

Board of Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389). Support for Metropolitan Alexei.

Main policy directions

Unification of the Moscow and Vladimir principalities

Struggle for leadership in Russia  Confrontation:

With the Horde - the desire to weaken the dependence of the Russian principalities on the Horde

Fight against Mamai

• With Tver - for a shortcut to the great reign, victory

  With Ryazan - on the disputed territories, victory

The collapse of the Horde-Lithuanian plans to weaken Russia

The impetus for the further unification of the Russian lands under the rule of Moscow

Creation of prerequisites for the liberation of Russia from the Horde

The Horde recognized the primacy of Moscow in Russia.

2) (80 years XIV-middle XV). further unification, struggle with the Moscow appanage princes.

The victory of the Moscow Principality under Vasily II was conditioned by the alliance with the Horde, the support of the church. Polit. unification ended under Ivan III(1462-1505) and his son Vasily III (1505-1533). Ivan III managed to unite almost all of Russia

2.2 Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy handed over to his eldest son Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) by will the Grand Duchy of Vladimir as the "fatherland" of the Moscow princes, thereby not recognizing the khan's right to issue a label. The process of the merger of the Vladimir and Moscow principality is over. From that moment on, Moscow confirmed the role and significance of the territorial and national center of the emerging Russian state. Even under Dmitry Donskoy, Dmitrov, Starodub, Ulich and Kostroma, vast territories in the Volga region, were annexed. At the end of the XIV century. the principality of Nizhny Novgorod lost its independence. The attempt of the appanage princes led by the Galician princes to suspend the elimination of the order of feudal fragmentation did not give any result. The defeat of the appanage princes created the conditions for the transition to the final stage of unification.

The main activities of Vasily I

Horde - Reconciliation and Receiving the Great Reign Label

Further growth of the Moscow principality

3) (2nd half of the 15th - early 16th century) formation of a single state. Associated with the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III.

The overthrow of the yoke (since 1476 Ivan III stopped paying tribute), the annexation by force of the Novgorod land (1478), the Tver principality (1485), the Pskov rep. (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan principality (1521).

The single territory was divided into counties, camps and volosts. In 1497, a legislative collection was put into effect - the Code of Laws, which enshrined the rule for the transition of peasants from one feudal lord to another, was the beginning of the legal enslavement of the peasants. Boyar Duma - Council under the Grand Duke. Orders are central government bodies. The Moscow army is a single military body of the noble landowners. In the process of creating the state, there was a redistribution of land ownership, a change in the structure of the ruling class of feudal lords. The service nobility appeared.

The isolation of Russia from Western Europe was overcome. Development of culture, use of the experience of Europe.

The establishment of one-man power, the liquidation of independent principalities, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, the transition from a defensive to an offensive foreign policy are necessary conditions. The need for unity for survival contributed to the consolidation of the nation, the growth of the prestige of the state. Monarchical power stood over the interests of various estates, therefore it was the most effective state. form for the unification of the country.

A significant contribution to the strengthening of the Russian centralized state was made by Ivan III (1462-1505). He concentrated power in his hands, was supported by all estates.

With the support of the church, the nobility, the townspeople, the peasants, Ivan III laid the foundation of the empire and brought the struggle against the yoke to an end. Moscow governors in the former princely capitals - Nizhny Novgorod, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Starodub, Beloozero.

In 1478 Ivan III conquered the Novgorod feudal republic. Then the Moscow troops conquered the Tver Grand Duchy. In 1480 the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown. The ruler of the Golden Horde - Ahmed Khan made an alliance with the Polish king Casimir IV, invaded the Russian land in order to force the Moscow Grand Duke to pay tribute again. The situation was complicated by the outbreak of rebellion of the appanage princes - brothers of Ivan III.

"Standing on the Ugra River" - the liberation of the Russian land from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, which grew out of the Golden Horde, remained.

Ivan III was helped with advice by Metropolitan Jonah, who took care of him. He opposed the separatist policy of appanage princes, for the creation of a strong centralized state, for its liberation from the Horde yoke, against any claims of Lithuania and Poland. Ivan III united almost all of Russia and became the first real sovereign of All Russia since 1485.

Under Ivan III:

Major changes in the structure of landownership and ruling classes;

The service nobility and local (conditional) land tenure have grown considerably;

Army: instead of the feudal squads supplied by the boyars, the army was completed with noble militias, noble cavalry, foot regiments with firearms (pishchal).

A centralized administration apparatus was formed with the participation of the nobility - the Boyar Duma, the Grand Palace and the Treasury.

The demand for labor is growing. A new legislative order is needed.

Judicial reform of Ivan III in 1497 in the form of a special collection of laws "Code of Laws". A unified all-Russian legislation has been introduced. Prohibition of bribes for legal proceedings, the establishment of uniform court fees for all types of judicial activities.

According to the Code of Law on the territory of the entire state, there were:

the court of the Grand Duke and his children, the court of the boyars and okolnichy, the court of governors and volostels (the country's territory was divided into counties, counties into volosts and camps.

Power in the districts belonged to the princely governors, and in the volosts and camps - to the volosts). The Code of Law established the obligatory presence of the deacon at the boyar court, the kissers (courtiers, elders) and the best people on the court in the field.

some norms of the old law have also been preserved. Thus, the complainants could resolve the dispute by "field", that is, by a judicial duel on clubs. The judges had to watch that one did not kill the other.

According to the Code of Law, the long-standing rule of peasants transferring from one owner to another within two weeks a year has become a national norm. In a single transition period - a week before November 26 and after - the peasant could leave only after paying all the debts and the "elderly". The Code of Law forbade the enslavement of free people into slaves.

Ivan III carried out a calendar reform. Since 1472 (since 7000 from the creation of the world), the New Year began to be celebrated not on March 1, but on September 1.

During the reign of Ivan III, four aspects of Russian foreign policy were clearly visible:

northwestern (Baltic problem)

western (Lithuanian question)

southern (Crimean)

eastern (Kazan and Nogai).

In accordance with the new political position as a sovereign over the united Russian land, Ivan III in official relations called himself "the sovereign of all Russia", and sometimes "tsar". The title "sovereign" was combined with the idea of ​​unlimited power, the term "tsar" was used earlier in Russia in relation to the Byzantine emperor and the Tatar khan and corresponded to the title "emperor". Under Ivan, a new coat of arms was adopted in the form of a two-headed eagle. The external expression of continuity with the Byzantine Empire was the "barmas" (mantle) and the cap of Monomakh.

The last years of the final stage of the unification of Russian lands fell on the beginning of the reign of Vasily III (1505-1533). Vasily III was nicknamed "the last collector of the Russian land."

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

Vasily III bequeathed the grand-ducal throne to his eldest son Ivan IV (1533-1584)

Grand Duke Vasily III died when his son was three years old. After the death of his mother, Grand Duchess Elena, the country was ruled by the Boyar Duma. Power passed from one boyar group to another. As a result of many years of bloody strife, the relatives of the Grand Duchess, the Glinskys, prevailed.

The uncle of the young Grand Duke Mikhail Glinsky and his grandmother Anna, on the advice and with the help of Metropolitan Macarius, managed to prepare an act of great state importance - Ivan's wedding to the throne. The king received the crown from the hands of the head of the church. This emphasized that the church fully supports and blesses monocracy, as well as the special place of the church in the state. The Church became the mother of royal power and its guarantor. The coronation took place on January 16, 1547, when young Ivan was 16 years old.

The act of crowning the kingdom did not, however, put an end to the boyar rule. The popular uprising of 1547 ended with him, which became a spontaneous outburst of indignation at the boyar civil strife and exorbitant need.

The uprising resulted in:

the liberation of the tsar from the heavy tutelage of the boyars and the promotion of new people into his entourage, expressing the interests of the serving nobility and the top of the city settlement.

A government was formed based on a compromise between the interests of the various estates.

Metropolitan Macarius played a key role in the formation of the new ruling group. With his participation, those persons who symbolized the new government - the "Chosen Rada" were surrounded by the tsar. We are talking, first of all, about Alexei Fedorovich Adashev (a non-native nobleman) and priest Sylvester, as well as princes Andrei Kurbsky, Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Serebryany, boyars Sheremetyev, Viskovat, etc. reforms.

The main goals of the reforms were:

1) create a state on a unified legal basis, put an end to the specific feudal order;

2) create a system of supreme government in which the royal power would be limited by "wise advice";

3) create a powerful army of central command;

4) active foreign policy, aimed at expanding lands, primarily, the conquest of the Volga region.

What has been done to achieve these goals?

1) The liberation of the nobles from the jurisdiction of the boyars-governors

2) The abolition of parochialism and the establishment of appointment to service as a state obligation

3) Adoption of the new Code of Law 1550

By which:

jurors appeared at every trial

abolished feudal immunities

introduced tarkhan letters (tax exemption)

a unified legislation was created, which confirmed St.

4) Zemskaya reform, which introduced local elected self-government instead of the power of governors. The draft population (the townspeople and the black-haired ones) chose "beloved heads" or elders from among the boyar children to collect taxes in favor of the state and judicial functions. Thus, direct ties were established between the state and its population, the inhabitants of the former lands turned into subjects of one state.

5) All lands rewritten and a unified taxation system was established. New taxes have been established - "food money" for the maintenance of the streltsy army and "polyanny money" for the ransom of prisoners

6) Central government reform, which included the formation of a system of new orders: Pomestny, Kazansky, Posolsky

7) Military reform, which provided for the formation of an officer corps - 1070 nobles - the support of the tsar and autocratic power and established two types of service - by device (by choice) and by fatherland (by origin).

The rifle army was formed according to the instrument. Any free person could become a Sagittarius, the service was not hereditary. Navy Russia did not have it then. V Livonian War Ivan IV launched a privateer fleet in the Baltic Sea in order to impede the trade of Poland, Lithuania and Sweden. In October 1570 the mercenary flotilla of Grozny was arrested by the Danish king, the ships were confiscated

8) Church reform. In 1551, on the initiative of Grozny, a Church Council was convened. His decisions are summarized in One Hundred Chapters (Stoglavy). The tsar made a speech, called on the church to approve the reforms and the Code of Law, and proposed to fix the church structure in a non-acquisitive spirit. The council, headed by Macarius, did not approve of this proposal. Church-monastery land tenure was declared unshakable, those who attempted it were called predators and robbers. A compromise was reached: the Council allowed the monasteries to buy and sell land only with the royal permission and forbade the churchmen to engage in usury. The cathedral unified all rituals and worship

9) In 1552 and 1556 the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were annexed. The Volga Way became Russian.

The reforms of the government of Ivan IV tended not only to strengthen the centralized state, but also to turn it into an estate-representative monarchy. The events of later years destroyed many of the results of these reforms. The first to put his hand to this was Ivan the Terrible himself. The path along which the members of the "Chosen Rada" led the state could lead to the incompetence of the monarch, such as, for example, in Poland, where the gentry actually ruled the country. Such an example frightened Grozny. He proceeded to take decisive action and, in order to strengthen the autocracy, created an oprichnina.

Oprichnina.

Oprichnina is an instrument of coercion, with the help of which the tsar strengthened his power:

The main idea is the division of the sovereign's servants into those who "serve closely," that is, faithful, and those who are not so reliable.

The corps of loyal servants, with the help of which you can protect yourself and your power from the assassination attempts of those around him and unreliable "siglikts", should be replenished from the noble lower classes.

The rise of a servant person - from rags to riches - should forever chain him to the king. It does not follow from this that Grozny created his apparatus of power out of noble people alone.

The noblemen also served in the highest posts, but they were "layered" by the noble ones.

In 1564, the tsar left Moscow for the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda and announced that he was leaving his kingdom, because "the boyars and all the clerks" caused all kinds of losses to both the population of the country and the state. The goal is to enlist the support of the townspeople and put forward their own conditions for return. To "hit the head with the sovereign and cry", a representative delegation from the clergy, boyars, nobles, clerks, merchants and townspeople went to the Aleksandrov Sloboda. After listening to the envoys, Grozny agreed to return to Moscow, but on condition that from now on the tsar, at his discretion, would execute those whom he deemed necessary without the consent of the church.

On February 2, 1565, Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich solemnly entered the capital, and on the next day announced to the clergy, boyars and noble officials about the establishment of the oprichnina.

The main activities were:

1) the allocation of oprichnina territories - the sovereign's destiny;

2) the formation of the oprichnina corps;

3) the formation of the oprichnina court - the supreme leadership of the main services and institutions of the state. His subordination included law enforcement agencies (Razryadny, Yamskaya, Dvortsovy, Kazenny orders). In the oprichnina, the Boyar Duma was established (along with the Zemsky Boyar Duma).

All forces opposed to the autocracy were persecuted. The victims of the oprichnina terror were not only representatives of the opposition boyars, aristocracy, but also independent nobles and boyar children. Landowners of all categories became victims of land terror, that is, land confiscations - everyone who was not close to the king did not prove their loyalty. In an effort to create the impression of nationwide support for his policy, Grozny continued to convene Zemsky Sobors from representatives of all strata of landowners, as well as the posad.

The decree on the introduction of the oprichnina was submitted for approval Zemsky Cathedral in February 1565 brutal reprisals befell the Zemstvo people, who appealed to the tsar with a request to abolish the oprichnina. Most of the members of the Boyar Duma (zemstvo) were destroyed during the years of the oprichnina, the Duma turned into a submissive instance.

At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, as a result of a long and exhausting struggle against the Majesty of the Golden Horde in Russia, the preconditions were formed for the unification of disparate lands into a centralized state.

Among these prerequisites, we should first of all note the ideological prerequisites, which matured long before the economic ones. Representatives of Russian political thought persistently pursued the idea of ​​the unity of all Russian lands as the basis of the state existence of Russia. Everywhere, both in cities and in the countryside, there was growing discontent of the population, which was tired of endless and senseless feudal wars, which did not stop even in cases when the country was devastated by an external enemy. The Russian land "from the Battle of Kalsk to the Mamayev slaughter with longing and sadness is engulfed, crying, remembering its sons" notes "Zadonshchina", a monument to the history of the 15th century. The unification of the Russian lands becomes a national aspiration, the spokesmen for this idea and preachers in practice were the Moscow princes.

But the main reason centralization of n states was a general rise in the productive forces. As a result of the tireless labor of Russian peasants and artisans, conditions gradually matured for the further development of the feudal economy. It was based on agriculture and handicrafts. From the course on the history of the Fatherland, it is known that during this period in Russia there was a significant increase in sown areas, the introduction of a steam grain farming system, possibly with a three-field crop rotation. Livestock and poultry farming is developing.

Crafts became an integral part of the economy (due to the invasion of Batu, there was stagnation). There is a separation of handicrafts from agriculture, a differentiation of handicrafts, and a growing number of handicraft specialties.

In connection with the development of crafts, cities are getting stronger. The political unification of the Russian lands required the strengthening of economic ties, territorial disunity and discord between the princes significantly hampered this sphere of the economy.

The centralization of the state was facilitated by the ever-increasing class struggle of the peasants against the feudal lords, the latter, in order to suppress the resistance of the peasants, needed a strong centralized power. The rise of the economy and the emergence of the opportunity to receive an ever greater surplus product prompted the feudal lords to expand their holdings by acquiring new land and strengthened the peasants already in the patrimony. The desire of the feudal lords to legally consolidate, i.e. to enslave the peasants to their estates.

The forms of the class struggle were different, including: thief and robbery, directed against feudal property and feudal lords, refusals of the peasants, i.e. unauthorized transitions from one owner to another, flight to the north, east and south.

Thus, enslavement to the peasants could only be carried out in a powerful centralized state that unites the entire territory of Russia. The class struggle in the cities was expressed in the form of unrest and uprisings. It is known that in the XIV - the first half of the XVI century in Moscow (1382, 1445, 1547), Novgorod the Great, Tver, Rostov uprisings broke out against the Golden Horde oppression and feudal exploitation. The reason that hastened the unification of Russia was the need for protection from the incessant foreign invasion.

Among the prerequisites indicated above, the leading role was played by socio-economic development and class struggle. The very economic and social development XIV - first half. XVI centuries, hardly led to the formation of a centralized state. The great Moscow princes were the initiators of the solution of the national task of uniting the Russian lands.

First of all, large feudal lords and princes, who did not want to lose their independence, as well as the Golden Horde khans, opposed the unification.

The peculiarity of the formation of the Russian centralized state was that it took shape as a multinational one. The Tatars, Mari, Udmurts, Sami, Komi, Mari, Khanty, Mordovians, Karelians, Chuvashs, Meshchera, etc. became part of Russia. Under the influence of a more developed economy and culture of the Russian people, their economic and cultural growth accelerated, the strength of resistance to feudal and foreign oppression.

Moscow played a historical role in the unification of Russia into a centralized state, which eventually became the capital of the state, emerging as a city in the 12th century, Moscow was not the center of a special principality, only sometimes it was given to the younger sons of the Rostov-Suzdal princes. Since the XIII century. Moscow became a capital city with an independent prince. The first prince was Daniel - the son of Alexander Nevsky. Under Daniel, at the turn of the XIII - XIV centuries. the unification of the Russian principalities began. The foundation of Moscow's power was laid during the reign of Daniel's son Ivan Kalita (1325-1340). Ivan Kalita received a label from the Tatar khans for a great reign, the right to collect tribute from almost all Russian lands. The flexible policy of Ivan Kalita allowed the Russian lands to recover from the wars, to ensure peace in Russia.

Moscow became the residence of the metropolitan of the Orthodox Church, the metropolitan see was moved from Vladimir to Moscow. By the end of the XIV century. The Moscow principality became so strong that it switched to a policy of opposing the Tatar khans. The first crushing blows were dealt to the Golden Horde, the most significant of which was the victory of the Russian army under the leadership of the great Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich (1359-1389) on the Kulikovo field (1380). The final phase of the unification of the Russian lands came under Ivan III (1462-1505), when Novgorod the Great in 1478, the Grand Duchy of Tver in 1485, and the Cherkizovo-Seversky lands were annexed to the Moscow principality. After the famous "Standing on the Ugra" (1480), Russia finally freed itself from the Tatar yoke.

The unification of the Russian lands was completed at the beginning of the 16th century. under the Grand Duke Vasily III. He annexed Pskov to Moscow in 1510, Smolensk in 1514, the Ryazan principality in 1521. Under Ivan IV (1533-1584), the Russian state annexed the Kazan Khanate in 1552, the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556. Siberia -1581 Along with the unification of Russia, the power of the Moscow Grand Duke increased with a simultaneous fall in the role of remote princes.

A significant phenomenon was the division not into independent principalities and not even into appanages, but into simple administrative units - counties headed by representatives of the central government.

Thus, the formation of a centralized Russian state was a progressive phenomenon in the history of the Russian state. The elimination of feudal fragmentation created an opportunity for the further development of productive forces, economic and cultural development of the country, the international authority of the Russian state.