Dovgyallo a reader on the history of the ancient world. Reader on the history of the ancient world

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

VORONEZH STATE

PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

CHRESTOMATIA ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD (Part 2. History of Antiquity)

Voronezh 2011

Reader on the history of the ancient world. (Part 2. History of Antiquity) - Voronezh: Voronezh Publishing House state university, 2007 .-- p.

Compiled by Cand. ist. Sci., Associate Professor, Voronezh State Pedagogical University

Cand. ist. Sci., Associate Professor, Voronezh State Pedagogical University

Reviewer

Topic 1. SOCIETY AND STATE OF SPARTA

1. Characteristics of sources.

2. The emergence of the Spartan state.

3. Dependent population of ancient Sparta.

4. “Community of Equals”:

1) its organization, the role of regulation;

2) basic occupations, everyday life;

3) family relations;

4) upbringing and education of the Spartans.

5. The state system of ancient Sparta.

Sources and Literature

Workshop on the history of the ancient world. Issue 2. Ancient Greece and Rome / Ed. ... M. 1981. Topic 2.

Aristotle. Politics, II, VI // Aristotle. Op. in 4 volumes.T.4. M., 1984.S. 428-434.

Plutarch. Lycurgus // Comparative Biographies. M., 1961.T.1. S.53-77.

To the problem of “Likurgov legislation” // Problems of ancient statehood. L., 1952.S. 33-59.

Andreev “riders” // VDI. 1969. No. 4. S.24-36.

Andreev as a type of polis // Ancient Greece. Vol. 1. Formation and development of the policy. M., 1983.S. 194-216.

Andreev Sparta: culture and politics // VDI. 1987. No. 4. S. 70-86.

Andreev gynecocracy // Woman in the ancient world. M., 1995.S. 44-62.

Dyakonov, helots and serfs in early antiquity // VDI. 1973. No. 4. WITH.

Zhurakovsky on the history of ancient pedagogy. M., 1963.

From new works on lotia and similar forms of dependence // VDI. 1961. No. 2. S. 138-142.

Kolobov Sparta (X - VI centuries BC). L., 1957.

Pechatnova of Sparta: the period of archaism and classics. SPb .: Humanitarian Academy. 2001 .-- 600s. (http: // centant. ***** / centrum / publik / books / pechatnova / 001.htm)

Strogetsky of the conflict between ehorat and royal power in Sparta // Antique polis. L., 1979.S. 42-57.

The text is cited by edition: Plutarch. Comparative biographies in two volumes, Moscow: Nauka Publishing House, 1994. Second edition, revised and enlarged. T. I.
Translation, translation processing for this reprint, notes.

1. It is impossible to report anything strictly reliable about the legislator Lycurgus: there are the most contradictory stories about his origin, and about travels, and about his death, as well as about his laws, and about the structure he gave to the state. But most of all, there is disagreement about the time at which he lived ...

2. Of the ancestors of Lycurgus, Soi gained the greatest fame, during whose reign the Spartans enslaved the helots and took away a lot of land from the Arcadians ... Euripont was the first to weaken the one-man rule of the royal power, currying favor with the crowd and pleasing it. As a result of these indulgences, the people grew bolder, and the kings who ruled after Eurypontos either aroused the hatred of their subjects with drastic measures, or, seeking their favor or out of their own impotence, bowed down to them, so that lawlessness and disorder took possession of Sparta for a long time. The king, the father of Lycurgus, also died from them ...

4. Having set off, Lycurgus first visited Crete. He studied state structure, became close to the most famous of the Cretans and approved and adopted some of the local laws, in order to then plant them in their homeland ... The Egyptians claim that Lycurgus visited them and, fervently praising the isolation of Sparta, separated the artisans and artisans and created an example of a state, truly beautiful and pure ...

5. The Lacedaemonians yearned for Lycurgus and repeatedly invited him to return, saying that the only difference between their current kings and the people is the title and honors that they receive, while the nature of a leader and mentor is visible in him, a certain power that allows him to lead of people. The kings themselves also looked forward to his return, hoping that in his presence the crowd would treat them more respectfully. The Spartans were in such a state of mind when Lycurgus came back and immediately began to change and transform the entire state structure. He was convinced that individual laws would not be of any use if, as if healing a sick body suffering from all sorts of ailments, with the help of cleansing agents, did not eliminate the bad mixing of juices and prescribe a new, completely different way of life. With this in mind, he first of all went to Delphi. Having made sacrifices to God and questioning the oracle, he returned, carrying that famous saying in which the Pythia called him "God-loving," rather a god than a man; to the request for good laws, an answer was received that the deity promises to grant the Spartans orders that are incomparably better than in other states. Encouraged by the announcements of the oracle, Lycurgus decided to involve the best citizens in the execution of his plan and conducted secret negotiations first with friends, gradually capturing an ever wider circle and rallying everyone for the cause he had conceived ...

Of the many innovations of Lycurgus, the first and most important was the Council of Elders. In conjunction with ... the tsarist power, possessing an equal right to vote in the decision of the most important matters, this Council became a guarantee of prosperity and prudence. The state, which rushed from side to side, leaning now towards tyranny, when the kings won the victory, now to complete democracy, when the crowd prevailed, putting the power of the elders in the middle, like ballast in the hold of a ship, the power of the elders, gained balance, stability and order: twenty-eight the elders now constantly supported the kings, resisting democracy, but at the same time helped the people to keep the fatherland from tyranny. Aristotle explains the named number by the fact that before Lycurgus had thirty supporters, but two, frightened, withdrew from participation in the case. The spheres, however, say that from the very beginning there were twenty-eight of them ...

6. Lycurgus attached so much importance to the power of the Council that he brought from Delphi a special divination on this score, which is called "retra". It reads: “To erect the temple of Zeus of Sillanius and Athena of Sillania. Divide into philes and obs. Establish thirty elders together with chiefs. From time to time to convene a Meeting between Babika and Knakion, and there to propose and dissolve, but the rule and power belong to the people. " The order to "divide" refers to the people, and phylae and obs refer to the names of units and groups into which it should have been divided. By "chiefs" are meant kings. ... Aristotle claims that Knacion is a river, and Babika is a bridge. Meetings took place between them, although in that place there was no portico or any other shelter: according to Lycurgus, nothing like this contributes to sound judgment, on the contrary, it causes only harm, occupying the mind of the audience with trifles and nonsense, scattering their attention for they, instead of doing business, are looking at statues, paintings, theater pleas, or the ceiling of the Council, which is too richly ornamented. None of the ordinary citizens were allowed to submit their judgment, and the people, converging, only approved or rejected what the elders and kings would suggest. But later, the crowd of various kinds of exceptions and additions began to distort and disfigure the approved decisions, and then the tsars Polydor and Theopomp made the following note to the retra: "If the people decide incorrectly, the elders and kings should be disbanded," that is, the decision not to be considered accepted, but to leave and dissolve the people on the grounds that they distort and reinterpret the best and most useful. 7. So, Lycurgus gave state administration a mixed character, but his successors, seeing that the oligarchy is still too strong ..., throw on it, like a bridle, the power of the ephorian overseers - about one hundred and thirty years after Lycurgus, during the reign of Theopompus. The first efhora were Elat and his comrades.

8. The second and most daring of Lycurgus's transformations is the redistribution of land. Since terrible inequality reigned, crowds of the poor and needy burdened the city, and all the riches passed into the hands of a few, Lycurgus, in order to drive out arrogance, envy, anger, luxury and even older, even more formidable ailments of the state - wealth and poverty, persuaded the Spartans to unite everything land, and then divide them anew and continue to preserve property equality, and look for superiority in valor, for there is no other difference between people, no other primacy than that which is established by censure of the shameful and praise of the beautiful. Moving from words to deeds, he divided Laconia between the periecs, or, in other words, the inhabitants of the surrounding places, into thirty thousand plots, and the lands belonging to the city of Sparta itself - into nine thousand, according to the number of Sparta families ... Each allotment was of this size to bring seventy medimens of barley per man and twelve per woman, and a proportionate quantity of liquid food. Lycurgus believed that this would be sufficient for a way of life that would preserve his fellow citizens strength and health, while they should not have other needs ...

9. Then he took up the division of movable property in order to completely eliminate all inequality, but realizing that open seizure of property would cause sharp discontent, he overcame greed and greed by indirect means. First, he removed all gold and silver coins from use, leaving only iron coins in circulation, and even that, with a huge weight and size, assigned an insignificant value, so that a large warehouse was required to store an amount equal to ten mines, and for transportation - pair harness. As the new coin spread, many types of crime in Lacedaemon disappeared. Who, in fact, could have the desire to steal, take bribes or rob, since it was unthinkable to hide the uncleanly acquired property, and it did not represent anything enviable, and even that which was broken into pieces did not receive any use? After all, Lycurgus, as reported, ordered to temper iron by dipping it in vinegar, and this deprived the metal of its strength, it became fragile and no longer suitable for anything else, for it did not give in to any further processing.

Then Lycurgus expelled useless and unnecessary crafts from Sparta. However, most of them, and without that, would have left after the generally accepted coin, not finding a market for their products. It was pointless to carry iron money to other Greek cities - they did not have the slightest value there, and they only made fun of them - so that the Spartans could not buy anything from foreign trifles, and in general merchant goods stopped coming to their harbors. Within the confines of Laconia, neither a skillful orator, nor a wandering charlatan fortuneteller, nor a pimp, nor a goldsmith or silversmith was now there - after all, there was no more coin! But by virtue of this, luxury, gradually deprived of everything that supported and nourished it, faded and disappeared by itself. Wealthy citizens lost all their advantages, since the wealth was closed to the people, and it was hiding in their homes without any business. For the same reason, ordinary and necessary utensils - beds, chairs, tables - were made by the Spartans like nowhere else, and the Laconian coton was considered, according to Cretius, indispensable in campaigns: if you had to drink water that was unsightly in appearance, it hid the color of the liquid with its color, and since the dregs lingered inside, settling on the inner side of the convex walls, the water reached the lips already somewhat purified. And here the merit belongs to the legislator, for the artisans, forced to abandon the production of useless objects, began to invest all their skill in the essentials.

10. In order to inflict an even more decisive blow on luxury and passion for wealth, Lycurgus carried out the third and most wonderful transformation - he established common meals: citizens gathered together and all ate the same dishes, deliberately set for these meals ... This, of course, is extremely important , but more importantly, thanks to joint nutrition and its simplicity, wealth, as Theophrastus says, ceased to be enviable, ceased to be wealth. It was impossible either to take advantage of the luxurious decoration, nor to enjoy it, nor even to put it on display and at least to amuse his vanity, since the rich man went to the same meal with the poor man ... It was also impossible to come to a general dinner, having previously had enough at home: everyone was vigilantly watching a friend after a friend and, if they found a person who did not eat or drink with the others, they reproached him, calling him unbridled and pampered.

12. The Cretans call common meals "Andriy", and the Lacedaemonians "fiditias" - whether because they were reigned by friendship and benevolence, or because they taught simplicity and frugality. Likewise, nothing prevents us from supposing, as some have done, that the first sound is here added and that the word "edithii" should be derived from the word "nourishment" or "food."

About fifteen people gathered for the meal, sometimes a little less or more. Each companion brought a monthly medimn of barley flour, eight hoys of wine, five mines of cheese, two and a half mines of figs, and, finally, a very small amount of money to buy meat and fish. If one of them made a sacrifice or hunted, a part of the sacrificial animal or prey was received for the common table, but not all of the whole, for he who hesitated in the hunt or because of the sacrifice could dine at home, while the rest had to be present. The Spartans strictly observed the custom of joint meals until later times. When King Agid, having defeated the Athenians, returned from the campaign and, wanting to dine with his wife, sent for his part, the polemarchs refused to hand her over. The next day, the king, in anger, did not bring the prescribed sacrifice, and the polemarchs imposed a fine on him.

Children also attended meals. They were brought there as if to a school of common sense, where they listened to conversations about state affairs, witnessed amusements worthy of a free man, learned to joke and laugh without vulgar antics and meet jokes without offense. Calmly enduring ridicule was considered one of the main advantages of a Spartan. Whoever became unbearable could ask for mercy, and the mocker immediately fell silent. The senior at the table said to each of those who entered, pointing to the door: "Speeches do not go beyond the threshold." They say that those who wanted to become a participant in the meal were subjected to the following test. Each of the companions took a piece of bread crumb in his hand and, like a pebble for voting, silently threw it into a vessel, which the servant brought, holding it on his head. As a sign of approval, the lump was simply lowered, and whoever wanted to express his disagreement, he first squeezed the crumbs tightly in his fist. And if at least one such lump was found, corresponding to a drilled stone, the seeker was refused admission, wishing that everyone sitting at the table found pleasure in each other's company ... Of the Spartan dishes, the most famous is black soup. The old men even gave up their share of meat and yielded it to the young, while they themselves ate their fill of soup. There is a story that one of the Pontic kings, solely for the sake of this stew, bought himself a Laconian cook, but having tasted it, he turned away with disgust, and then the cook told him: "The king, in order to eat this stew, you must first swim in Evrota." Then, moderately drinking wine with dinner, the Spartans walked home without lighting lamps: they were forbidden to walk with fire, both in this case and in general, so that they could learn to move confidently and fearlessly in the darkness of the night. Such was the arrangement of common meals.

13. Lycurgus did not write down his laws, and this is what is said about this in one of the so-called retros ... So, one of the retros, as already mentioned, said that written laws are not needed. Another, again directed against luxury, demanded that in every house, the roof should be made with only an ax, and the door with only a saw, without the use of at least one more tool ... There is no person so tasteless and reckless to enter the house , worked simply and crudely, to bring beds on silver legs, purple bedspreads, gold cups and a companion of all this is a luxury. Willy-nilly, you have to adjust and adapt the bed to the house, to the bed - the bed, to the bed - other furnishings and utensils ...

14. Starting his upbringing, in which he saw the most important and most beautiful work of the legislator, from afar, Lycurgus first turned to the issues of marriage and childbearing. ... He strengthened and tempered the girls with exercises in running, wrestling, throwing a discus and a javelin, so that the embryo in a healthy body would develop healthy from the very beginning, and the women themselves, giving birth, would simply and easily cope with torments. Forcing the girls to forget about the effeminacy, self-indulgence and all women's whims, he taught them, no worse than the young men, to take part in solemn processions naked, to dance and sing while performing some sacred rites in front of young people. It happened to them both to let go of jokes, aptly condemning faults, and to give praise to the worthy in songs, awakening jealous ambition in young men. Those who received praise for valor and gained fame from girls retired, rejoicing, and barbs, even playful and witty, stung no less painful than strict suggestions: after all, kings and elders came to watch this spectacle along with other citizens. At the same time, the nakedness of the girls did not contain anything wrong, for they remained bashful and did not know licentiousness, on the contrary, she taught simplicity, to care for the health and strength of the body, and women assimilated a noble way of thinking, knowing that they too are able to join valor and honor ...

15. All this in itself was also a means of encouraging marriage - I mean processions of girls, nudity, competitions in the presence of young people ... At the same time, Lycurgus also established a kind of shameful punishment for bachelors: they were not allowed to hymnopedias, in winter, by order of the authorities, they had to walk naked around the square, singing a song composed by him in reproach (the song said that they suffer just retribution for disobeying the laws), and, finally, they were deprived of those honors and respect, what the youth showed to the elders .. The brides were taken away, but not too young, not yet of marriageable age, but blossoming and ripe. ... Having introduced such an order, such bashfulness and restraint in the conclusion of marriages, Lycurgus with no less success expelled the empty, woman's feeling of jealousy: he considered it reasonable and correct that, having cleansed the marriage of all licentiousness, the Spartans gave the right to every worthy citizen to have a relationship with women for the sake of the creation of offspring, and taught fellow citizens to laugh at those who avenge such actions by murder and war, seeing in marriage property that does not tolerate division or complicity ... These orders, established in accordance with nature and the needs of the state, were so far from the so-called "accessibility", which subsequently prevailed among Spartan women, that adultery seemed generally inconceivable ...

16. The father did not have the right to dispose of the child's upbringing himself - he took the newborn to a place called "leshoy", where the oldest fillet relatives were sitting. They examined the child and, if they found him strong and well-built, ordered him to be brought up, immediately assigning him one of the nine thousand allotments. If the child was puny and ugly, he was sent to the Apophetes (that was the name of the cliff at Tayiget), believing that his life was not needed either by himself or by the state, since he was denied health and strength from the very beginning. For the same reason, women washed newborns not with water, but with wine, testing their qualities: they say that sick with epilepsy and in general sick people die from unmixed wine, and healthy ones are tempered and become even stronger. The nurses were caring and skillful, the children were not swaddled to give freedom to the members of the body, they were raised unpretentious and not picky in food, not afraid of darkness or loneliness, not knowing what self-will and crying are. Therefore, sometimes even strangers bought nurses from Laconia ... Meanwhile, Lycurgus forbade the Spartan children to be taken into the care of educators bought for money or hired for a fee, and the father could not raise his son as he pleased.

As soon as the boys reached the age of seven, Lycurgus took them away from their parents and divided them into detachments so that they lived and ate together, learning to play and work side by side. At the head of the detachment, he put someone who was superior to others in intelligence and was the bravest of all in fights. The rest looked up to him, followed his orders and silently endured punishment, so that the main consequence of this lifestyle was the habit of obeying. The children were often watched over by the elderly and constantly quarreled between them, trying to provoke a fight, and then carefully observed what qualities each had by nature - whether the boy was courageous and stubborn in fights. They learned to read and write only to the extent that it was impossible to do without it, otherwise all education was reduced to the requirements of unquestioning obedience, steadfastly endure hardships and gain the upper hand over the enemy. With age, the requirements became more and more stringent: the children were cut short, they ran barefoot, they learned to play naked. At the age of twelve they already walked about without a tunic, receiving once a year a himation, dirty, neglected; baths and anointing were unfamiliar to them - for the whole year they enjoyed this boon for only a few days. They slept together, in silts and in detachments, on mats that they prepared for themselves, breaking with their bare hands reed panicles on the bank of the Eurotas ...

17 .... Old people ... attend gymnasiums, are present at competitions and verbal skirmishes, and this is not for fun, because everyone considers himself to some extent the father, educator and leader of any of the teenagers, so there was always someone to reason with and punish the offender. Nevertheless, from among the most worthy husbands, a pedon is also appointed - supervising children, and at the head of each detachment, the teenagers themselves put one of the so-called irens - always the most reasonable and brave. (Irene is the name of those who have already matured for the second year, Melliren - the oldest boys.) Irene, at the age of twenty, commands her subordinates in fights and disposes of them when it comes time to take care of dinner. He instructs the big ones to bring firewood, the kids - vegetables. Everything is obtained by theft: some go to the gardens, others with the greatest caution, using all their cunning, make their way to the common meals of their husbands. If the boy was caught, he was severely beaten with a whip for careless and awkward theft. They also stole every other food that came to hand, learning to deftly attack sleeping or gaping sentries. The punishment for those caught was not only beatings, but also hunger: the children were fed very poorly, so that, enduring hardships, they themselves, willy-nilly, became more insolent and cunning ...

18. When stealing, the children were very careful; one of them, as they say, having stolen a fox, hid it under his cloak, and although the animal tore his belly with claws and teeth, the boy, to hide his act, was fastened until he died. The reliability of this story can be judged by the current ephebes: I myself saw how not one of them died under the blows at the altar of Orthia ... Often Irene punished the boys in the presence of the elderly and the authorities, so that they were convinced how justified and just his actions were. During the punishment he was not stopped, but when the children dispersed, he answered if the punishment was harsher or, on the contrary, softer than it should have been.

19. Children were taught to speak in such a way that in their words acrid acuteness was mixed with grace, so that short speeches provoked extensive reflections ...

21. Singing and music were taught with no less diligence than clarity and purity of speech, but the songs also contained a kind of sting that aroused courage and compelled the soul to enthusiastic impulses for action. Their words were simple and artless, the subject was dignified and moral. These were mainly glorifications of the happy fate of those who fell for Sparta and reproaches to cowards doomed to drag out life in insignificance, promises to prove their bravery or - depending on the age of the singers - boasting about it ...

24. The upbringing of the Spartan continued into his mature years. No one was allowed to live the way he wanted: as if in a military camp, everyone in the city obeyed strictly established orders and did whatever was assigned to them that were useful to the state. Considering themselves to belong not to themselves, but to the fatherland, the Spartans, if they had no other assignments, either watched the children and taught them something useful, or they themselves learned from the old people. After all, one of the benefits and advantages that Lycurgus brought to his fellow citizens was an abundance of leisure. It was strictly forbidden for them to engage in craft, and in the pursuit of profit, requiring endless labor and trouble, there was no need, since wealth had lost all its value and attractive power. Their land was cultivated by helots, bringing in the assigned tax. One Spartan, being in Athens and hearing that someone was condemned for idleness and the condemned returned in deep despondency, accompanied by friends, also saddened and grieved, asked those around him to show him the man to whom freedom was imputed as a crime. That is how low and slavish they considered all manual labor, all kinds of cares associated with profit! As expected, lawsuits disappeared along with the coin; and need and excessive abundance left Sparta, their place was taken by the equality of wealth and the serenity of complete simplicity of morals. All their free time from military service, the Spartans devoted to round dances, feasts and festivities, hunting, gymnasiums and leskhi.

25. Those under the age of thirty did not go to the market at all and made the necessary purchases through their relatives ... However, for older people it was considered shameful to constantly push around in the market, and not spend most of the day in gymnasiums and leshi. Gathering there, they talked decorously, without a word mentioning either profit or trade - hours flowed in praise for worthy deeds and censure of bad ones, praises combined with jokes and ridicule, which inconspicuously admonished and corrected ... In a word, he taught his fellow citizens to so that they did not want and know how to live apart, but, like bees, were in an indissoluble connection with society, all were closely rallied around their leader and entirely belonged to the fatherland, almost completely forgetting about themselves in a fit of inspiration and love of glory ...

26. As already mentioned, Lycurgus appointed the first elders from among those who took part in his plan. Then he decreed, instead of the dead, every time to choose from among citizens who have reached sixty years, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant. There was probably no greater competition in the world and no more desirable victory! And rightly so, after all, it was not about who is the most agile among the agile or among the strongest, but about who is the wisest and best among the kind and wise, who will receive the supreme reward for virtue until the end of his days - if here this word is applicable - power in the state will be the master over life, honor, in short, over all the highest benefits. This decision was made as follows. When the people came together, special electives closed in the house next door, so that no one could see them either, and they themselves would not see what was happening outside, but would only hear the voices of those gathered. The people in this case, as in all others, decided the matter with a cry. The applicants were not introduced all at once, but in turns, in accordance with the lot, and they silently passed through the Meeting. Those who were locked up had signs on which they noted the strength of the cry, not knowing who they were shouting to, but only concluding that the first, second, third, generally another applicant came out. The chosen one was the one to whom they shouted more and louder than others ...

27. The laws concerning burial were no less remarkable. First, having put an end to all superstition, Lycurgus did not interfere with burying the dead in the city itself and placing tombstones near temples so that young people, getting used to their appearance, would not be afraid of death and would not consider themselves defiled by touching a dead body or stepping over a grave. Then he forbade burying anything with the deceased: the body was to be buried wrapped in a purple cloak and entwined with olive greens. It was forbidden to write the name of the deceased on the gravestone; Lycurgus made an exception only for those who fell in the war and for the priestesses ...

For the same reason, he did not allow him to leave the country and travel, fearing that other people's mores would not be brought to Lacedaemon, they would not imitate someone else's, disordered life and a different way of government. Moreover, he expelled those who flocked to Sparta without any need or definite purpose - not because, as Thucydides claims, that he was afraid that they would not adopt the system he had established and learn valor, but rather fearing how would not these people themselves become teachers of vice. After all, together with foreigners, other people's speeches invariably appear, and new speeches lead to new judgments, from which many feelings and desires are inevitably born, as opposed to the existing state system as wrong sounds are to a harmonious song. Therefore, Lycurgus considered it necessary to more vigilantly protect the city from bad morals than from the infection that could be brought in from the outside.

28. In all this there is not a trace of injustice, for which some blame the laws of Lycurgus, believing that they instruct quite enough in courage, but too little in justice. And only the so-called crypt, if only she, as Aristotle claims, - the Lycurgian innovation, could inspire some, including Plato, a similar judgment about the Spartan state and its legislator. This is how the crypts came about. From time to time, the authorities sent young men who were considered the smartest to wander around the neighborhood, supplying them with only short swords and the most necessary supply of food. During the day they rested, hiding in secluded corners, and at night, leaving their shelters, they killed all the helots they captured on the roads. They often went around the fields, killing the strongest and strongest helots. Thucydides in the "Peloponnesian War" tells that the Spartans chose the helots who distinguished themselves with special bravery, and those with wreaths on their heads, as if preparing to gain freedom, visited temple after temple, but a little later they all disappeared - and there were more than two thousand of them - and neither then nor later could anyone tell how they died. Aristotle especially dwells on the fact that the ephors, accepting power, first of all declared war on the helots in order to legitimize the murder of the latter. In general, the Spartans treated them roughly and cruelly. They forced the helots to drink unmixed wine, and then brought them to common meals to show the youth what intoxication is. They were ordered to sing trashy songs and dance ridiculous dances, forbidding entertainment that befits a free man ... So, the one who says that in Lacedaemon he is free to the end free, and the slave is completely enslaved, absolutely correctly defined the current state of affairs. But, in my opinion, all these strictness appeared among the Spartans only later, namely, after the great earthquake, when, as they say, the helots, having set out with the Messenians, rampaged terribly throughout Laconia and almost destroyed the state.

Xenophon

State of Lacedaemonians, 5-7; 8-10

... Having made the Spartans the order in which they, like all other Greeks, dined each in their own home, Lycurgus saw in this circumstance the reason for very many frivolous actions. Lycurgus made their comradely dinners public in the hope that this would most likely make it impossible to violate orders. He allowed the citizens to consume food in such quantities that they would not be overly satiated, but also did not suffer a shortage; however, game is often served as an addition, and rich people sometimes bring wheat bread; thus, while the Spartans live together in tents, their table never suffers from either a lack of food or an excessive cost. It is the same with drinking: stopping unnecessary drinking, relaxing the body, relaxing the mind, Lycurgus allowed everyone to drink only to satisfy their thirst, believing that drinking under such conditions would be both harmless and most pleasant. With general dinners, how could anyone seriously harm himself and his household by the delicacy of food or drunkenness? In all other states, peers are, for the most part, together and are least ashamed of each other; Lycurgus in Sparta united the ages so that young people were brought up mainly under the guidance of the experience of their elders. It is customary to talk about deeds committed by someone in the state on fiditiyas; therefore, there is almost no place for arrogance, drunken antics, indecent deeds, foul language. And another good side of this arrangement of dining outside the home: when returning home, participants in the fiditiyas should walk and be careful not to stumble in a drunken state, they should know that they should not stay where they dined, that they should walk in the dark. , as in the daytime, as well as with a torch, it is not allowed to go to those who are still serving garrison service. Further, noting that the very food that gives a good complexion and health to the working, gives ugly fullness and illness to the idle, Lycurgus did not neglect this either ... That is why it is difficult to find people who are healthier, more physically enduring than the Spartans, since they exercise the legs, arms, and neck in the same way.

In contrast to most Greeks, Lycurgus considered the following necessary. In other states, everyone disposes of his own children, slaves and property; and Lycurgus, wishing to arrange so that the citizens did not harm each other, but brought benefits, provided everyone equally

dispose of both his own children and strangers: after all, if everyone knows that the fathers of those children whom he disposes are in front of him, then inevitably he will dispose of them as he would like to be treated of his own children. If a boy who has been beaten by someone else complains to his father, it is considered shameful if the father does not beat his son again. So the Spartans are sure that none of them orders the boys anything shameful. Lycurgus also allowed, if necessary, to use other people's slaves, also established the general use of hunting dogs; therefore, those who do not have their own dogs invite others to hunt; and who does not have time to go hunting on his own, he willingly gives dogs to others. They also use horses: whoever gets sick, or who needs a carriage, or who wants to go somewhere as soon as possible, he takes the first horse he comes across and, as soon as the need is passed, puts it back in good working order. And here is another custom, not accepted by the rest of the Greeks, but introduced by Lycurgus. In case people are late on the hunt and, without taking stocks, will need them, Lycurgus established that he who had stocks left them, and the needy could open the locks, take as much as needed, and lock the rest again. Thus, due to the fact that the Spartans share with each other in this way, even poor people, if they need anything, have a share in all the wealth of the country.

CHRESTOMATIA ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD (Part 2. History of Antiquity)

for 1st year students of the Faculty of History

correspondence department

Voronezh 2011

Reader on the history of the ancient world. (Part 2. History of Antiquity) - Voronezh: Voronezh State University Publishing House, 2007. - p.

Compiled by Cand. ist. Sci., Associate Professor, VSPU O. V. Karmazina

Cand. ist. Sci., Associate Professor VSPU L.A. Sakhnenko

Reviewer

Xenophon

State of Lacedaemonians, 5-7; 8-10

Also, in contrast to the rest of the Greeks, Lycurgus established the following orders in Sparta. In other states, each as far as possible makes a fortune for himself: one is engaged in agriculture, the other is a ship owner, the third is a merchant, and some feed on crafts; in Sparta, Lycurgus, forbade the free to engage in anything related to profit, but established that only such occupations that provide the state with freedom should be recognized as suitable for them. And really, what is the point of striving for wealth where, by his regulations on equal contributions for meals, on the same way of life for all, the legislator has suppressed any desire to acquire money for the sake of pleasant profit? There is no need to accumulate wealth for clothing, since in Sparta the adornment is not the luxury of a dress, but the health of the body. And to spend on comrades, it is also not worth saving money, since Lycurgus suggested that it is more glory to help comrades with personal labor than money - he considered the first a matter of the soul, the second only a matter of wealth. Lycurgus also forbade unscrupulous enrichment by such orders. First of all, he installed such a coin that; if she got into the house for only ten minutes, it would not hide from either masters or domestic slaves, because it would require a lot of space and a whole cart for transportation. Gold and silver are monitored, and if anyone has any, the owner is liable to a fine. So why strive for enrichment where possession is more distressing than a waste of pleasure?

In Sparta, laws are especially strictly obeyed ... I, however, do not think that Lycurgus began to introduce this wonderful order without first obtaining the consent of the most influential persons in the state ... Once, according to influential people, obedience is the greatest blessing in the city, and in the army, and in the house, these same people, naturally, gave strength to the ephoric power: the stronger the power, the more, in their opinion, it should induce citizens to obey. Ephors have the right to punish anyone they want, they have the power to recover immediately, they have the power to remove them from office before the expiration of their term and imprison officials, initiate a process against them that threatens death ...

"Reader on the history of the ancient world", pod. V. V. Struve, vol. II. M., Uchpedgiz, 1951, No. 49.

PAUSANIA, DESCRIPTION OF HELLAS, 111.20 (6)

... Near the sea was the town of Gelos ... Subsequently, the nobles took it by siege. The inhabitants of this city became the first public slaves of the Lacedaemonians and the first were called helots, i.e. "Captured" as they really were. The name of the helots then extended to slaves acquired later, although, for example, the Messenians were Dorians ...

LIBANIUM, SPEECH, 25, 63

The Lacedaemonians gave themselves against, the Helots, complete freedom to kill them, and about them Critias says that in Lacedaemon there is the most complete slavery of some. absolute freedom others. “After all, because of what else,” says Critias himself, “if not because of distrust of these same helots, the Spartiat is taking away the handle of the shield from their house? After all, he does not do this in war, because there it is often necessary to be extremely agile. He always walks with a spear in his hands in order to be stronger than the helot, if he rebelled, being armed only with a shield. They also invented constipation for themselves, with the help of which they suppose to overcome the intrigues of the helots. "

It would be the same (criticizes Libanius Kritia) that living together with someone, feeling fear of him and not daring to take a break from the expectation of dangers. And how can those who, during breakfast, and in a dream, and when sending any other need, are armed with fear of slaves, how can such people ... enjoy real freedom ...? they were by no means free, in view of the fact that the ephors had the power to knit and execute the king, so all spargiati were deprived of their freedom, living in conditions of hatred up to the side of the slaves.

"Reader on the history of the ancient world", pod. V.V. Struve, vol. II. M., Uchpedgiz, 1951, No. 54.

PERICL

Translation by S.I. Sobolevsky, translation processing for this reprint by S.S. Averintsev, notes by M.L. Gasparov.

2. Pericles was ... both on the paternal and maternal side, from the house and clan that occupied the first place. Xanthippus, the conqueror of the barbarian generals under Mycal, married Agariste of the clan of Cleisthenes, who expelled the Pisistratids, courageously overthrew tyranny, gave the Athenians laws and established political system mixing different elements in it is quite appropriate for the consent and well-being of citizens. Agarista dreamed that she gave birth to a lion, and a few days later she gave birth to Pericles. He had no bodily defects; only the head was oblong and disproportionately large. That is why he is depicted on almost all statues with a helmet on his head - obviously because the sculptors did not want to present him in a shameful way ...

The closest person to Pericles, who breathed into him a majestic way of thinking, which raised him above the level of an ordinary leader of the people, and generally gave his character a high dignity, was Anaxagoras of Clazomenus, whom his contemporaries called "Mind" - whether because they were surprised at his great, extraordinary to the mind that manifested itself in the study of nature, or because he was the first to set out as the principle of the structure of the universe not accident or necessity, but a mind, pure, unmixed, which in all other mixed objects emits homogeneous particles.

5. Nourishing extraordinary respect for this man, imbued with his doctrine of heavenly and atmospheric phenomena, Pericles, as they say, not only assimilated himself a lofty way of thinking and a lofty speech, free from flat, nasty buffoonery, but also a serious expression on his face, inaccessible to laughter , a calm gait, modesty in the manner of wearing clothes, not disturbed by any affect during speech, an even voice and similar properties of Pericles made a surprisingly strong impression on everyone ... The poet Ion claims that Pericles' treatment of people was rather arrogant and that his self-praise was mingled with a lot of arrogance and contempt for others ...

7. In his youth, Pericles was very afraid of the people: by himself he seemed like the tyrant Peisistratus; his pleasant voice, the lightness and speed of his language in conversation by this resemblance inspired fear in very old people. And since he owned wealth, came from a noble family, had influential friends, he was afraid of ostracism and therefore did not engage in public affairs, but on campaigns he was brave and looked for dangers. When Aristides died, Themistocles was in exile, and Cimon's campaigns were held for the most part outside Hellas, then Pericles with ardor began to political activity... He took the side of democracy and the poor, and not on the side of the rich and aristocrats - contrary to his natural inclinations, completely non-democratic. Apparently, he was afraid that he would not be suspected of striving for tyranny, and besides, he saw that Cimon was on the side of the aristocrats and was extremely loved by them. Therefore, he secured the favor of the people in order to ensure his safety and gain strength to fight Kimon.

Now after that, Pericles changed his whole way of life. In the city he was seen walking along only one road - to the square and to the Soviet. He refused invitations to dinners and all this kind of friendly, short relationships ... Pericles behaved the same in relation to the people: in order not to satiate him with his constant presence, he appeared among the people only from time to time, spoke not on every business and did not always speak in the National Assembly, but saved himself ... for important matters, and did everything else through his friends and other speakers sent to them. One of them, they say, was Ephialtes, who crushed the power of the Areopagus ...

8. Pericles, tuning his speech as a musical instrument ... far surpassed all orators. For this reason, they say, he was given his famous nickname. However, some think that he was nicknamed "Olympian" for the buildings with which he adorned the city, others - that for his success in state activities and in command of the army; and it is not improbable that a combination of many qualities inherent in him contributed to his fame. However, from the comedies of that time, the authors of which often mention his name both seriously and with laughter, it is clear that this nickname was given to him mainly for his gift of speech: as they say, he thundered and threw lightning when he spoke in front of the people , and wore a terrible perun on the tongue ...

9. Thucydides depicts the political system under Pericles as aristocratic, which was democratic in name only, but in fact was the dominance of one dominant person. According to the testimony of many other authors, Pericles taught the people to cleruchias, receiving money for shows, receiving rewards; as a result of this bad habit, the people from modest and hard-working under the influence of the then political events became wasteful and willful. Let us consider the reason for this change based on the facts.

At first, as mentioned above, Pericles, in the struggle with the glory of Cimon, tried to gain the favor of the people; he was inferior to Kimon in wealth and funds with which he attracted the poor. Kimon invited citizens in need every day to dine, clothed the elderly, removed the fences from his estates so that whoever wanted to enjoy their fruits. Pericles, feeling defeated by such demagogic devices, on the advice of Damonides of Ay, turned to the division of public money, as Aristotle testifies. By distributing money for spectacles, by paying remuneration for the performance of judicial and other duties and by various aids, Pericles bribed the masses of the people and began to use them to fight the Areopagus, of which he was not a member ... So, Pericles and his followers, gaining greater influence from the people, defeated the Areopagus: most of the court cases were taken away from him with the help of Ephialtos, Cimon was expelled through ostracism as a supporter of the Spartans and an enemy of democracy, although in wealth and origin he was not inferior to anyone else, although he won such glorious victories over the barbarians and enriched the fatherland with a large number money and booty, as described in his biography. So great was the power of Pericles among the people!

10. The expulsion by means of ostracism of persons subjected to it was limited by law to a certain period - ten years ...

11 ... Pericles then especially loosened the bridle of the people and began to be guided in his policy by the desire to please him: he constantly arranged some solemn spectacles, or feasts, or processions in the city, entertained the inhabitants with noble entertainments, every year he sent sixty triremes, on which many citizens sailed for eight months and received a salary, at the same time acquiring skills and knowledge in maritime affairs. In addition, he sent a thousand Klerukh people to Chersonesos, five hundred to Naxos, to Andros half of this number, to Thrace a thousand to settle among the Bisalts, others to Italy, with the renewal of Sybaris, which was now called the Furies. In carrying out these activities, he was guided by the desire to free the city from the restless crowd that was doing nothing and because of the idleness and at the same time to help the poor people, as well as to keep the allies under fear and observation in order to prevent their attempts to revolt by settling Athenian citizens near them.

12. But what gave the inhabitants the most pleasure and served as a decoration for the city, which led the whole world to amazement, which, finally, is the only proof that the glorified power of Hellas and its former wealth is not a false rumor, is the construction of magnificent buildings. But for this, more than for all other political activities of Pericles, the enemies condemned him and vilified him in the People's Assembly. “The people dishonor themselves,” they shouted, “they are notorious for the fact that Pericles transferred the general Hellenic treasury to himself from Delos; The most plausible excuse that the people can use to justify this reproach is that fear of the barbarians forced them to take the general treasury from there and keep it in a safe place; but this justification was taken away from the people by Pericles. The Greeks understand that they endure terrible violence and are exposed to open tyranny, seeing that with the money they are forced to contribute intended for the war, we gild and dress the city like a dandy woman, weaving it with expensive marble, statues of gods and temples worth thousands talents ".

In view of this, Pericles pointed out to the people: “The Athenians are not obliged to give the allies an account of the money, because they are waging a war in their defense and restraining the barbarians, while the allies do not supply anything - neither a horse, nor a ship, nor a hoplite, but only pay money; and money does not belong to the one who gives it, but to the one who receives, if he delivers what he receives. But, if the state is sufficiently supplied with the items necessary for war, it is necessary to spend its wealth on such works that, after their completion, will give the state eternal glory, and during execution will immediately serve as a source of prosperity, due to the fact that all kinds of work and different needs, which awaken all sorts of crafts, give employment to all hands, bring income to almost the entire state, so that it decorates and feeds itself at its own expense. " And indeed, people young and strong were given income from public funds by the campaigns; and Pericles wanted the mass of workers who did not carry out military service not to be dispossessed, but at the same time not to receive money in inaction and idleness.

Therefore, Pericles presented to the people many grandiose projects of structures and work plans that required the use of various crafts and designed for a long time so that the population remaining in the city had the right to use public funds no less than citizens who are in the fleet, in garrisons, on campaigns ...

14. Thucydides and the speakers of his party raised the cry that Pericles was wasting money and depriving the state of revenue. Then Pericles in the Assembly asked the people the question whether he found that much wasted. The answer was that a lot. "In that case," said Pericles, "let these costs be not on your account, but on mine, and on the buildings I will write my name." After these words of Pericles, the people, whether delighted with the greatness of his spirit, or not wanting to yield to him the glory of such buildings, shouted that he should attribute all costs to the public account and spend, sparing nothing. Finally, he entered into a struggle with Thucydides, at the risk of being ostracized himself. He achieved the expulsion of Thucydides and defeated the opposing party.

15. When in this way the discord was completely eliminated and complete unity and harmony occurred in the state, Pericles concentrated in himself Athens itself and all the affairs that depended on the Athenians - the contributions of the allies, the army, the navy, the islands, the sea, the great power, the source of which served both the Greeks and the barbarians, and the supreme dominion, fenced off by conquered peoples, friendship with kings and an alliance with minor rulers.

But Pericles was no longer the same - he was not, as before, an obedient instrument of the people, easily yielding and peaceable to the passions of the crowd, as if to the blows of the wind; Instead of the former weak, sometimes somewhat compliant demagogy, like pleasant, gentle music, in his policy he pulled the song in an aristocratic and monarchical way and pursued this policy in accordance with the state good, straightforward and adamant. For the most part, he led the people with conviction and instruction, so that the people themselves wanted the same. However, there were times when people expressed dissatisfaction; then Pericles pulled the reins and, directing him to his own good, forced him to obey his will ...

In a people with such a strong power, all kinds of passions naturally arise. Pericles alone knew how to skillfully manage them, influencing the people mainly with hope and fear, like two rudders: he restrained his impudent self-confidence, then, with a decline in spirit, he encouraged and consoled him. He proved by this that eloquence, in the words of Plato, is the art of controlling souls and that its main task is to be able to correctly approach various characters and passions, as if to some tones and sounds of the soul, for the extraction of which a touch or blow of a very skillful hands. However, the reason for this was not just the power of the word, but, as Thucydides says, the glory of his life and the trust in him: everyone saw his disinterestedness and incorruptibility. Although he made the city of greatness the greatest and richest, although he surpassed many kings and tyrants in power, some of whom made treaties with him, obligatory even for their sons, he did not increase his fortune by a single drachma against that which his father left him.

16. And yet he was omnipotent; Thucydides speaks about this directly; indirect evidence of this is the vicious antics of comedians who call his friends the new pisistratids, and from him they demand an oath that he will not be a tyrant, since his prominence is not consistent with democracy and is too burdensome. And Teleclides indicates that the Athenians provided him

All the tribute from the cities; he could tie any city or leave it free,

And to protect it with a strong wall and destroy the walls again.

Everything is in his hands: alliances, and power, and strength, and peace, and wealth.

This position of Pericles was not a happy accident, it was not the highest point of some fleeting brilliant state activity or the mercy of the people for it - no, for forty years he excelled among the Ephialts, Leocrates, Mironids, Kimonov, Tolmids and Thucydides, and after the fall of Thucydides and exiled by his ostracism, he had for at least fifteen years continuous, sole power, although the post of strategist is given for one year. With such power, he remained incorruptible, despite the fact that he was not indifferent to money matters.

When Pericles ... was at the height of his political power ..., he proposed that only those whose father and mother were Athenian citizens should be considered Athenian citizens. When the Egyptian king sent forty thousand medimns of wheat as a gift to the people, and the citizens had to share it among themselves, then on the basis of this law a lot of lawsuits arose against the illegitimate, the origin of which until then either did not know, or looked at it through their fingers; many have also become victims of false denunciations. On this basis, nearly five thousand people were found guilty and sold into slavery; and the number of those who retained the right of citizenship and were recognized as real Athenians turned out to be equal to fourteen thousand two hundred and forty ...

When Pericles was already dying, his best citizens and his surviving friends sat around him. They talked about his high qualities and political power, listed his exploits and the number of trophies: he raised nine trophies in memory of the victories won under his leadership for the glory of the fatherland. So they spoke to each other, thinking that he had already lost consciousness and did not understand them. But Pericles listened attentively to all this and, interrupting their conversation, said that he was surprised how they glorified and remembered such merits of him, in which an equal share belongs to happiness and which had already been with many commanders, and they did not speak of the most glorious and important merit. "Not a single Athenian citizen," he added, "did not wear a black cloak because of me."

As for Pericles, the events made the Athenians feel what he was for them, and regret it. People who were weighed down during his life by his power, because it overshadowed them, now, as he was gone, having experienced the power of other orators and leaders, they confessed that there had never been a person who was better able to combine modesty with a sense of dignity and majesty with meekness. And his strength, which aroused envy and which was called autocracy and tyranny, as they now understood, was the salvific stronghold of the state system: destructive troubles fell on the state and a deep corruption of morals was revealed, which he, weakening and humbling it, did not give the opportunity to manifest itself and turn into an incurable disease.

The text is cited from the edition: Aristotle. "Politics. Athenian politics". Series: "From the Classical Heritage". M, Thought, 1997, p. 271 - 343.

PART ONE

X. Development of democracy

26. This is how the supervisory authority was taken away from the Areopagite council. And after that, the state system began to lose its strict order more and more due to the fault of people who set themselves demagogic goals ...

(2) Although in all general government the Athenians did not adhere to the laws as strictly as before, nevertheless, the order of the election of the nine archons did not change; only in the sixth year after the death of Ephialtes, it was decided that the preliminary elections of candidates for further drawing of lots to the commission of nine archons should also be made from Zeugites, and for the first time among them Mnesifides was an archon. Until that time, everyone was from horsemen and pentakosiomedims, while Zeugites usually performed rank-and-file positions, unless some deviation from the prescriptions of the laws was allowed. (3) In the fifth year after this, under the archon Lysicrates, thirty judges, so-called "according to demes," were again established, and in the third year after him, under Antidote, due to the excessive number of citizens, at the suggestion of Pericles, it was decided that he could not have civil rights one who does not come from both citizens.

27. After that, Pericles acted as a demagogue ... Then the state system became even more democratic. Pericles took away some of the rights of the Areopagites and especially strongly insisted on the development of sea power in the state. Thanks to her, the common people felt their power and tried to concentrate all political rights in their hands.
(2) Then, in the 49th year after the battle of Salamis, under Archon Pythodorus, a war began with the Peloponnesians, during which the people, locked in the city and accustomed to military service received a salary, partly deliberately, partly out of necessity, he began to show more decisiveness in order to govern the state himself.
(3) Also, the salary in the courts was introduced for the first time by Pericles, using a demagogic device as opposed to the wealth of Cimon. The fact is that Cimon, having a purely royal state, at first performed brilliantly only public liturgies, then began to give content to many of his demots. So, everyone from the Lakiads could come to him every day and receive a modest allowance. In addition, his estates were all unfenced, so that anyone who wished could enjoy the fruits. (4) Pericles, not having such a state to compete with him in generosity, took advantage of the advice of Damonides of Ei (this Damonides was considered in many matters to be Pericles' adviser, therefore he was subsequently ostracized). This advice consisted in the fact that since Pericles does not have the same personal means as Cimon, then it is necessary to give the people his own means. It was from these considerations that Pericles introduced the salary for judges. On this basis, some consider him to be the culprit of moral decay, since it is not so much decent people who are always bothering about election, but random people. (5) Bribery began after this, and Anitus was the first to set an example of this, after he was a strategist in the campaign at Pylos. Sued by some for the loss of Pylos, he bribed the court and obtained an acquittal.

28. As long as Pericles stood at the head of the people, affairs of state were comparatively good; when he died, they went much worse ...

PART ONE

IV. Archons

55 ... As for the so-called nine archons ... At present, six Thesmophetes and a secretary are elected by lot for them, in addition, an Archon, Basileus and Polemarch - one of each Philae in turn. (2) They are subjected first of all to the Council of five hundred - everyone except the secretary, and this last one is only in court, like other officials (all who are elected by lot and by a show of hands, take office only after the doquimasia), but nine archons - both in the Council, and secondarily in the court. At the same time, in the past, the one who was rejected by the Council at doquimasia could no longer take office, but now an appeal to the court is allowed, and this latter has a decisive vote in doquimasia ...

56 ... (2) The archon, immediately upon assuming office, first of all announces through the herald that everyone is allowed to own the property that everyone had before taking office, and to keep it until the end of his administration. (3) Then he appoints the three richest of all Athenians as choremes to represent the tragedies ... (4) He is in charge of the processions: first, the one that is arranged in honor of Asclepius ... He also arranges competitions in Dionysius and Fargelia. These are the festivities that he has care of.
(6) In addition, he is filed with complaints in public and private matters. He examines them and sends them to court. These include cases of mistreatment of parents, mistreatment of orphans, mistreatment of an heiress, damage to orphan property, insanity when someone accuses another of squandering his fortune out of his mind ... ... At the same time, he has the right to impose disciplinary sanctions on those guilty or bring them to trial. Further, he leases the property of orphans and heiresses until the woman turns 14, and takes security from the tenants. Finally, he also collects maintenance from the guardians if they do not give it to the children.

57 ... Basileus is in charge of the Mysteries first of all ... then Dionysias ... He also arranges all the contests with torches; also, he manages the sacrifices of his stepfather, one might say, all.
(2) Written complaints are filed with him in cases of impiety, as well as in cases where someone disputes another's right to priesthood. Then, he examines all disputes between clans and priests on matters of worship. Finally, he initiates all murder proceedings, and it is his duty to declare the criminal deprived of the protection of laws.
(3) Proceedings of murder and infliction of wounds, if someone deliberately kills or injures another, are dealt with in the Areopagus; also cases of poisoning, if someone causes death by giving poison, and cases of arson. This is exclusively the circle of cases on which the council of the Areopagus judges ... The judges sit in a sacred place in the open air, and the basileus takes off his wreath during the trial. The person on whom such an accusation gravitates is not allowed to the sacred places all this time, and even to the square he is not supposed to enter; but at this moment he enters a sacred place and there speaks in his own defense ...

58. Polemarchus makes a sacrifice to Artemis-the Huntress and Enialia ... (2) He also initiates private lawsuits concerning meteks, equals and proxenes ... (3) He personally leads litigation in court about violation of obligations towards the former owner and about the lack of a prostate , about the inheritances and heiresses of the Metecs, and in general the polemarch is in charge of all those affairs of the Metecs, which the Archon examines from the citizens.

59. The Fesmofets have the authority, first of all, to appoint which judicial commissions and on what days the court should create, then transfer the leadership of these commissions to officials; these latter act in accordance with what the Thesmophets indicate. (2) Then, they report to the people on the received emergency applications, submit to the consideration of the case on the removal of officials by test voting, all kinds of proposals for preliminary judgments, complaints about illegal legislation and statements that the proposed law is unsuitable, also about the actions of prohedrons and epistats and reporting by strategists ...

ARISTOTLE. POLITICS

II, 4. That the equation of property has its significance in the state community, this, apparently, was clearly recognized also by some of the ancient legislators. So, for example, Solon established a law, which is also valid in other states, according to which it is prohibited to acquire land in any quantity ..

II, 9, 2. Solon is considered by some to be a good legislator. He, as they say, overthrew the oligarchy, which was at that time excessive, freed the people from slavery and established democracy "according to the precepts of the fathers", successfully establishing a mixed system: namely, the Areopagus is an oligarchic institution, the replacement of posts by elections is aristocratic, the jury is democratic. Solon, apparently, did not abolish the institutions that existed before - the council of the Areopagus and the election of officials, but established democracy in the same way that he made jury trials from the entire composition of citizens. That is why some accuse him: he, they say, abolished the first, when he gave authority over everything to the court, since the court is drawn by lot. It was when the court gained strength, then the people as a tyrant began to please and finally turned polity into a modern democracy.

III, 2, 10 ... This is what, for example, Cleisthenes did in Athens after the expulsion of the tyrants: he included many foreigners and slaves living there in the Philosophy. With regard to them, the controversial is not who the citizen is, but how he became one - illegally or by right.

VI, 2, 9-11, 6-27. In order to establish this kind of democracy and strengthen the people, its leaders usually try to accept as many people as possible into their midst and make citizens not only legitimate, but also illegal and even those whose only one parent has civil rights - father or mother. The fact is that all these elements are especially sympathetic to such a democracy ... Further, such a democracy is also useful for the methods that Cleisthenes used in Athens when he wanted to strengthen democracy, and those leaders who tried to establish a democratic system in Cyrene. Precisely, new phratries and phratries must be organized and, moreover, in large numbers; private cults should be combined in a small number and made public; in a word, it is necessary to invent all the means so that everything mixes up with each other as much as possible, and at the same time, so that the former associations are broken.

Aristotle. Athenian polity. Applications. M.-L., Socekgiz, 1936, S. 119-152.

CHRESTOMATY ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD A G O G H H H C E AND Z H A T E L S T V O M OF THE MINISTRY OF THE RSFSR ANCIENT VOSTOK UTVE.R.ZH.D E.NO BY THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION R.S.F.S.R MOSCOW 195 0 Compiled by IS Katsnelson and DG Raeder FOREWORD The further from our days in the depths of centuries and millennia the historian-researcher moves away, the greater difficulties he has to overcome on his way. If a scientist has at his disposal thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands of a wide variety of documents to study the recent past, the understanding of which from the point of view of philology does not raise any doubts, then the historian of antiquity has to restore the past of disappeared peoples and extinct civilizations in fragmented and scattered , accidentally survived sources. The history of some countries, such as Greece, Rome, China, is better known. The tradition has never been completely interrupted. , a sufficient number of documents have survived, including many very informative. Nevertheless, certain periods of their history, especially the early ones, are still unclear. So, for example, we are very poorly informed about Greece in the 8th-7th centuries. BC NS. or about the time of the reign of "kings" in Rome. The past of other countries has only recently become the property of science thanks to the joint efforts of several generations of archaeologists. In including the peoples of the Middle East, as well as to replenish our knowledge of the most ancient periods of ancient countries. However, the scientist is often at the mercy of chance. While the history of some peoples or periods is almost unknown to us due to the lack of sources, we are better informed about other states and eras. Track; It should take into account other circumstances: "the relatively limited number of written monuments, their fragmentation, one-sidedness of content, difficulty of understanding, due to both insufficient knowledge of ancient Eastern languages (many words and phrases have not yet been" solved or seem to be controversial), so and ambiguity and incompleteness of presentation. If in the bourgeois historiography of modern and recent history, where it would seem that documents give less room for various kinds of misinterpretations and falsifications, we usually encounter a deliberate distortion of historical reality, with a biased interpretation of sources and manipulation of facts, then with all the more freedom is used by bourgeois scholars with the sources of ancient "history, in particular, with the texts. The fragmentary and incomplete nature of the latter, the vagueness and difficulty of the language provide ample opportunities for the most arbitrary and far-fetched interpretations in favor of the preconceived point of view of one or another bourgeois researcher who is striving, consciously or unconsciously, to fulfill the social order of their masters. These circumstances, to a large extent, explain why modern Anglo-American sociologists, historians, economists, philosophers, etc., so eagerly turn to the distant past. They borrow from there material for all sorts of dubious comparisons and comparisons in order to justify the capitalist system, to propagate various misanthropic racial theories. No wonder, for example, the American Senator Theodore Bilbo, in his book published in 1947 under the sensational title “Choose between isolation and becoming bastards,” seeks to prove, using all the methods of fascist racism, that the ancient “Aryan” civilizations of Egypt, India, Phenicia, Carthage, Greece and Rome perished as the ruling classes belonging to the "Caucasian race" allowed mixing, merging with the non-Aryan races. From this he draws the conclusion about the threat of the death of the civilization of the white man, about the threat to the very existence of the United States as a result of mixing the blood of a white man with representatives of other races, primarily with blacks.1 versions and modifications, the concept of the development of society - the notorious "cyclical" theory of E. Meyer - was based mainly on the material of ancient monuments, because it was they who provided him and his students and followers with ample opportunities for arbitrary and tendentious interpretation due to the specified features inherent in them ... Only with the help of a single scientific method, the method of dialectical and historical materialism, which established the laws of social development and outlined the main stages of it, it is possible to determine the main features of the first class formation - slave-owning, inherent in the ancient world... Only when scientists approached the study of sources from the standpoint of the Marxist-Leninist theory, they were able to figure out what was the reason for this. Racial theories of service and imperialism a. "Questions of the r ossy fp kn" ofii ", 1948. No. 2. p. 272. The emergence, existence and death of the first class, slave-owning states, regardless of whether the latter represented one of the varieties of ancient oriental despotism or an ancient polis - cities This is the main merit of Soviet science. And here we should especially emphasize the fundamental need to work on primary sources, because only through careful analysis, deeply thought-out interpretation of every word, every term, every position, as a result of an accurate understanding of the general direction of the text, one can come to well-grounded and scientific conclusions that correspond to objective truth Sources not only brilliantly confirmed the validity of the theory of the development of society by Marx - Engels - Lenin - Stalin, but, in turn, backed it up with concrete material, thus giving new proof of the genius of the founders scientific socialism. Some of the historical sciences were not attained immediately. They had to overcome inertia, traditions inherited from bourgeois science, admiration for the indisputable authority of Western scientists, and the deliberate desire of saboteurs to present a distorted picture of the development of society. Much is still unclear, some problems are still the subject of disagreements and disputes, but the main thing is that the nature of the slave-owning society and the basic laws of its development, in particular, the ancient oriental, no longer arouses doubts. Summing up what I have achieved by Marxist historiography, enriched by the works of Lenin and Stalin, we can come to the following conclusions on some critical issues. The first class societies arose where the geographic environment was most conducive to the acceleration of the development of productive forces and social relations and contributed to the transition from the communal-clan system to the slave-slave system, for the geographic environment “... undoubtedly is one of the permanent and necessary conditions development of society and it, of course, affects the development of society - it accelerates or slows down the course of development of society " are incomparably faster than> changes and development of the geographic environment. " , Questions 2 Ibid. Lenin izma, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 548. “Only by remaining in small numbers could they continue to be barbarians. They were shepherd tribes, hunters and warriors; their mode of production required a vast area of land for each individual, as is still the case today with Indian tribes North America... When they increased in number, they reduced each other's production area. Therefore, the surplus population was forced to embark on those great fabulous wanderings that marked the beginning of the formation of peoples in ancient and new Europe ”1. So these tribes got to the valleys of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Huang He, where the first class societies were born, the basis of the economy of which was agriculture, because it was here, in the valleys of the great rivers, that the conditions for its development were most favorable. “The state arose on the basis of a split of society into hostile classes, arose in order to keep in check the exploited majority in the interests of the exploiting minority,” says Comrade Stalin. “Two main functions characterize the activity of the state: internal (main) - to keep the exploited majority in check and external (not the main one) - to expand the territory of its ruling class at the expense of the territory of other states, or to defend the territory of its state from attacks from others. states "2. The primitive communal system, not exposed to the influence of a more developed society, could not escape in its development the slave-owning mode of production. He became a slave-owner, but not a feudal one. This is one of the main provisions of Marxism related to social formations ... Since the class society of the countries of the Ancient East developed at the dawn of civilization in an original manner, without the influence of other class societies, any attempts to prove the existence of elements of a semi-feudal system in them lead objectively to revising the most important laws of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the development of society. In ancient Eastern despotism, there was a double form of exploitation in relation to two different social groups. The first of them, the right to receive rent-tax from rural communities - the "agricultural population", dates back to ancient times, to the exploitation of the clan nobility of their fellow tribesmen, to still semi-patriarchal relations. For example, in the era of the disintegration of the tribal system, free Greek peasants of the Homeric period paid their Basileus this rent. The pharaoh of Egypt could transfer to his close associate one or more rural communities in possession in order to receive Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. IX, pp. 278-279. 2 Stalin, Voprosy Leninism, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 604. taxes similar to those that were paid by rural obinits to the bins of the basilevs. It must be emphasized that in no case should the just named obligation imposed on rural communities under the conditions of ancient Eastern despotism, or Homeric Greece, or the tsarist period of Rome, be compared with feudal rent, as the bourgeois historians did and are doing, and after them and some Soviet scientists. The rent-analog, the "tribute" levied from free communes, is an authority created under the conditions of the decaying patriarchal system. The second form of exploitation inherent in ancient Eastern society, according to Marx's statements, is the exploitation of the worker-owner, the exploitation by the kings, priests, the nobility, and then by the most prosperous strata of the free "non-agricultural population" - slaves. Compared to the first form, it is more progressive. For if the exploitation of the “agricultural population” goes back to semi-patriarchal obligations, then the exploitation of slaves was created in the conditions of a class society and was expressed, first of all, in the work on the creation of gigantic structures, primarily irrigation ones. The presence of these two forms of exploitation - patriarchal and slaveholding - creates a feature of the first class society, which took shape in ancient times in Asia and Egypt. From here, one can deduce a clear and precise definition of ancient Eastern society, as polurab about inladellech about g about-polupat. r and a r ha l II o g o. The leading, progressive in the East was then, naturally, the exploitation of slaveholding. Therefore, we have the right to call these early class societies, which existed in Asia and Egypt in antiquity, in the era preceding the ancient world, as well with k and m and. Thus, the ancient Eastern despotism was an organization with the help of which the ruling class (the tsar-despot, the nobility, the priesthood, the merchant-usurious stratum, sometimes the military caste, etc.) exploited the communities of nicks and slaves. Numerous wars, common for the states of the Ancient East, were waged in the interests of the ruling class with the aim of seizing slaves, wealth and territories of neighboring countries. For bourgeois science, there is usually a desire to contrast or separate the past of the countries and peoples of the Middle East from the most ancient periods in the history of India and China. The first are considered by her as the predecessors of the ancient, and, consequently, the European culture, which was consolidated at the end of the 19th century. French scientist G. Maspero in the term "classical East", who especially sharply emphasized the difference between the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean and adjacent areas and countries Of the Far East... The first was given special attention in the construction of world history. Meanwhile, for India and China, which contributed their share to the treasury of common human culture, in the era of the birth and existence of the TaiM slave system, the same socioeconomic relations and the same general laws of development are characteristic as for the countries of the Near East. They all represent a single whole - one formation. This is confirmed not only by the data of the last archaeological site, but also by an impartial study of written sources. It is a mistake, however, to unconditionally identify all the countries of the Ancient East without distinguishing the features of the development of individual states, just as one should not, for example, erase the differences in the history of Attica, Sparta, Eeotia, Macedonia. It is necessary to take into account the specific conditions that determined the distinctive features of the historical life of each nation. If Egypt and Babylon can be characterized as agricultural slave-owning despotism, and in the first of them unlimited power As the king reached its climax, the Phoenician city-states serve as an example of a typical trading and slave-owning society, in which the king's power was limited to the nobility and the richest merchants. Likewise, Assyria is a model of a predatory, military-plundering state that based its prosperity on the ruthless exploitation and plunder of conquered countries. The history of the primitive slave-owning despotism of the Ancient East is closely connected with the ancient world. Greece and Rome qualitatively, in principle, do not stand out among other ancient societies. They represent only the highest stage in the development of the slave-owning formation. In the New Babylonian kingdom of the 7th-6th centuries. BC NS. we are confronted with such forms of exploitation of slaves as, for example, peculia, which bring to mind the imperial Rome, and Sparta with its collective slavery can be compared in this respect with the city-states of Sumer at the beginning of the third millennium. The examples just given are not isolated. However, one cannot ignore some of the features inherent in primitive slave societies that distinguish them from ancient ones. These features are manifested primarily in the preservation of remnants of the primitive communal system and elements of patriarchal relations, in the long existence of the rural community and the slow, stagnant forms of its development, largely explained by the fact that the basis of the economy among the leading eastern peoples is irri. gation, artificial irrigation. "Agriculture here is built mainly on artificial irrigation, and this irrigation is already a matter of the community, region or central government." XXI, p. 494. forms of land ownership. “In the Asiatic (at least the predominant) form, the property of the individual does not exist, but only his possession exists; the real, real owner is the community ... "1. Related to this is the patriarchal domestic slavery, so typical for most countries of the Ancient East. Further, for primitive slave-owning societies, the undivided unity of town and country is very typical. Cities usually exist only as administrative, religious or commercial centers, and a significant part of their population is employed in agriculture. Crafts and agriculture are still united. The need to unite the efforts of individual communities to build an irrigation system creates, at a certain level of development of productive forces, the preconditions for the formation of a political superstructure in the form of eastern despotism, which has reached its most perfect embodiment in the unlimited power of the Egyptian pharaoh, likened to God. He, like the kings of other countries of the Ancient East, carried out "... a cohesive unity realized in a despot ..." 2, rallying rural communities into a single whole. It was they who constituted "... a solid basis for stagnant Asian despotism." , depending on the specific conditions of development of each country, the stratification of the rural community. There are people deprived of the means of production, forced to go into bondage to the rich. Over time, the latter completely enslave them. Debt slavery and the heavy oppression to which the masses of ordinary communes in Eastern despots were subjected, prevent the use of prisoners of war slaves in large quantities. The number of foreign slaves was comparatively small, and their labor did not penetrate to such an extent into crafts and agriculture, displacing free producers from there, as was the case in Greece and Rome. The direct producer in the countries of the Ancient East, along with the slave, remained the community member, who, if he worked during the whole year not for himself, occupied the position of a slave. In other cases, when the community still retained enough strength to resist the oppression of the ruling class, uprisings broke out, similar to the coups in Lagash under Urukagin or in Egypt at the end of the Middle Kingdom, undermining the foundations of the slave system and accelerating its death. However, this resistance of the community members was ultimately suppressed. No. 3, p. 158. 2 The same, p. 152. I Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., v. XXI, p. 501. production. and the oppression continued as before; and since “it was the communes who replenished the ranks of the army, their ruin and enslavement usually led to a weakening of the military potential of the state. Often, therefore, it fell under the yoke of another, more powerful state at a given time, and then the masses of the working population experienced a double oppression until, for the same reasons, the conquerors themselves did not become prey for the new warriors. The history of the ancient Eastern despots of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, as well as the later Hellenistic monarchies, gives many examples of this. They included different tribes and peoples, bound together only by the power of the weapon of the victor. They were not united by either political, economic or national interests, since nations did not yet exist at that time. They could disintegrate and disintegrate as a result of exacerbation of internal contradictions, as a result of blows from> outside. “These were not nations, but random and loosely connected conglomerates of groups that disintegrated and united depending on the successes or failures of one or another conqueror” *. Modern bourgeois science seeks to diminish or pass over in silence the significance of the contribution made by the "non-Aryan" peoples of the ancient Eastern countries to the treasury of common human culture, and in every possible way extols the "creative genius" of the ancient Hellenes and Romans, although both of them themselves pointed to the Egyptians and Babylonians as their teachers. Indeed, the better we get acquainted with the history and history of culture of the countries of the Ancient East, the more we are convinced that it is here that we should look for the beginning of many sciences (although they are still inseparable from religion) - astronomy, mathematics, medicine. Here both the first alphabet and the first written literary works appeared. The greatest monuments of fine art and literature are created here. In Greece and Rome, science, literature and art of the slave-owning society reach their peak and for the first time in history they are trying to free themselves from the shackles of a religious worldview. Together with the cultural heritage of Greece and Rome, mankind also received the cultural heritage of the great civilizations of the Ancient East. Until the deciphering of the Cretan letters is completed, it is impossible to give an exact description of the socio-economic structure of ancient Crete. However, the more complete our knowledge about it becomes thanks to the successes of archeology, the more definitely it can be argued that the prevailing on this island at the beginning of the II millennium BC. NS. the state should be likened to other contemporary primitive slave states of the eastern Mediterranean. Cretan maritime power, subjugating part of the Aegean islands, ruled by 1 Stalin, Op., Vol. 2, ctd. ‘293. tsar-despot and was in lively trade relations with the surrounding countries, reminiscent of the Phoenician cities, although its political line, apparently, differed from the political system of the latter. The island's prosperity was greatly facilitated by its favorable position in the center of the sea trade routes. According to a number of indirect signs, it is possible to establish the existence of slavery on him, for only slaves could be used as oarsmen on the numerous ships of the Cretan, who combined trade with robbery; only slaves, together with the involuntary local population, could build the huge, growing palaces of Festus and Knossos, pave roads or work in workshops that produced goods for sale. It is natural to assume that the intensification of exploitation and the ruin of the broad masses of the population ultimately led to the weakening of the Cretan state and facilitated its conquest in the 14th century. The Mycenaean state, which united the Peloponnese, the islands adjacent to it, and some areas of central and northern Greece. The socio-political system of the Mycenaean state in many ways resembled the organization of the Cretan society. One might think that the aristocratic families, whose well-being was based on agriculture, the exploitation of the agricultural population, especially the conquered countries, during the predatory wars and raids, enjoyed great influence here, they limited the tyrannical power of the tsar. Crete connected the countries of Asia, Africa and Europe. Especially great is the significance of his culture, bright, original, but nevertheless influenced by the culture of other peoples (for example, the Egyptians and Hittites), on which he, in turn, had a significant influence. The origins of Greek mythology, religion and art, and even legislation (for example, the Gortpen Laws) should undoubtedly be sought on this island, which was a link between the ancient Oriental despots and the ancient world. In terms of stages, the society of Homeric Greece (XII-VIII centuries BC) is more primitive than the Cretan sea power or the Mikena state, since it was a pre-industrialized, pre-class society. However, the path of its development was different, different from the path of development of the countries of the Ancient East, to which the latter can be attributed. Homer's poems "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey" - our main sources - testify that this is the story "The full flowering of the highest stage of barbarism ..." 1; every adult man in the tribe was a warrior, there was no public power that could be opposed to it, which was still separate from the people. “Primitive democracy was still in full bloom ...” 2. Classical in clarity 1 Marks and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, h. 1. “Trampling of the family, private property and state”, p. 13. 2 T am e. gtr 84 p Engels will give a deeper analysis of Homeric society in the conclusion of Chapter IV ("The Greek family") of his immortal labor "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State": full force an ancient tribal organization, but at the same time, the beginning of its destruction: paternal law with the inheritance of property by children, which favors the accumulation of wealth in the family and strengthens the family as opposed to the family; the influence of property differences on the social system through the formation of the first beginnings of the hereditary nobility and monarchy; slavery, at first only prisoners of war, but already preparing the possibility of enslaving their own tribesmen and even relatives; the already ongoing degeneration of the past war between tribes into a systematic robbery on land<и на море в целях захвата скота, рабов и сокровищ, превращение ее в регулярный промысел; од ним словом, восхваление и почитание богатстза как высшего блага и злоупотребление древними родовыми учреждениями для оправдания насильственного грабежа богатств» К Постоянные войны, которые способствовали объединению об щин, были основным средством добывания рабов. Однако раб ство носило тогда патриархальный, домашний характер. Труд рабов использовался преимущественно для домашних услуг или в хозяйствах родовой знати, которая стремится к закабалению своих соплеменников. Таким образом, в недрах родового обще ства формируются классы. «Недоставало только одного: учре ждения, которое обеспечивало бы вновь приобретенные богат ства отдельных лиц не только от коммунистических традиций ро дового строя, которое пе только сделало бы прежде столь мало ценившуюся частную собственность священной и это освящение объявило бы высшей целью всякого человеческого общества, но и приложило бы печать всеобщего общественного признания к развивающимся одна за другой новым формам приобретения соб ственности, следовательно и к непрерывно ускоряющемуся на коплению богатства; нехватало учреждения, которое увековечи вало бы не только начинающееся разделение общества на классы, но и право имущего класса на эксплоатацию неимущих и господство первого над последними. И такое учреждение появилось. Было изобретено г о с у д а р ство » 2. Но было бы неверно отождествлять все греческие государ ства. Каждое из них шло своим неповторимым путем развития. И наиболее типичны в этом отношении два - Спарта и Афины, сыгравшие ведущую роль в истории Эллады. | Маркс и Э н г е л ь с, Собр. соч., т. XVI, ч. семьи, частном событием мости и г о су д а р с тв а », стр. 86. 2 Т а м ж е, стр 8 6 - 87. 1, «Происхождение Государство в Спарте возникло раньше, в результате пере населения Пелопоннеса после проникновения туда дорийцев, стремившихся силой овладеть плодородными землями и порабо тить окружающие племена. На основании свидетельств античных авторов закабаление илотов должно быть объяснено завоева нием, а не «экономическими условиями», как пытаются доказать буржуазные ученые и в частности Э. Мейер. Этот способ эксплоа тации, напоминающий по форме крепостнический, явился след ствием завоевания и был более примитивным, чем эксплоатация рабов «Чтобы извлекать из пего (раба. - Ре д.) пользу, необ ходимо заранее приготовить, во-первых, материалы и орудия труда, во-вторых, средства для скудного пропитания раба»2. Спартиатам этого не требовалось. Они силой оружия покорили илотов и заставили их платить дань. Различие между рабами и илотами сводилось в основном лишь к тому, что в первом случае победители отрывали побе жденных от средств производства и уводили их к себе для ра боты в своем собственном хозяйстве или продавали, а во вто ром случае они оставляли покоренных па земле и принуждали выполнять различного рода повинности. Для устрашения илотов и удержания их в покорности применялись такие средства тер рора, как криптии. Согласно Плутарху, эфоры ежегодно объяв ляли илотам войну, чтобы предоставить спартиатам право безнаказиого истребления их Столь жестокое обращение могло иметь место в античном обществе лишь по отношению к потомкам покоренных силой оружия членов враждебных общин или племен, а не по отноше нию к обедневшим членам своей общины. Илоты поэтому обычно всегда противопоставлялись лакедемонянам, членам господ ствующей городской обшипы, и другим представителям класса свободных, например, периекам Эксплоатация илотов (а также близких к ним по положению пенестов, кларотов и т. д.) харак терна именно для наиболее отсталых обществ, например, Спарты, Фессалии. Крита, древнейшей Ассирии и т. д. По сравнению с ними даже примитивно-раго"вллдельческие государства архаиче ского Шумера или Египта несомненно более прогрессивны. Иными были, причины р.о"зиикновенпя и пути развития клас сового общества в Аттике, которое «...является в высшей степени типгчпы.м примером образования государства, потому что оно, с одной стороны, происходит в чистом виде, без всякого вмеша тельства внешнего или внутреннего насилия, - захват власти Пизистратом не оставил никаких следов своего короткого суще ствования.- с другО"П стороны, потому, что в данном случае очень развитая форма государства, демократическая республика, воз1 VIII, 2 3 Ф у к и д и д I, 5, "1; 11 я р. с. Маркс и П л у г а р х, 101; Л р и с т о т е л Политика 1, б, 2; С т р а б о н, л п и и, II!, 20 и т. д. Э и г о л!) с, Соб р. соч., т. XIV, «А н ти-Дю р и нг», стр. 163. Л и к у р г, 28. пикает непосредственно из родового общества, и, наконец, по тому, что мы в достаточной степени знаем все существенные по дробности образования этого государства» К Развитие производительных сил общин, объединившихся по степенно вокруг Афин, социальное расслоение внутри них, выде ление земледельческой аристократии, жестоко эксплоатировавшей своих соплеменников, концентрация земель, увеличение ко личества рабов, ростовщичество, расширение торговли и, как следствие, - рост денежного хозяйства, проникавшего «...точно разъедающая кислота, в основанный на натуральном хозяйстве исконный образ жизни сельских общин» 2. Все это «взрывало» прежние социальные установления и экономические связи. «Одним словом, родовой строй приходил к концу. Общество с каждым днем все более вырастало из его рамок; даже худшие отрицательные явления, которые возникали у всех на глазах, он не мог ни ослабить, ни устранить. А тем временем незаметно раз вилось государство» 3. Реформы Солона, проведенные в интересах частных земле владельцев и торговцев, устанавливали отчуждение и дробление земельных участков. Этим была отменена общинная собствен ность и разрушены основы общинно-родового строя. «Так как ро довой строй не мог оказывать эксплоатируемому народу ника кой помощи, то оставалось только возникающее государство. И оно действительно оказало помощь, введя конституцию Солона и в то же время снова усилившись за счет старого строя. Солон... открыл ряд так называемых политических революций, и притом с вторжением в отношения собственности. Все происходившие до сих пор революции были революциями для защиты одного вида собственности против другого вида собственности... в рево люции, произведенной Солоном, должна была пострадать соб ственность кредиторов в интересах собственности должников. Долги были попросту объявлены недействительными» 4. Вот по чему Афины, как и другие греческие полисы, не знали кабаль ного рабства. Последние остатки родового строя были уничто жены законодательством Клисфена. «В какой степени сложив шееся в главных своих чертах государство оказалось приспо собленным к новому общественному положению афинян, свиде тельствует быстрый расцвет богатства, торговли и промышленно сти. Классовый антагонизм, на котором покоились теперь обще ственные и политические учреждения, был уже не антагонизм между аристократией и простым народом, а между рабами и 1 С л ед у ет т в е р д о помнить, что крепостные отнош ения ф ео д а л ь н о й ф о р м а не в р езу л ь т а те прямого зав оев а ни я, а в след ст в ие с л о ж н е й ш и х эк ономических условий. М а р к с и Энгельс, Собр. соч., т. XVJ, ч. I, ц и и с о зд а л и с ь стр 98. Та м 3 Та м 4 Т а м 2 ж е, стр. 90. ж е, стр. 93. ж е, стр 93. свободными, между неполноправными жителями и гражда нами» Огромное значение для Греции имели связи с Северным Причерноморьем, на которые следует обратить особое внима ние при изучении истории этой страны. Через Геллеспонт во время «великой колонизации» VII в. туда устремляются пред приимчивые торговцы в поисках нажпвы, политические изгнан ники, разоренные крестьяне и ремесленники в надежде на луч шую жизнь в далеких, неведомых краях. В устьях рек, впадаю щих в Черное п Азовское моря, в Крыму были основаны десятки колоний, которые вели оживленную торговлю с могущественной скифской державой. Трудно представить Афины, Коринф, Милет и другие полисы Эллады без скифского хлеба, сушеной рыбы, шерсти, мехов и рабов. В частности, снабжение Афин хлебом всегда было одним из основных моментов, определявших внеш нюю и внутреннюю политику различных политических партий. Дешевый привозной хлеб способствует интенсификации сель ского хозяйства торговых полисов. Благосостояние многих ре месленников и торговцев основывалось на обмене с Северным Причерноморьем. Не меньше было его значение >and in the Roman era, when products, raw materials and slaves were brought from here, it became even more intense and spread beyond the Balkan Peninsula to the western provinces of the Roman Empire. The penetration of the Greeks to the north influenced not only the Scythians, who adopted certain features of the Hellenic culture, and the peoples adjacent to them, but also left a noticeable imprint on the Greek colonies bordering the Black and Azov seas; in their art, craft and everyday life, in turn, the significant influence of the Scythians is reflected. As you know, Roman culture did not leave a noticeable trace in the regions of the Northern Black Sea coast. One of the main problems of the history of Rome - the question of the origin of the plebs - remains largely unclear due to the sku access of sources. However, there is no doubt that, like the helots in Sparta, the plebeians appeared as a result of conquest, and not as a result of the socio-economic stratification of society. “Meanwhile, the population of the city of Rome and the Roman area, expanded by the conquest, increased; this growth was partly due to new settlers and partly due to the population of the conquered, mainly Latin, districts. All these new citizens ... stood outside the old clans, "Kurmias and tribes and, therefore, did not form part of the populus romanus, the Roman people proper." in the history of Athens. These are 1 Marx and Engels, 2 Tame, p. 10G. Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part I, p. 97. was essentially a revolution that put an end to the communal-tribal system and signified the transition to the state; “... its reason was rooted in the struggle between the plebs and the populus.” K The new, class society was determined by territorial, and not tribal ties, the main importance in establishing political rights was property, not origin. “This is how the ancient social system, based on personal blood ties, was destroyed in Rome, even before the abolition of the so-called royal power, and in its place a new, real state system was created, which was based on territorial division and property differences. Public power was concentrated here in the hands of citizens who were obliged to do military service, and was directed not only against slaves, but also against the so-called proletarians, who were not admitted to military service and deprived of weapons. " the struggle between patricians and plebeians for the expansion of the rights of the latter, for the land, for limiting the arbitrariness of the usurers. It becomes more complicated, especially in the II-I centuries. BC e., a massive movement of the oppressed class of slaves, to which the poor join. “The rich and the poor, the exploiters and the exploited, the full-fledged and disenfranchised, the brutal class struggle between them — this is the picture of the slave-owning system” 3. First, the protest of slaves, as, for example, it was in Greece in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e., was usually passive. Slaves spoiled tools and tools, ran away from their masters, which happened especially often during wars, when the forces of the slave state were distracted by external danger. Sometimes the slaves went over to the side of the enemy. So, during the Peloponnesian War, more than twenty thousand slaves after the defeat of the Athenians at Dhekeleus in 413 BC. NS. ran to the Spartans. Subsequently, the slave policies by diplomatic means agreed on measures to protect the interests of the ruling class. The means of deterrence and a specially set up service for tracing fugitive slaves served the same purpose. However, even passive forms of struggle undermined the foundations of the economy of the slave-owning city-states, and sometimes, especially during the war, threatened their political independence. Even more dangerous for the exploiters were open forms about the slave revolts. They began in Greece in the 5th century. BC NS. and most often broke out in the Peloponnese and Sicily, where the number of rags was especially high. In essence, the political system of the Spartans and their administrative structure persecuted one 1 Marc and Engsl's, Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part I, p. 107. 2 The same, p. 108. 3 Stalin, Questions of Leninism, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 555. The goal is to keep the helots in subjection and prevent any attempts of resistance on their part. And the slaves usually revolted precisely in Sparta, for the helots in Messinia belonged to the same nationality and it was easier for them to rally against the oppressors. Such were the uprisings in 464 and 425. BC NS. The first of them lasted over 10 years. Often the poor also joined the slaves. Even more characteristic are slave revolts for Rome, where the slave-owning system reached its highest development and, consequently, the class contradictions inherent in ancient society were especially acute. Tens and hundreds of thousands of slaves who had been holed up in cities and latifundia as a result of victorious wars, cruel forms of exploitation, unbearably heavy oppression to which they were subjected, concentration of land and wealth, landlessness of the peasantry, unable to compete with the cheap labor of slaves - all this created preconditions for the manifestation of protest in an open and sharp form. No wonder during the 2nd and 1st centuries. BC NS. in Sicily, in Asia Minor, finally, in Rome itself, slaves and free poor are repeatedly raised. They are trying to get from the slave owners by force what they cannot get from them in a peaceful way: freedom and the possibility of a secure existence. The uprisings of slaves and the lumpen proletariat, the civil wars of the end of the Roman Republic undermined the foundations of the existing socio-economic system and ultimately led to its death. In order to preserve their domination, the slave owners were forced to switch to a new, more perfect organization - the principate - a hidden form of monarchy, and then to an open one - dominate. The aggravation of the contradictions of the slave-owning society and, consequently, the pace of its development is the progressive, world-historical significance of the uprisings of slaves and the poor. At this stage, however, they did not lead to the replacement of one formation by another, more progressive, since they were not carriers of a new mode of production, new production relations. That is why it is wrong to talk about the slave revolution in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC NS. “Slaves, as we know, rebelled, staged riots, opened civil wars, but they could never create a conscious majority leading the struggle of the parties, they could not clearly understand what goal they were going to, and even in the most revolutionary moments of history they always found themselves pawns in the hands of the state classes ”! Only when the development of the productive forces of ancient society paved the way for the emergence of new social relations, when the preconditions of feudalism in the form of a colonate began to take shape in the bowels of the slave state, only then did slaves and columns emerge as a revolutionary class. 375, sO state *. ny, sweeping away on its way, even under the slogan of returning to the communal-clan system, the foundations of the outdated slaveholding formation. It was the revolution of slaves and colonies that “... eliminated the slave owners and abolished the slave-owning form of exploitation of the working people”. It also facilitated the conquest of Rome for barbarian tribes - “. ..all "barbarians" united. After drinking a common enemy and thunderously overthrew Rome. " These introductory remarks give only general idea about the laws of development of a slave society and strive to facilitate familiarization with its main contradictions. Of course, they are far from exhausting the problems of the history of the first class formation, which the documents in this book should help the reader to understand. This anthology has been compiled anew and differs substantially from the "Reader on Ancient History" published in 1936 under my editorship. It not only surpasses the latter in volume, but is also completely different in the composition of the texts included in it and in the principles underlying their selection, and in the method of document preparation. The reader is intended primarily for students of the history faculties of higher education. educational institutions and for high school history teachers. The reader should provide students with material for seminars and pro-seminars, supplement and deepen the courses on ancient history taught to them. It aims to make it easier for teachers to select texts and visual examples for use in classroom and extracurricular activities. When compiling it, it was decided to limit itself to documents reflecting only the socio-economic and political history of the countries and peoples of the ancient world. The attraction of cultural and historical monuments would force, given the relatively limited volume of the anthology, to significantly reduce some texts and completely abandon the placement of others, even very valuable ones. Therefore, sources on the history of culture are supposed to be included in a special collection, which the compilers hope to publish soon. Literary works were used only to the extent that they satisfied the principle just indicated. A significant number of attracted documents first appear in Russian. Many of the texts have been translated again, the rest are mostly verified against the originals. Before 1 Stalin, In poll and nisma, 2 The same, p. 432. ed. 11th, p. 412. The translators set the task not only to convey the content of the monument as accurately as possible, but also to reproduce, as far as possible, its style and language features in order to give a sense of the originality of the era and each nation, and it goes without saying that they tried to accomplish this without violating the structure of the Russian language (but in other cases, deliberately resorting to archaisms). As for proper names and geographical names, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the generally accepted transcription has been retained. Particular attention in all three volumes is paid to monuments that help to link the history of the ancient world with the historical past of our homeland (Urartu, Scythians and Cimmerians, Central Asia, Bosporan Kingdom, Caucasus in the Greco-Roman era). Placement of documents is based on geographic and chronological principles. New sections were introduced in accordance with the programs of secondary schools and historical faculties of higher educational institutions: ancient historiography, Crete-Mycenaean society, Northern Black Sea region from the 10th century. BC NS. to IV century. n. NS. Introductory articles to documents have been expanded. They contain basic information and give them a brief assessment and characteristics. The reader will find additions and clarifications to difficult and incomprehensible places in the comments and notes placed after each text. All sections are accompanied by short instructional guidelines for secondary school teachers. They are arranged in the order corresponding to the presentation of the school textbook. However, a reader cannot replace a textbook. It only supplements the material contained in it and enables the teacher and student, with the help of the documents contained in it, to deepen their knowledge of ancient history. Acad. V.V.Struve. FROM THE COMPOSITORS OF THE FIRST VOLUME The first volume of the anthology includes documents on the socio-economic history of the countries of the Ancient East, namely: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, Phenicia, Asia Minor, Urartu, Iran, India and China. It contains a large number of texts that appear for the first time in translation in Russian. For example, documents on the history of the Hittites and China are almost entirely specially translated for this edition. Monuments on the history of culture are involved only insofar as they reflect the facts of political and social history. The sections "India" and "China" are presented more fully than in previous editions, for the lack of sources on the history of these countries, available to the general reader, is especially noticeable. Chronological dates, especially on the history of Mesopotamia, are given in accordance with the discoveries of recent years, forcing them to revise and correct the chronology of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. NS. The reader is intended for seminars for students of the history faculties of universities and teachers of the history of secondary schools. The methodological introductions preceding individual chapters of the anthology are intended to make it easier for the teacher to use a number of documents in school teaching. EGYPT AND OU BIL STUDYING STORIES AND E g i p t a s t a d n n about what came up with doc ument - p and p and rus s and n and d pis and n and w h r a m o v, r about b nits, to a m e n s p l and t and so on. sides of life -> that country. Study and history of Eg and pta, how to and and s to r and and other East, in the center of the teacher, I must be first of all in question with o ts and al l n about - ek about n about m and c about y z n and these s t r and n. POSITION OF WORKERS MASS - LIFE SLAVES e m e n nnik o v, e x plo at a ts n I their n a rskoy vla s t y, with a ve t and ch r a mo s o izn and g y o, f a c t k l s o nd v o nd o r b y and with respect to the influence i exting and yu - all these things should be as bright and lively and badly as possible ... I wish, at the same time as a large number of cases ekst about (in part, at the bottom) saved, the number of sources on with o c p and l p o - "- o k o and o m pch e and pollitic history with equal about not great. special features and characteristics of the position of exiloatirus masses we need not rarely visit m y t n and k a m h u d e s t e n o f l i t e r. This section contains documents that can be use for l or l l u s t r and t and a large number of lessons to be given history and Egypt. a n s, if you want to work with it e about the picture of the line (L ° 1). The teacher should say it with a word of mouth and at the same time show it to arte te chenie Nil, Delt u, R sn o e m ore (Aravii s k iiz l and v), M erid about lake. We need to ask the students, for the reason that the population is in the middle about almost and about and about the coast of Nil, why wasn’t it worked in the earth, lying in the distance from the river, and for lightening the answer they are in the center of the terrain and the height of the corners of the chain and n at. T o o r I o p l o r o d and E p t a, follow all the time I turn to n and m n and e at an irregular size of the distribution of the ground. O with a g e n n o n y x n o p o d h e r to u in a m s m o d y o f a m in on w p f p of a, z a b c a w and x with the best of the earth, and for the purpose of removing this, it is necessary to and the given from the d rs tve n y gram o m of Ramses IV (No. 29), where i not only about the size of the manufactories, but also the number of work in the housed in them, and The same contributions of temple subjects, who do not own them with their land and are completely dependent on them from the producers. In addition, the land was received from the headquarters by the commanders as well. This is indicated in the autobiography of the chief of the rowers Yakhmssa (Lb i 6). To find out about the ire of the Egyptian despot and the role of the bureaucratic apparatus, we would like to turn to the knowledge of Egyptian spruce can Una (No. 6) and H u s f x about a (No. 7). Some places of them should be read in class and explained, for example, the epizo with the removal of four heads (from the inscription of Una), red character and the sound of court intrigues, or a poetic description of the move against the Bedouins, in which Una is most proud of both the beating and robbery of the Asian region. Special attention should be paid to the mention of the prisoners and to raise the question by the teachers: why did he need these prisoners? We must lead them to the idea that wars of conquest were not needed for a working country that needed a good labor force ... It is worth mentioning about main award , received by Una from the pharaon, - a stone coffin, and to explain that, from the point of view of the then Egyptians, such a gift was not a mockery, for It was customary for noble and rich people to prepare for themselves everything they didn’t need for a magnificent burial, long before death. From the inscription HUEFH, CHOOSE WILL read the translation of the riches, averaged in the slaughter, and at the same time show the place on the map about the situation of this country. Then we must ask the question: what did he spend on the large amount of money collected from the Egyptians themselves and pumped out from the neighboring countries? - and instead of answering, read out the description of the construction of the pyramid (Lg ° 5). The students are supposed to calculate for themselves how much money Cheopsu used to build the building, the teacher makes a conclusion that how much work was done to the economy of egypt by a non-ineffective workforce (you can instruct the students to calculate the r u ud n her builder p and a mids for 30 years). Then it’s not about the passage of the people from the masses, at the expense of which the headmaster, his elm, and the officials lived. We should cite the colorful characteristics from "The Teaching of Akhtoy, son of Dua" (especially the description of the work of a daytime weaver Terskiy (No. 11), as well as a scene from the story with "To the Disorderly Peasant" (La 12), where the an innocent toiler. The heavy plight of the poor and complete ruin of the rulers led to a major uprising in 17C0 BC. In order to get a better picture of this uprising, it is purposefully read out in the classroom excerpts from "The Reclamation of Ipver" (No. 13). In this case, it is necessary to explain who was I p uvsr, and to guide the students that he is good and good and you should be critical of him. poetic, and there is no systematic and consequential and evil events in it; you should pay attention to the position of the strophe , built on the basis of the defined hand blonu, the repetition of the same exclamations, poetic contrasts, for example: “Look, he who did not have his own property became the owner of wealth; the owners of wealth have become indigent. " Second, it is important to emphasize the author's bias. It is best if the students themselves have passed this conclusion. For this it is necessary to skillfully put & epros ". How does Yi Luwep relate to the uprising he describes? I wish he would stand up to the insurgents? I’m going to get passages, I don’t want to let the students understand that I puvsr, kgzh, a typical worker thought any attempt on private property by crime and saw the uprising as a result of the moral depravity of people (his complaints about the and x heart, the absence of brotherly love and friend). It is necessary then to explain to the students that at all times I have been loathed in the ranks of the people and the movement and called on the oppressed to love and humanity, and to emphasize l This is the heart of all these calls. When the class rationale behind the “Ipuver Speech” becomes clear, we can call one of the students, instruct him to read the verse by the verse “and establish what we can believe, which is a clear exaggeration f for example, the phrase "The Nile is flowing to the blood o"), where one can feel the sense of real events or silence. who became (kr isya n in-poor nya k, the one who did not have the harness of the bulls, that is, he had to harness himself to the plow or work the field with a hoe; the slave who was forced to water the field ; it must be clarified that this was the hardest part e) .At the same time, it would be desirable to address the question of the position of those social groups against which was directed about an uprising (courtiers and princes, officials, the grim crafts, for example, the goldsmiths of the master, etc.). methods of fighting (refusal to pay taxes, then an open uprising, beating ex sponsors, removal of documents in the government; It is necessary to explain that, on the basis of these documents, the officials collected inadequacies, and to show the drawing in the textbook “Bringing Villagers to Account for Failure to Pay Tax”). It is very important to show the students that religion is always the support of the classroom and especially this manifests itself during widespread national sessions. v and en and y. And I am confident and religious (I must read those places where this is most likely to be felt very strongly). He expects salvation from God Ra. He is especially saddened by the fact that the people feel about religion, about the temples, not being able to fulfill all the instructions of the cult. ... It is necessary to provide a connection between the state power and the priest in Egypt and explain that the fall of the authority of the head is DEORTSA) should have caused a weakening of religious beliefs, doubts about this and about the gods (and Pharaoh himself was considered a god, the son of R. a) . The disciples themselves must answer the question about the results of the uprising, of course, with the help of the teacher, by reading those passages that speak of the oppressed, who themselves will become the owner, about the poor man, about the owner of wealth, about the transfer of private property from the days of hands to the other some, that there were no attempts to change private property and work. The student must understand that the uprising was spontaneous and did not lead to the initialization of the society on a new basis, but its developmental power played a positive role, expanding the mouth of the rabbis of the elite system, although the rebels themselves were not aware of this. In connection with social upheavals, it is necessary to study foreign policy as well. Our Hyksos in Egypt had a great deal of success in the uprising of the poor and the workers who served in your country. When describing this intrusion and the ensuing struggle, the teacher can use excerpts from the work of AAanephone (No. 14), with a headlamp inscription he and Kamos (no. 15) and then b and ogra f and y led the awaits of Y m o s s (JVg 16), retelling them in his own words. We must draw the attention of the students to the creation of Egypt. The Hyksos are in Delta, and the south is about to become independent. To displace the Hyksos, it is used river fleet , combined battles on land and water take place (No. 16). The Hyksos, who have been taken prisoner, are turned into slavery (a number of examples in No. 16). FURTHER it is necessary to move on to the conquering policy of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom. It is not necessary to get to know students with different types of thread operators who are involved in foreign policy; with the annals of the pharaons (J4 ^] 6): with a strictly official character, systematically setting out the course of military actions, and with a fairy tale, with which the service is about its event, the description of which is embellished with poetic inventions (No. '20). All the time it is necessary to focus the attention of students on the question of the causes of wars, their purpose and meaning, to indicate that the Egyptian chronicle sang and ->: I don’t think I don’t think of hiding the predatory character, but on the way to glorified * f a r a onov. It is important to emphasize that every job in a job is to be done in new jobs. GREAT AGGRESSION IN FOREIGN POLICY. We must clearly and impudently find out who benefited from such a policy. A common peasant and artisan, enlisted in the army and shedding blood for the glory of the faraon, did not gain anything from the depleted explorations in Asia and Nyubiy. This is clearly seen from the school teachings (No. 3 0), which it would be desirable to read in the class in its entirety, and at the same time to remind that most of the war booty fell into the hands of the priest. va, military leader "ikoe" (examples from No. 16), high officials. It should be shown on the map of the area of military actions, to outline the boundaries of the Hittite kingdom, which in the 15th - 13th centuries became the main enemy of Egypt, touch on the issues of military technology, using illus tration from a textbook or atlas (chariots, assault on the fortress), as well as separate expressions from the annals of Tutmos III, x a rk t e r and t e r and t e r t e r s t e t h e s in w ering war (for example, the sage of Megildo). wars are ready to come to an agreement when the enemies are threatened by the internal ones - the oppressed peoples. with the Hittite Tsar Kh agtushil (No. 2 7). and it’s about reading the place where it is said about mutual assistance in the fight against uprisings. Yesterday's enemies become friends and when it turns out to be profitable, and together they suppress their subjects. It is very important to stay on the organ and the state of the ship in Egypt. Abundant material for this is given by the assignment to the boss (no. 2 1). In this document, there is a very high level of information about the establishment of the Egyptian state. All the threads of control and the court are grasping in the hands of one master, so that you can do it. The main tasks of the condemnation of the russian state apparatus are the operation of information on levying by dates) and the organization of the irrigation system (monitoring the operation of canals and dams, setting the time of oil spill and in addition to the third function, which was introduced to the students by the previous documents (about e ann y x stan). For the characterization of foreign trade, it is necessary to attract the description of the expedition of H atsh ep day in the distant P unt (now Somal) and list those t the lakes that were brought from this country to Egypt, noting that they were almost adorable about the luxuries needed for the queen, the priest about in and the nobility (No. 17). In addition, it is imperative to help the scientists that Egypt's prosperity and flourishing was comparatively short and fragile. The end of the government of the Egyptian pharaons in Phenicia and Plestia cannot be traced back to "P Consolation of U nuam she." This document is especially interesting for us because it was discovered by a Russian scientist (V.S.Golenischev) and is kept in Moscow ( in the State Museum of Fine Arts). Learn more about the content of him in order to do his own thing and to compare the situation in western Asia in the XI century. (the time of the condition of this year) with a boom at the beginning of the 15th century. (time T u t m o sa). It is necessary for the students themselves to answer the question why the power of the Egyptian power was so short-lived. The ruler of the large slave dorzhchva finished off at the expense of external enemies (Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, and the Persov). As an example, it is possible to cite excerpts from the colorful and paralleled inscription of Pianhi, the Nubian king, who was named after him in the 8th century. d about n. NS. (No. 3-4). It is especially necessary to emphasize the development of Egypt during this period, the presence in each city of its own king without a king (in the Pianhi inscription it is about with complete clarity). R a d of Egypt into separate small states and the distribution of the national masses looted the country and made a donation about other earthly conquerors. No. 1. NIL AND ITS SPILLS (Strabo, Geography, XVII, 1, 3-5.) The page is one of the most prominent geographies of antiquity. Was born in the city of Amasia (Malaya Asia) in the 60s. d about n. A.D., died 24 A.D. NS. In 24 BC. NS. In the retinue of the Roman governor of Egypt, Elijah Galla, visited this country and rode it from Aleksandr and d about the border of N ubi. In addition, according to him, he visited lands from Armenii to Sardinia and from the Black Sea to Ethiopia. About the countries in which Strabo had not been, he got information from other writers of oil. 0 including one of the outstanding scientists of the Alexander school of Eratosthenes from Cyrene (2 75 - 195 BC) , the author of many works on mathematics, philosophy, chronology, etc. The most famous work after him is "Geography" in 3 books in which he laid the foundation for the study of this science. It was often used by Strabo. He himself wrote the work, also under the title "Geography", in 17 books, where he described all the well-known ancient lands of the country. This work is a very important historical source, as it contains a huge amount of factual material. ... 3. However, more must be said about the Egyptian first, in order to move from the more famous to the more distant. And this country [Egypt], and the adjacent country, and the country of the Ethiopians located behind it, receive from the Nile some general properties, for during the rise of the water the river gives them water, making inhabited only that part of them that is covered with [water] during floods, lying higher and farther from the stream, leaving on both sides uninhabited and deserted due to lack of water. However, the Nile does not flow through the whole of Ethiopia, and it does not flow alone, and not in a straight line, and on the land is not well-populated: in Egypt it flows alone across the whole country and in a straight line, starting from the small rapids behind Siena 1 and Elephantine 2, which are the border of Egypt and Ethiopia, before entering the sea. Indeed, Ethiopians for the most part live like nomads3, poor because of the poverty of the country and the immoderate climate and remoteness from us; The Egyptians, on the other hand, had the opposite, because from the very beginning they live a state and cultural life and have settled in certain places, so that their orders are known. Egyptians have a good reputation for being considered worthy of the welfare of their country through judicious division and concern for it. Choosing a king, they divided the mass of the people and called some warriors, others - farmers, and still others - priests; sacred deeds are subject to the care of the priests, and human affairs are subject to the care of the rest; of the latter, some were engaged in military affairs, while others were peaceful - agriculture and handicrafts, it was from them that the tribute to the king came. The priests were engaged in philosophy and astronomy and were the royal interlocutors. The country was originally divided into 4 nomes, with ten nomes in Thebaid5, ten in the Delta region, and sixteen in the region lying in the middle; some say that there were as many all the nomes as there were courtyards in maze 6, and these last were [not] less than thirty [six]; the nomes again had other subdivisions, for the majority was divided into toparchies, which in turn were divided into parts, while the smallest subdivisions were separate fields. This exact and petty division was needed because of the constant mixing of the boundaries that the Nile produces during floods, reducing and increasing individual parts, changing their shapes and destroying all kinds of signs by which the alien is distinguished from its own; therefore new dimensions were required. It is said that this is where geometry arose, just as the Phoenicians had the art of counting and arithmetic through trade. As the entire population and all people in each number were divided into three parts, so the country was divided into three equal parts. The work on the river is as varied as it is necessary to conquer nature by constant labor. By its very nature, the country bears many fruits, and thanks to irrigation, even more; naturally. a greater rise in the river irrigates more land, but age sometimes replenished what nature refused, so that with a lower rise in water, the same amount of land is irrigated as with more, thanks to canals and dams; so, in the days before Petronius7 the greatest fertility and the rise of water were when the Nile rose by fourteen cubits, when the famine came by eight [cubits]; when he [Petronius] ruled the country and the height of the Nile reached only twelve cubits, the fertility was the greatest, and even when one time the height of the water reached only eight [cubits], no one felt hunger. 4. The Nile flows from the borders of Ethiopia in a straight line northward to the so-called Delta area. Then he, dividing at the headwaters, as Plato says, 8 transforms this area, as it were, into the apex of a triangle. The sides of the triangle form branches that are divided in two directions, descending to the sea, on the right side towards Peluoius9, on the left to Canopus 10 and the neighboring so-called Heraclea11, while the base is the coast between Pelusius and Heracleon. Thus, the current of the two branches and the sea cut off an island, which is called the Delta by the similarity of its shape; however, the terrain at the summit is also called the same, because it is the beginning of the figure mentioned, and the village located there is also called the Delta. So, the Nile [has] these two mouths, of which one is called Pelusian, the other - Canopian and Heracles; between them [are] five other estuaries worthy of mention, the smaller ones are even larger, for many branches, branching from the very beginning throughout the island, formed many streams and islands, so that the whole island became navigable, since a large number of canals were dug , on which they float with such ease that some use clay boats. So, the whole island has about three thousand stades in circumference, they call it, together with the opposite river area of the Delta, the Lower Country; it hides itself in the floods of the Nile and, with the exception of dwellings, becomes the sea; the latter are erected on natural hills or embankments, so that significant cities and villages look like islands from a distance. For more than forty days, the water is kept at a height in summer until it begins to gradually subside; it is the same with the rise [of the water]; within sixty days the plain is finally exposed and dries up; the faster it dries, the sooner plowing and sowing takes place, and most likely where it is hotter. The land over the Delta is irrigated in the same way; besides, the river for about four thousand stades flows in a forward direction along the same channel, except if somewhere some island comes across, of which the most significant is the one that concludes the Heraclean nom, or if somewhere the course of the river is deflected by a canal into some large lake or an area that it can irrigate, as [for example] is the case with [a canal] irrigating Arsinoiskin and Lake Merida 12, and [canals] pouring out into Mareotida 13 In short, the irrigated area is only that part of Egypt that lies on both sides of the Nile, starting from the borders of Ethiopia and reaching the top of the Delta, and the continuous stretch of inhabited land only in some places reaches three hundred stades. Thus, with the exception of significant deviations, the river looks like an elongated belt. This shape of the river valley, which I am talking about, and the whole country are given by the mountains descending on both sides from the vicinity of Siena to the Egyptian Sea 14: how much they stretch and how far they are from each other, by so many narrows and overflows the river itself and in various ways "changes the shape of the inhabited land; beyond the mountains the country is mostly uninhabited. 5. Ancient writers, mainly on the basis of conjectures (who lived later as eyewitnesses), argued that the Nile was flooded from summer rains that occur in upper Ethiopia and mainly in the extreme mountains, and that as the rains cease, the floods also gradually cease.This is obvious mainly for those who swim in the Arabian Gulf to the Kinpamon-bearing country 15, and for those who are sent to hunt for elephants ... So, the ancients they called Egypt only that part of the country inhabited and irrigated by the Nile, starting from the vicinity of Siena to the sea; later writers have added to the East, almost the entire space between the Arabian Gulf 16 and the Nile, from the western regions of the country to the Avaseys and on the coast from the Kanop estuary to Katabatma 17 and the region of the Kirenians 18. Perev. O. V. Kudr I in c: in and. 1 Siena - Greek name of the Egyptian fortress and Suanu, located at the first port - modern ss uya n. 2 Elephantine - "an island on the Nile near the first rapids opposite Siena and a town located on it. The Egyptian name - "A boo" - "elephant", since through this from the city a new bone was transported to Egypt from Central Africa. 3 Nomad s are the past of the great nomadic tribes. 4 Nom is the Greek name for the blastes to which Egypt was divided. According to the Egyptian dokums there, they were pied at 42.5 F and v a and d a - the Greek name for the region in South Egypt, adjacent to the city of O kind of Thebes. LABIRINT Om the Greeks called and the contented pharaon of the XII dynasty Amen Emhet III (1 8 4 9 - 1801 BC). BC) chram in Fayum skom oasis, located at a distance from the valley of the Nile. 7 Petron and - "the Roman governor of Egypt yri imper atore Octavian Augustus in the 20s. BC. 8 Plato - the famous Greek Philosopher - Idealist (4 2 7 - 3 4 7 BC) 9 Pelusi - Fortified city to the north -east border of itse Egypt. 10 K a n o p - g r about d at the mouth of the awa of the Nile. 11 GERAKLEON - a city in Egypt bl from Canopa. 12 N om and lakes, which are located in F ayum skom oasis. 13 Mareotida is a lake in Nizhnem Egypt, near Aleksandr and formed by Kanopsk by the order of Nil. 14 Egyptian Sea - Middle Terrestrial Sea. 15 Cin n a mono n about a country - the southwestern end of the Arabian Peninsula, present day Yemen. 16 A rav and y with k and y z l and in - Red Sea. 17 Katabatma is a fortress and port on the Middle Sea. The westernmost point of Egypt in the Ptolemaean era. Contemporary - A kab ah -A with sol on. 18 Inhabits of the Greek colony of Cyrene on the north coast of Afrik. No. 2. NATURE OF NUBIA (Strabo, Geography, 1, 2, 25.) ... Ethiopia lies in a straight line directly behind Egypt, in a similar relation it is to the Nile, but has a different nature of the area. For it is both narrow and long and prone to floods. But what is outside the limits of the flooded [part] is both deserted and waterless and is capable of insignificant settlement both in the direction of the east and in the direction of the west. P er ev. O. V. Kudrya v tseva and. № 3. FROM ANCIENT ANNALS Ancient from the preservation of all Egypt, from their ancient annals, are inscribed on the so-called “PALERMSKOM STONE e ”(pom with her in the city of Palermo, in Italy, where he is stored). It is very difficult to understand due to the archaic character of the language and writing and the fragmentation of the text. It was carved from two sides by a diorite slab, from which an insignificant volume of about 43.5 cm / X 2 5 cm survived. Starting from the second row, each rectangle into which the lines are divided, with Contains a brief record of the main events that occurred at this time. At the top of each row, there was the name of the tsar. On the front side of the stele were inscribed the names of the same kings (upper row) and dynasties I-III. In all the rest, ending with the V dynasty, were on the other side. As already pointed out, the text is very phrased mental, and only a few feet and places can be used with a language first. Below are excerpts in which the events of individual years during the reign of C st and i), Shepseska f a (after the last phase of the IV dynasty) and Ueerk af a (the first phase of the V dynasty), which ruled in the first quarter of the III millennium: the construction of ships and temples, sacrificing chrismas, establishing holidays, trips, etc. p. P erevod sdelan according to the publication: N. S ch a fer, Ein B r uc hstu ck a lt a g y p t is c h e r A n n alen. A b h a n d lu n g e n der K o n ig lic h e n p r e u s s i s c h e n A k a d e m ie der W i s s e n sc h aften. R ^ erlin, 1902. Beginning of the oblast: does not have a list of events for 10 or P years. Year X +1. [Birth] of both children of the king of Lower Egypt1. Year X + 2. A construction of a hundred cubits ship of wood measures "Worship of both lands" and 60 sixteen [cubit?] Royal barges. Destruction of the country of Nekhsi 2. Delivery of 7000 prisoners, men and women, 200,000 heads of cattle and small livestock 3. Construction of the wall of the South and North country [under the name]: fortress (?) Sneferu. Delivery of 40 ships with (?) Cedar tree roar. Rise of the Nile: 2 elbows, 2 fingers. Construction of 35 fortresses ............ Construction of the ship "Worship of both lands" from cedar wood and two ships of one hundred cubits from wood -m er. 7th time reckoning 4. Rise of the Nile: 5 cubits, 1 palm, 1 palea. Year X + 4. Construction [of buildings?] "High is the crown of Sneferu at the South Gate" and "High is the crown of Sneferu at the North Gate." Manufacturing of cedar wood doors for the royal palace. 8th time reckoning 5. Rise of the Nile: 2 elbows, 2 palms, 23/4 fingers. (MORE VISUAL.) Pharaoh Year 1. Shepsescaph. The appearance of the king of Upper Egypt. The appearance of the king of Lower Egypt. The connection of both lands. Walking around [around] the walls. Celebration - Seshed 6. Birth of both Upuat 7. The king worships the gods who united the two lands ... Choosing a place for the pyramid "Heaven of Shepsescaf 8". (Further, besides the indication of the height by the rise of N silt, only the lower part of two columns of the text were preserved.) Pharaoh Userkaf. Year X +2. The king of Upper and Lower Egypt Userkaf donated the shaft (literally: made) as his monument for: Spirits of Heliopolis 9 20 sacrificial rations10 on each ... holiday, 36 arable land sechat (arur) n ... in ... the land of Userkaf. To the gods (sanctuaries of the sun god ...) Sep-ra of arable land 24 seals ... 2 bulls and 2 geese daily. [To God] Ra - arable land 44 seize in the pomads Sera (to the goddess) Hator - arable land 44 seize in the pom of the North. To the gods of the "House of Horus" Jeba Herut (?) Of arable land 54 sect. Construction of his chapel (Mountain) in the Butoh temple in Ksoissky nome 12. Seine 15 - arable land 2 sechat. The construction of his temple. [To the Goddess] Nehsbt 14 in the "Sacred Palace" South 1510 sacrificial rations daily. 1in the Gods of the "Sacred Palace" Nega 48 sacrificial rations daily. 3-times counting of livestock. Rise of the Nile: 4 cubits, 2! / 2 fingers. Translated. / /. S. K ssh nelso na. 1 These gods are remembered in the Texts of the P and ramids. Obviously, this is a religious holiday. 2 In the epoch of the Ancient Kingdom under "Neksi", the tribes that had been around the southern border of Egypt were inhabited by "Aa m u" - a z and a there. As a result of this, non-economic entities were formed in the general population of southern countries, including blacks. 3 Figures, it seems, are exaggerated. A P o r e n a l e n t e n t e n t e n t e n t e n t e n t e n t e e t to establish the tax. These reckonings were usually performed every two years. From this point, it is possible to conclude that there is a lack of records relating to the first 10-11 years of the reign of Snofru 5 First n and e about counting and benefits for two years in a row. 6 A d o rd n about: bandages. 7 More: the discoverers of the way. According to one of the legends, they “overwhelmingly seized the ground,” if they were the people of O si rice in his fight with his brother - a rival Set. Image of a wolf. 8 T o is a place where the deceased king will stay with the gods. Hence, it follows that Pharaon began to build a burial place with him after accession to the throne. 9 City in the southern part of Delta, near Memfis. One of the other cities in Egypt. The center of the cult of God is the son of Ra. 10 D o w about: bread, beer, cookies. 11 Unit and size of area 2735 sq. meters. 12 One of the other Egyptian cities, the center of the cult of the god Horus. I was in the 6th of New Egypt. 13 Possibly, the sanctuary of Anub Isa, the god of the dead. The patron goddess of the Verah of Egypt, who was reared in the shape of a kite. 15 The goddess of the patron saint of N and N e g about Egypt, revered in the form of a snake. 16 Name of one of the holy sites of N and y of Egypt, we went to Buto. № 4. FROM METEN'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY Auto biography It is important not only as one of the first documents in a wide variety of ways. the end of the Ancient Kingdom, but also as a historical source, preserved from the first centuries of the existence of the Egyptian condemnation, so scarce written memorials. Methena lived at the end of the reign of the 3rd dynasty - the beginning of the reign of the 4th dynasty (c. 2900 BC). In the hieroglyphic inscription carved in his tomb, he spoke about his service career and the life and property accumulated by him is transferred. , which makes it possible to clarify the structures of the state apparatus and to identify some features of the economic and social culture of that time. It is characteristic that the main source of the good fortune of this great state, who transcended him from the service, was the wishes of the farmer, about his big estates. Translated from the publication: K. S eth e, U rk u n d en d es Leipzig, 1903. U rk u n d en dcs a g y p ti s c h e n A ile r t u m s. Abt. IV. HERITAGE RECEIVED by Alten Reiches, METHENE was given to him the property of his father Inpuemanch, judge and scribe: there was (neither) grain, (nor) property of any household, there were people and small livestock. [KARE RA METENA.] He was made the first food store scribe (?), Food store property manager (?), He was made ... (he) was the nomarch of the Bull Nome 1 after (was) the Judge of the Bull Nome. .. he was made the head of all the royal flax, he was made the ruler of the settlements Perkeda 2 ... he was made the nomarch of Dep 3, the ruler of the great fortification of Perm 2 and Persep, the nomarch of Sais 4 ... PROPERTY ACCUMULATED BY METHANE Was acquired by him. (i.e. Methen). 200 arur fields with numerous royal people: a daily sacrifice (for) a sanctuary of 100 loaves of bread from the temple of the Soul, the royal mother Enmaathap ;. a house 200 cubits long and 200 cubits wide, built, furnished with beautiful trees planted, a huge pond made in it, fig trees and vines planted. It is written here as in a royal document; their names are here, as on the royal document. Trees are planted and a huge vineyard, they make a lot of wine there. He made a vineyard of two thousand arur within the walls; trees planted. P sp. I M. Lur e. 1 L-th N and N e g about Egypt (K soissky). 2 Name of the area. 3 LATER was included in the composition of the av b-th nome of N and e g about Egypt; in these times, a was an independent nominee of the 4th 5th Nominee of Egypt (Says skii). N L1> 5. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PYRAMIDS (I "erodot. History, II, 124-125.) Herodot. C. 4H4 BC. In Galik arnass (Malaya Asia), d. Ca * 425 BC Airrop of the first historical work, named by the following tradition as the “father of history.” Ger Odot made a number of distant travels: he visited Eishet (c. 445 BC), where he climbed the course of the Nile before Ele - phantina, was in Tire, Syria, North Arabia, in Vavilon, apparently, in the vicinity of Susa, and possibly in Eqbatan; traveled along the northern coasts of Pont and Colchis , Thrace, Macedonia, etc. Herodotus's "And Story" consists of 9 books named after the nine muses (this is introduced later), and includes about Isan and e of almost all and the starry about then the children of the world. Without knowing oriental languages Herod was found to have asked for explanations and to the translators, guides, Greek merchants, who gave them not always correct explanations. The Egyptian and Vav Ilonian priests, who were the monopoly possessors and knowledge of that time, avoided communicating with the “arvars”, which were foreigners for them. For this reason, Gerodot should have been using stories, folk and legends, walking and anocdotes, etc. This explains those numerous misleading information, in particular, a complete perversion of the historical perspective that is characteristic of his work. At the same time, he thoroughly described everything that was personal to him, constantly referring to the monuments he looked at, and c and t and Some inscriptions. In the "History" there are also excerpts from the writings of other travelers and historians that have not come about us. Thus, with a critical attitude to the work of Gerodot, with a careful comparison of it with the original and documents and archeologichesk them and monuments , it is possible to extract extremely valuable information from it, which will allow the right to consider "History" as irreplaceable and an important source for history countries of the Ancient East. The following passage is a first description of the pyramids. At the same time, he assures that even in the 5th century. d about n. e., despite the two and a half thousand years that have elapsed since the reign of Cheops, in the people's memory should have been kept in memory of the oppression and calamities in which this pharaon overthrow Egypt, forcing the whole country to labor on the maintenance of their tomb. Description of the process of constructing the pyramid, how the last investigations render it, and how it works. 124. It was said that King Rampsinite 1 in Egypt had good laws in all respects, and Egypt flourished greatly; Cheops, who reigned over them [the Egyptians], plunged the country into all possible troubles, for he first locked up all the sanctuaries and forbade them [the Egyptians] to offer sacrifices, after he forced all the Egyptians to work for him. One was, as they say, ordered from quarries in the Arabian mountains to carry stones to the Nile; after the stones had been ferried across the river in ships, he ordered others to receive them and drag them to the ridge called the Libyan ridge. One hundred thousand people worked continuously every three months. The time passed, as they say, ten years, while the people languished over the construction of the road along which the stones were dragged, the work is only slightly easier than the construction of the pyramid, it seems to me (for its length is five stades2, its width is ten orgies3, the height but where it is the highest - eight orgies, and it is made of polished stone with images of living beings carved on it); and it took ten years to build this road and underground premises in the hill on which the pyramids stand; these premises he [Cheops] made himself a tomb on the island, having drawn a canal from the Nile. The construction of the pyramid itself took, as they say, twenty years; each side of it has eight plethras 4, but it itself is quadrangular, and the same height; it is made of polished stone, which fits in the best way; none of the stones is less than thirty feet 5. 125. The pyramid itself is made as follows: with the help of ledges, which some call teeth, others altar. When it was first made like this, the remaining stones were lifted by machines made of short pieces of wood; the stone was lifted from the ground to the first row of ledges; when the stone fell into place, it was placed on the second car, which stood on the first row of ledges; from here the stone was lifted to the second row with the help of another machine; for as many rows of ledges were, there were as many cars, or there was one and the same machine, easily moved from one row to another when they wanted to lift a stone; so, we talked about both methods, exactly as they say. First, the upper parts of the pyramid were trimmed, then the supporting parts, the last ones were trimmed with its ground and the lowest ones that lie on the ground. The Egyptian inscription on the pyramid indicates how much was spent on radish, onion, and garlic for the workers; and as I well remember, the translator who read the letters told me that one thousand six hundred talents of silver 6 had been spent. If this is the case, how much else could have been spent on the iron with which they worked, and food and clothing for the workers? If the said time was spent on these works, then, as I think, a lot of time has passed also in breaking stones and dragging them and digging them underground. Translated. O. V. Kudrya v tseva and. 1 R a mse s IV (according to the period of numbering III) - head of the XX dynasty (1 2 0 4 - 1180 BC). Herodot with all the shortcomings of the i-th sign of the history of Egypt before the history of Egypt, d o s a and s c o g o per iod osh, he incorrectly considered Cheops (Egyptian. X uf y) - Pharaoh of the IV dynasty (c. 2800 BC) - the successor of Ramses IV 2 T and d = 184.97 meters. 3 Orgies = 1.85 meters. 4 Plethr = 3 0 8 3 meters. 5 According to modern measurements, the size of the Cheops pyramid with the construction was: the length of the base. ... ... ... 233 meters in height .......................... 146.5 meters in volume ....... .................. 2 5 2 1 0 0 0 cubic meters meters. Nowadays, these dimensions have slightly decreased due to the influence of natural factors and disruptions caused by people for a long time and thousands of people. P iramida was built from yellow sandstone, to be found in the edge, and was about blitz white stone, left from the stones of the olomen of Mokattama and Turra, located on the eastern bank of the Nile, south of the time of Cairo. 6 П there were no approved inscriptions on the piers. Unrecognized prosecutors or translators probably counted the lists of victims left to support the cult of those who died. in and their loved ones, for the lists of products "wasted maintenance of workers. № 6. LIFE STORY OF VELMOZHYUNA I er oglical inscription on a plate found in Abidos in Upper Egypt and stored in it her time in Kairsk omm uzee. The biography gives a different picture of the administrative, military, and other everyday life and construction activities of the pharaon at the end of the Ancient e g about Tsarstva (pharaons of the VI dynasty of Aunt, Piopi I and Merenra). ABOUT THE PISNING ABOUT THE VEHICLE OF THE VEHICLE OF THE ARMY DANO IN THE FORM OF A WAR SONG. Best edition: K S et he, U rk und en d es Alten R eich es, L e ip z ig, 1903, pp. 9 3-110. INTRODUCTION [Prince, chief of Upper Egypt], located in the palace the guardian of Nehen \ the head of Neheb2, the only friend [of Pharaoh], revered by Osiris, who stands at the head of the dead, Una (says): BEGINNING THE SERVICE OF FUCKING ACTIVITIES [I was a young man], girded with a belt [of maturity] under the majesty of Aunt3, and my office was the head of the house shna 4. I was the caretaker of the palace hent and u - she 5. ... the elder of the palace under the Majesty Piopi 6. His Majesty elevated me to the rank of friend and caretaker of the priests of the city at his pyramid. APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES When my position was ..., his [Majesty appointed me! by the judge and by the mouth of Nechen 7, for he relied on me more than any other servant of his. I conducted the interrogation alone with the chief judge - the supreme dignitary in the event of any secret case ... on behalf of the king, the royal women's house and 6 supreme judicial presences, since his majesty relied on me more than on any other dignitary, more more than any other nobleman of his, more than any of his servants. EQUIPMENT OF UNA'S TOMB by PHARAOH I asked the Majesty of my master to bring me a limestone coffin from [Memphis quarries] Ra-au8. His Majesty ordered that the [dignitary] treasurer of the god9 should cross the [Nile] with a party of workers of the ship's captain (?), His assistant (?), In order to deliver this coffin from Ra-au to me. He (the coffin) arrived with him at the residence on a large cargo ship, along with [his] lid, a tombstone with a niche, ruit I), two gemex 11 and one sats, 2. This was never done to any (other) servant, since I took advantage of his majesty's favor, since I was pleasing to his majesty, since his majesty relied on me. APPOINTMENT OF THE HEAD OF THE PALACE H HEN TI U-SH E When I was a judge and through the mouth of Nehen, his Majesty meant me to be the only friend and head of the palace hentiu-she. I removed the 4 chiefs of the palace hentiu-she who were there. I acted in such a way that I elicited the approval of His Majesty, organizing security, preparing the way for the king and organizing a parking lot. I did everything in such a way that His Majesty praised me extremely for it. P R O C E S S P R O T AND V W E N S C A R Y U R E T K E T E S (?) A case was conducted in the royal women's house against the wife of the king Uretkhetes (?) In secret. His Majesty told me to go down (?) To conduct an interrogation alone, and there was not a single main the supreme judge a dignitary, not a single [other] dignitary, except me alone, since I enjoyed the favor and was pleasing to his majesty and since his majesty relied on me. It was I who kept the record alone with one judge and the lips of Nie hyung, and my position was [only] the head of the palace hentiu-she. Never before had a man of my position listened to the secret affairs of the royal women's house, but His Majesty told me to listen, since I enjoyed the favor of His Majesty more than his other dignitary, more than any of his other nobles, more than any of his other servants. PREPARATIONS FOR WAR WITH BEDUINS AND His Majesty reflected the Bedouin Asians. His Majesty took an army from many tens of thousands throughout Upper Egypt, from Elephantine in the south to the Aphroditopolis region in the north 13, in Lower Egypt, in the western and eastern half of the Delta along their entire length, in a fortress (?), In fortresses, among the Nubi Irchet, the Nubians of the Medja, the Nubians of the Ima, the Nubians of the Uauat, the Nubians of the Kaau and in the country of the Libyans. YOU ARE STARTING A CAMPAIGN UNA'S LEADERSHIP His Majesty sent me at the head of this army; local princes, treasurers of the king of Upper Egypt, the only friends of the palace, heads and governors of Upper and Lower Egypt, friends, chiefs of translators, chiefs of priests of Upper and Lower Egypt and chiefs the lower Egyptian villages and villages and the Nubians of these countries. It was I who commanded over them, and my position was [only] the head of the palace hentiushe, in view of ... my position, so that none of them did any harm to the other, so that none of them took away bread and sandals from traveler, so that none of them took away clothes in any village, so that none of them took a single goat from any person. I brought them to the North Island, to the Gate of Ihotep and the district [Horus] justly, in this position ... I was told the number (of people) of these detachments - (it) was never reported to any other servant. RETURN OF THE VICTORY TROOPS This army returned safely, having destroyed the Bedouin country. This army returned safely, devastating the Bedouin country. This army returned safely, having demolished its fortresses. This army returned safely, cutting down her fig trees and grapes. This army returned safely, lighting a fire in all of them ... This army returned safely, killing troops in it, including many tens of thousands. This army returned safely, [capturing] many [troops] prisoners in it. His Majesty praised me for this tremendously REBELLION FOR WAY His Majesty sent me five times to lead [this] army and pacify the country of the Bedouins, each time they rebelled, with the help (?) Of these troops. I acted in such a way that [his] majesty praised me [for that]. WALK BY SEA AND A DRY COUNTRY TO THE COUNTRY OF BEDUINS "GAZELIUM IN SOUTH NO S", SEVERNE PALESTINA It was reported that the rebels ... among these strangers on Gazelle Nosu, 3. I crossed the ships with these detachments and landed at the high spurs of the mountain north of the country Bedouins, and a whole half of this army [went] by land. I came and grabbed them all. All the rebels were killed among them. APPOINTMENT OF THE HEAD OF UPPER EGYPT When I was the palace acu16 and the bearer of [Pharaoh's] sandals, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Merenre 17, my lord, who may live forever, appointed me the local prince and leader of Upper Egypt from Elephantine in the south to Afrodite as I enjoyed the favor of his majesty, as I was pleasing to his majesty, as his majesty relied on me. When I was an ache and wearer of sandals, His Majesty praised me for my vigilance and for the security I organized at the site of the camp, more than any other dignitary of his, more than any of his nobles, more than any other servant of his. Never before had this position been given to any other servant. I was the ruler of Upper Egypt for his joy, so that no one in him did harm to another. I did all the work; I have imposed everything that was to be imposed in favor of the residence here in Upper Egypt twice, and all the duties that were to be imposed in favor of the residence here in Upper Egypt twice. I have fulfilled the office of dignitary in an exemplary manner here in Upper Egypt. Never before had this been done here in Upper Egypt. I did everything in such a way that His Majesty praised me for that. EXPEDITION TO THE NUBI STONEBREAK AND E L E F A N T IN Y N A Y G E G E G P T A IBKHAT His Majesty sent me to Ibhat 18 to deliver the sarco phage "Chest of the Living" along with its lid and a precious and luxurious top for the pyramid : "Merepra is also merciful," madam. His Majesty sent me to Elephantine to deliver a granite slab with a niche along with its sats and granite doors and ruit, and to deliver the granite doors and sats of the upper chamber of the pyramid "Merenre is also gracious," madam. They sailed with me down the Nile to the pyramid "Merenre is merciful and merciful" in 6 cargo and 3 transport ships 8 months (?) And 3 ... in one expedition. Never at any time visited Ibhat and Elephantine in one expedition. And no matter what was ordered by his majesty, I did everything, according to everything that his majesty commanded about (?). EXPEDITION TO THE ALABASTRE KAM ENOLOM NI IN S RED EGYPT KHATNUB (His Majesty sent me to Khatnub 19 to deliver a large sacrificial slab of Khatnub alabaster. I lowered this slab broken in Khatnub for him) in just 17 days 20. I sent her down the Nile in this freighter - I built a freighter for him from acacia 60 cubits long and 30 cubits wide, and it took only 17 days to build - in the 3rd summer month, despite the fact that the water was not on cover of [more] shallows. I moored safely at the pyramid "Merepra is merciful". Everything was done by me, according to the order given by the majesty of my master. SECOND E K S P E D I C I K N I K O L S K I M P O R O G A M IN THE SOUTH E G I P T A I V N U B I J Z S T R O I T E L N Y M M A T E R I A L O M D L P I R A M I D S His Majesty sent me to dig 5 canals in Upper Egypt and build 3 cargo and 4 transport ships from Akania Wauat. At the same time, the rulers Irchet and Medzha supplied a tree for them. I completed everything in one year. They were launched and loaded to capacity with granite [on the way] to the pyramid "Merenre is also merciful." I made, further, ... for the palace along all these 5 channels, since the power of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Merenr, who may live forever, is majestic, ... and is more impressive than all the gods, since everything carried out in accordance with the order given by him. CONCLUSION I was truly a man loved by my father and praised by my mother, ... enjoying the favor of his brothers, a local prince, a serviceable leader of Upper Egypt, honored by Osiris, Una. 1 Ancient residence of the kings of Northern Egypt; we went to places after his last Ierakon field. 2 Ancient capital of Upper Egypt, modern E l-K a b. She plopped opposite Nyakhen on the other side of the bank of the Nile. 3 Pharaon Teti II (Atoti) - the first pharaon of the VI dynasty (middle of the XXVI century BC) I Possibly, workshops or barns (sk l and d s). Mr. Possibly, the leaseholders, who have come to the royal land of theirs. 6 Pharaon Piopi I - the third pharaon of the VI dynasty. 7 Judicial office. 8 Kamen olom no about Mem phisa, modern. Turra. 9 Must be a dignitary. 10 N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N - some part of the door. II Also some part of the door, possibly sash or jambs. 12 Parts of the burial slab - niches. 13th 22nd Supreme of Egypt, located in the south of modern Cairo. m The specified places are not suitable for the exact definition; Most of it, they found themselves on the eastern border of Delta, near the Blue Sea. 15 Probably, the edge of the mountain ridge of K arm el-in the Eastern Palestine. , r> P r and d w o rn a d l n o st. The meaning of this title is unknown. 17 Faraon of the VI dynasty Merenra I - the father of Piopi II - ruled ca. the end of the XXVI century. d about n. NS. 18 Location not established. And bhat in N killings were found above the second threshold. The Egyptians did not penetrate into the era of the Ancient Egyptians farther from the Northern N slaughter. 19 Kamen olom ni, where al ebaster was found in the mountains near the capital of Akhenaten - Akhet aton (since the time of Tell - el - Amarn a - n e r n e M a nf a lut a). 20 You will see it - from the mountains, where the olomni stone was located, to the banks of the Nile. No. 7. AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF KHUEFHOR B ioography of Elephants of the Elephant Nomarch Huefkhor - contemporary of the pharaons of the 6th dynasty of Merenre I and Piopi II (c. 2500 BC), inscribed on his tomb, carved into the rocks near the first threshold, is one of the most important texts of the end of the Ancient Kingdom. The grill was opened in 1891. Huf is talking about three consolations, which he performed according to the instructions of the headlights in N ub and yu, and leads to the request A copy of the letter sent to him on behalf of Piopi II, who is one of the oldest Egyptian documents of a similar nature to us. The biography of Khufhora not only characterizes the foreign policy of Egypt in the south and clarifies the list of products left from there, but it is to complete and expand information about N u bi and s