Why is the ISS so fast. At what altitude do planes, satellites and spaceships fly? D station model

Hello, if you have questions about the International Space Station and how it functions, we will try to answer them.

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Today you will learn about this interesting project NASA as ISS online web camera in hd quality. As you already understood, this webcam works live and video goes to the network directly from the international space station. On the screen above, you can look at the astronauts and a picture of space.

The ISS webcam is installed on the casing of the station and broadcasts online video around the clock.

I want to remind you that the most ambitious object in space that we have created is the International space station... Its location can be observed on tracking, which reflects its real position above the surface of our planet. The orbit is displayed in real time on your computer, literally 5-10 years ago it was impossible to imagine.

The dimensions of the ISS are striking: length - 51 meters, width - 109 meters, height - 20 meters, and weight - 417.3 tons. The weight changes depending on whether the UNION is docked to it or not, I want to remind you that the Space Shuttle space shuttles no longer fly, their program has been curtailed, and the USA uses our UNIONS.

Station structure

Animation of the construction process from 1999 to 2010.

The station is built on the principle of a modular structure: the various segments were designed and created by the efforts of the participating countries. Each module has its own specific function: for example, research, residential or adapted for storage.

3D model of the station

3D construction animation

As an example, let's take the American Unity modules, which are jumpers and also serve for docking with ships. At the moment, the station consists of 14 main modules. Their total volume is 1000 cubic meters, and their weight is about 417 tons, a crew of 6 or 7 people can constantly be on board.

The station was assembled by sequential docking to the existing complex of the next block or module, which is connected to those already functioning in orbit.

If we take the information for 2013, then the station includes 14 main modules, including Russian ones - Poisk, Rassvet, Zarya, Zvezda and Pirs. American segments - Unity, Domes, Leonardo, Tranquility, Destiny, Quest and Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

This diagram shows all the main as well as the secondary modules that are part of the station (filled in), and those planned for delivery in the future are not painted over.

The distance from the Earth to the ISS ranges from 413-429 km. Periodically, the station is “raised” due to the fact that it is slowly decreasing due to friction against the remnants of the atmosphere. How high it is also depends on other factors, such as space debris.

Earth, bright spots - lightning

The recent blockbuster "Gravity" graphically (albeit slightly exaggerated) showed what could happen in orbit if space debris passed in close proximity. Also, the height of the orbit depends on the influence of the Sun, and other less significant factors.

There is a special service that makes sure that the altitude of the ISS is as safe as possible and that nothing threatens the astronauts.

There were cases when, due to space debris, it was necessary to change the trajectory, so its height also depends on factors beyond our control. The trajectory is clearly visible on the graphs, it is noticeable how the station crosses the seas and continents, flying literally over our heads.

Orbital speed

Spaceships of the SOYUZ series against the background of the Earth, photographed with a long exposure

If you find out at what speed the ISS flies, then you will be horrified, these are truly gigantic numbers for the Earth. Its speed in orbit is 27,700 km / h. To be precise, the speed is over 100 times that of a standard production car. It takes 92 minutes for one revolution. Astronauts have 16 sunrises and sunsets in 24 hours. The position is monitored in real time by specialists from the MCC and the mission control center in Houston. If you are watching the broadcast, then keep in mind that the ISS space station periodically flies into the shadow of our planet, so there may be interruptions in the picture.

Statistics and interesting facts

If we take the first 10 years of the station's operation, then in total it was visited by about 200 people as part of 28 expeditions, this figure is an absolute record for space stations (our Mir station, before that was visited by “only” 104 people). Besides staying records, the station became the first successful example of the commercialization of space travel. The Russian space agency Roskosmos, together with the American company Space Adventures, delivered space tourists to orbit for the first time.

In total, 8 tourists visited space, for whom each flight cost from 20 to 30 million dollars, which, in general, is not so expensive.

According to the most conservative estimates, the number of people who can go to the present space trip number in the thousands.

In the future, with mass launches, the cost of the flight will decrease, and the number of applicants will increase. Already in 2014, private companies offer a worthy alternative to such flights - a suborbital shuttle, the flight on which will cost much less, the requirements for tourists are not so strict, and the cost is more affordable. From an altitude of suborbital flight (about 100-140 km), our planet will appear before future travelers as an amazing cosmic miracle.

Live broadcast is one of the few interactive astronomical events that we see off-tape, which is very convenient. Remember that the online station is not always available, technical breaks are possible when flying through the shadow zone. It is best to watch the video from the ISS from a camera that is directed at the Earth, when there is still such an opportunity to view our planet from orbit.

The Earth from orbit looks truly amazing, not only continents, seas, and cities are visible. Also presented to your attention are the aurora borealis and huge hurricanes that look truly fantastic from space.

So that you have at least some idea of ​​what the Earth looks like from the ISS, watch the video below.

This video shows a view of the Earth from space and is created from images of astronauts taken using the time-lapse method. Very high quality video, watch only in 720p quality and with sound. One of the best videos edited from orbital imagery.

The webcam in real time shows not only what is behind the skin, we can also observe the astronauts at work, for example, unloading the UNIONs or docking them. Live streaming can sometimes be interrupted when the channel is congested or there are problems with signal transmission, for example, in relay zones. Therefore, if the broadcast is not possible, then the screen displays a static NASA splash screen or blue screen.

The station in the moonlight, the SOYUZ ships are visible against the background of the constellation Orion and the auroras

However, take a moment to look at the view from the ISS online. When the crew is resting, Internet users can watch how it goes from the ISS online streaming the starry sky through the eyes of cosmonauts - from an altitude of 420 km above the planet.

Crew schedule

To calculate when cosmonauts are sleeping or awake, it is necessary to remember that universal coordinated time (UTC) is used in space, which is three hours behind Moscow time in winter and four hours behind Moscow time in summer, and, accordingly, the camera on the ISS shows the same time.

Astronauts (or cosmonauts, depending on the crew) have eight and a half hours to sleep. The rise usually starts at 6.00, and the lights out at 21.30. There are obligatory morning reports to Earth, which start at about 7.30 - 7.50 (this is on the American segment), at 7.50 - 8.00 (on the Russian segment), and in the evening from 18.30 to 19.00. Astronaut reports can be heard if at the moment the webcam is broadcasting this particular communication channel. Sometimes you can hear the broadcast in Russian.

Remember that you are listening to and watching the NASA service channel, which was originally intended for specialists only. Everything changed on the eve of the station's 10th anniversary, and the online camera on the ISS became public. And, so far, the International Space Station is online.

Docking with spaceships

The most exciting moments that the webcam broadcasts occur when our Soyuz, Progress, Japanese and European cargo spaceships dock, and besides that, cosmonauts and astronauts are going out into outer space.

A small nuisance is that the channel's congestion at this moment is enormous, hundreds and thousands of people watch videos from the ISS, the channel's load increases, and the live broadcast can be intermittent. This sight, sometimes, is truly fantastically exciting!

Flying over the surface of the planet

By the way, if we take into account the regions of the flight, as well as the intervals of the station's location in areas of shadow or light, we can ourselves plan the viewing of the broadcast according to the graphical scheme at the top of this page.

But if you can only devote a certain amount of time to viewing, remember that the webcam is online all the time, so you can always enjoy the space landscapes. However, it is better to watch it while the astronauts are working or docking the spacecraft.

Incidents that happened during the work

Despite all the precautions at the station, and with the ships that served it, unpleasant situations happened, the most serious incidents include the disaster of the shuttle Columbia, which occurred on February 1, 2003. Despite the fact that the shuttle did not dock with the station, and conducted its independent mission, this tragedy led to the fact that all subsequent flights of space shuttles were banned, and this ban was lifted only in July 2005. Because of this, the construction completion time has increased, since only the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft were able to fly to the station, which became the only means of delivering people and various cargo to orbit.

Also, in 2006, there was a slight smoke pollution in the Russian segment, there was a failure in the work of computers in 2001 and twice in 2007. Autumn 2007 was the most troublesome for the crew. I had to deal with fixing the solar battery, which broke during installation.

International Space Station (Photo courtesy of amateur astronomers)

Using the data on this page, it is not difficult to find out where the ISS is now. The station looks quite bright from Earth, so that it can be observed with the naked eye like a star that moves, and rather quickly, from west to east.

Station shot at long exposure

Some astronomy lovers even manage to get a photo of the ISS from Earth.

These pictures look quite high quality, you can even see docked ships, and if astronauts are going out into outer space, then their figures.

If you are going to observe it through a telescope, then remember that it moves quite quickly, and it is better if you have a go-to guidance system that allows you to track an object without losing sight of it.

Where the station is flying now can be seen in the graph above.

If you do not know how to see it from Earth or you do not have a telescope, this video broadcast is free and around the clock!

Information provided by the European Space Agency

This interactive scheme can be used to calculate the observation of the station passage. If the weather is good and there are no clouds, then you can see for yourself a fascinating slide, the station that is the pinnacle of the progress of our civilization.

You just need to remember that the station's orbital inclination is about 51 degrees, it flies over such cities as Voronezh, Saratov, Kursk, Orenburg, Astana, Komsomolsk-on-Amur). The further north you live from this line, the conditions for seeing it with your own eyes will be worse or even impossible. In fact, you can only see it above the horizon in the southern part of the sky.

If we take the latitude of Moscow, then the best time to observe it is a trajectory that will be slightly above 40 degrees above the horizon, this is after sunset and before sunrise.

Surprisingly, we have to return to this question due to the fact that many have no idea where the International "space" station actually flies and where the "cosmonauts" make their exits into open space or into the Earth's atmosphere.

This is a fundamental question - do you understand? People are drummed into their heads that the representatives of humanity, who were given the proud definitions of "astronauts" and "cosmonauts" freely carry out exits "into open space" and, moreover, there is even a "Space" station flying in this supposedly "space". And all this while all these "achievements" are being realized in the earth's atmosphere.

All manned orbital flights take place in the thermosphere, mainly at altitudes from 200 to 500 km - below 200 km the braking effect of the air is strongly affected, and above 500 km radiation belts extend, which have a harmful effect on people.

Unmanned satellites also mostly fly in the thermosphere - putting a satellite into a higher orbit requires more energy, in addition, for many purposes (for example, for remote sensing of the Earth) low altitude is preferable.

The high air temperature in the thermosphere is not terrible for aircraft, because due to the strong rarefaction of the air, it practically does not interact with the skin of the aircraft, that is, the air density is not enough to heat the physical body, since the number of molecules is very small and the frequency of their collisions with the hull of the ship (and, accordingly, the transfer of heat energy) is small. Thermosphere studies are also carried out using suborbital geophysical rockets. Auroras are observed in the thermosphere.

Thermosphere(from the Greek. θερμός - "warm" and σφαῖρα - "ball", "sphere") - atmosphere layer following the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 80-90 km and extends up to 800 km. The air temperature in the thermosphere fluctuates by different levels, rapidly and discontinuously increases and can vary from 200 K to 2000 K, depending on the degree of solar activity. The reason is the absorption of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun at altitudes of 150-300 km, due to the ionization of atmospheric oxygen. In the lower part of the thermosphere, the increase in temperature is largely due to the energy released during the combining (recombination) of oxygen atoms into molecules (in this case, the energy of solar UV radiation, previously absorbed during the dissociation of O2 molecules, is converted into the energy of the thermal motion of particles). At high latitudes, an important source of heat in the thermosphere is the Joule heat generated by electric currents magnetospheric origin. This source causes significant but uneven heating. upper atmosphere in polar latitudes, especially during magnetic storms.

Outer space (space)- relatively empty areas of the Universe that lie outside the boundaries of atmospheres celestial bodies... Contrary to popular beliefs, space is not absolutely empty space - it contains a very low density of some particles (mainly hydrogen), as well as electromagnetic radiation and interstellar matter. The word "space" has several different meanings... Sometimes space is understood as all space outside the Earth, including celestial bodies.

400 km - orbital altitude of the International Space Station
500 km - the beginning of the inner proton radiation belt and the end of safe orbits for long-term human flights.
690 km - the border between the thermosphere and the exosphere.
1000-1100 km - the maximum height of the auroras, the last manifestation of the atmosphere visible from the Earth's surface (but usually well-noticeable auroras occur at altitudes of 90-400 km).
1372 km - the maximum height reached by man (Gemini 11 September 2, 1966).
2000 km - the atmosphere has no effect on satellites and they can exist in orbit for many millennia.
3000 km - the maximum intensity of the proton flux of the inner radiation belt (up to 0.5-1 Gy / hour).
12,756 km - we have moved away at a distance equal to the diameter of the planet Earth.
17,000 km - outer electronic radiation belt.
35 786 km - the height of the geostationary orbit, the satellite at this height will always hang over one point of the equator.
90,000 km is the distance to the head shock wave formed by the collision of the Earth's magnetosphere with the solar wind.
100,000 km is the upper boundary of the Earth's exosphere (geocorona) seen by satellites. The atmosphere is over, began open space and interplanetary space.

Therefore, the news " NASA astronauts during the spacewalk repaired the cooling system ISS "should sound differently -" NASA astronauts during the exit into the Earth's atmosphere, repaired the cooling system ISS ", moreover, the definitions" astronauts "," cosmonauts "and" International Space Station "require adjustment, for the simple reason that the station is not a space station and astronauts with astronauts, rather - atmosphereonauts :)

International space station

International Space Station, abbr. (eng. International Space Station, abbr. ISS) - manned, used as a multipurpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project involving 14 countries (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. Initially, the participants included Brazil and the United Kingdom.

The ISS is controlled by: the Russian segment - from the Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, the American segment - from the Lyndon Johnson Mission Control Center in Houston. The laboratory modules - the European Columbus and the Japanese Kibo - are controlled by the Command Centers of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japan Aerospace Research Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the Centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American space station. In 1988, the projected station was named "Freedom". At the time, it was a joint project between the USA, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one to the Space Shuttle orbit. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. USSR, which already had experience in creating and launching into orbit orbital stations Salyut, as well as the Mir station, planned to create the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States signed an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) and NASA have developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program included flights of American reusable Space Shuttle spacecraft to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

In the course of the implementation of the Mir-Shuttle program, the idea of ​​combining national programs for the creation of orbital stations was born.

In March 1993, the general director of the RSA Yuri Koptev and the general designer of NPO Energia, Yuri Semyonov, proposed to the head of NASA Daniel Goldin to create the International Space Station.

In 1993, in the United States, many politicians were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not accepted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for the construction of the station.

On September 2, 1993, US Vice President Albert Gore and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Federation Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project for a "truly international space station." From now on official name the station became the "International Space Station", although the unofficial one - the "Alpha" space station was also used in parallel.

ISS, July 1999. Above is the Unity module, below, with deployed solar panels - Zarya

On November 1, 1993, the RSA and NASA signed a "Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station."

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Koptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington the "Interim Agreement for Work Leading to a Russian Partnership in the Permanent Manned Civil Space Station", under which Russia officially joined the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were concluded with the companies participating in the project - Boeing and RSC Energia named after M.V. S. P. Koroleva.

March 1995 - at the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston, the preliminary design of the station was approved.

1996 - the station configuration was approved. It consists of two segments - Russian (a modernized version of Mir-2) and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, countries - members of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the Zarya functional cargo block, was launched rocket Proton-K(FGB).

December 7, 1998 - the shuttle Endeavor docked the American module "Unity" ("Unity", "Node-1") to the Zarya module.

On December 10, 1998, the hatch into the Unity module was opened and Kabana and Krikalev, as representatives of the USA and Russia, entered the station.

July 26, 2000 - a service module (SM) Zvezda was docked to the Zarya functional cargo block.

November 2, 2000 - Soyuz TM-31 manned transport vehicle (TPK) delivered the crew of the first expedition to the ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Docked modules from top to bottom: Unity, Zarya, Star and Progress ship

February 7, 2001 - during the STS-98 mission, the crew of the space shuttle Atlantis attached the American scientific module Destiny to the Unity module.

April 18, 2005 - NASA head Michael Griffin, at a hearing of the Senate Commission on Space and Science, announced the need for a temporary reduction in scientific research on the American segment of the station. This was required to free up funds for the accelerated development and construction of a new manned spacecraft (CEV). The new manned spacecraft was necessary to ensure independent US access to the station, since after the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, the US temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when shuttle flights resumed.

After the Columbia disaster, the number of ISS long-term crew members was reduced from three to two. This was due to the fact that the station was supplied with materials necessary for the life of the crew, carried out only by Russian cargo ships "Progress".

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed with the successful launch of the shuttle Discovery. Until the end of the operation of the shuttles, it was planned to make 17 flights until 2010, during these flights the equipment and modules necessary both for completing the station and for modernizing part of the equipment, in particular the Canadian manipulator, were delivered to the ISS.

The second flight of the shuttle after the disaster of "Columbia" (Shuttle "Discovery" STS-121) took place in July 2006. On this shuttle, the German cosmonaut Thomas Reiter arrived on the ISS and joined the crew of the long-term expedition ISS-13. Thus, after a three-year hiatus, three cosmonauts began to work on a long-term expedition to the ISS.

ISS, April 2002

Launched on September 9, 2006, the Atlantis shuttle delivered to the ISS two segments of the ISS truss structures, two solar panels, as well as radiators for the temperature control system of the American segment.

On October 23, 2007, the American module Harmony arrived aboard the Discovery shuttle. It was temporarily docked to the Unity module. After redocking on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was permanently connected to the Destiny module. Construction of the main US segment of the ISS has been completed.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station was expanded by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus module, created by order of the European Space Agency, was docked, and on March 14 and June 4, two of the three main compartments of the Kibo laboratory module, developed by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, were docked - the pressurized section of the Experimental Cargo Bay (ELM PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport ships: European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, payload - 7.7 tons, 1 flight per year) and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle" (the first launch took place on September 10, 2009 , payload - 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

On May 29, 2009, the ISS-20 long-term crew of six people began work, delivered in two stages: the first three people arrived on Soyuz TMA-14, then the Soyuz TMA-15 crew joined them. To a large extent, the increase in the crew was due to the fact that the possibilities of delivering cargo to the station increased.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, a small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, which was named "Search" shortly before launch. This is the fourth module of the Russian segment of the station, developed on the basis of the Pirs docking station. The capabilities of the module make it possible to carry out some scientific experiments on it, as well as simultaneously serve as a berth for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian small research module Rassvet (MIM-1) was successfully docked to the ISS. The operation to dock Rassvet to the Russian functional cargo block Zarya was carried out by the manipulator of the American space shuttle Atlantis, and then by the manipulator of the ISS.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the International Space Station's Multilateral Management Board confirmed that there are no known at this stage technical restrictions on the continued operation of the ISS beyond 2015, and the US Administration has foreseen continued use of the ISS until at least 2020. NASA and Roscosmos are considering extending this deadline to at least 2024, and possibly extending it until 2027. In May 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station beyond 2020."

In 2011, flights of reusable spacecraft of the Space Shuttle type were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, a Falcon 9 launch vehicle with a private cargo spacecraft Dragon was launched from the Cape Canaveral cosmodrome. This is the first ever test flight to the International Space Station by a private spacecraft.

On May 25, 2012, the Dragon spacecraft became the first commercial vehicle to dock with the ISS.

On September 18, 2013 the private automatic cargo supply spacecraft Signus was docked for the first time with the ISS and was docked.

ISS, March 2011

Planned events

The plans include a significant modernization of the Russian spacecraft Soyuz and Progress.

In 2017, it is planned to dock the Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) "Science" to the ISS. It will replace the Pirs module, which will be undocked and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will fully take over the Pier's functions.

"NEM-1" (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned in 2018;

"NEM-2" (scientific and energy module) - the second module.

UM (nodal module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned for 2017.

Station device

The station is based on a modular principle. The ISS is assembled by sequentially adding to the complex the next module or block, which is connected to the one already delivered to orbit.

For 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian - Zarya, Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk, Rassvet; American - Unity, Destiny, Quest, Tranquility, Domes, Leonardo, Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

• "Zarya"- the Zarya functional cargo module, the first of the ISS modules delivered to orbit. Module weight - 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with jet engines to correct the station's orbit and large solar panels. The service life of the module is expected to be at least 15 years. The American financial contribution to the creation of Zarya is about $ 250 million, the Russian - over $ 150 million;
• P.M. panel- an anti-meteorite panel or anti-micrometeor protection, which, at the insistence of the American side, is mounted on the Zvezda module;
• "Star"- Service module "Zvezda", which houses flight control systems, life support systems, energy and information center, as well as cabins for cosmonauts. Module weight - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking stations. All its systems and units are Russian, with the exception of the onboard computer complex, created with the participation of European and American specialists;
• MIME- small research modules, two Russian cargo modules "Poisk" and "Rassvet", designed to store equipment necessary for carrying out scientific experiments... "Search" is docked to the anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module, and the "Rassvet" - to the nadir port of the Zarya module;
• "The science"- Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides conditions for storing scientific equipment, conducting scientific experiments, and temporary accommodation for the crew. Also provides the functionality of a European manipulator;
• ERA- European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be assigned to the Russian MLM scientific laboratory;
• Hermoadapter- a sealed docking adapter designed to interconnect the ISS modules and to ensure docking of shuttles;
• "Tranquility"- ISS module performing life support functions. Contains systems for water processing, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. Connected to the "Unity" module;
• "Unity"- the first of the three ISS connecting modules, which acts as a docking station and an electricity switch for the Quest, Nod-3 modules, Z1 truss and transport ships docking to it through the Hermoadapter-3;
• "Pier"- port of berthing, intended for the docking of Russian Progress and Soyuz; installed on the Zvezda module;
• VSP- external storage platforms: three external unpressurized platforms designed exclusively for storing goods and equipment;
• Farms- an integrated truss structure, on the elements of which solar panels, radiator panels and remote manipulators are installed. Also designed for leaky storage of goods and various equipment;
• "Canadarm2", or "Mobile Service System" - a Canadian remote manipulator system serving as the primary tool for unloading transport ships and moving external equipment;
• "Dexter"- Canadian system of two remote manipulators, used to move equipment located outside the station;
• "Quest"- a specialized airlock module designed for space walks of cosmonauts and astronauts with the possibility of preliminary desaturation (washing out nitrogen from human blood);
• "Harmony"- a connecting module that acts as a docking station and an electrical switch for three scientific laboratories and transport ships docking to it through the Hermoadapter-2. Contains additional life support systems;
• Columbus- European laboratory module, in which, in addition to scientific equipment, network switches (hubs) are installed, providing communication between the station's computer equipment. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
• Destiny- American laboratory module docked with the Harmony module;
• "Kibo"- Japanese laboratory module, consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in sealed and non-sealed conditions. In addition, thanks to its special design, it allows unplanned experiments. Docked to the "Harmony" module;

ISS observation dome.

• "Dome"- transparent observation dome. Its seven windows (the largest is 80 cm in diameter) are used for experiments, space observation and, when docking spacecraft, as well as a control panel for the station's main remote manipulator. Resting place for crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the "Tranquility" nodal module;
• TSP- four unpressurized platforms, fixed on trusses 3 and 4, designed to accommodate equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in a vacuum. They provide processing and transmission of experimental results via high-speed channels to the station.
• Sealed multifunctional module- warehouse for storing cargo, docked to the nadir docking station of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: Leonardo, Raphael and Donatello, which are periodically delivered into orbit to equip the ISS with the necessary scientific equipment and other cargo. Modules with a common name "Multipurpose supply module", were delivered in the cargo hold of the shuttles and docked with the Unity module. Since March 2011, the converted Leonardo module has been included in the station's modules called the Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM).

Power supply to the station

ISS in 2001. The solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules are visible, as well as the P6 truss structure with American solar panels.

The only source of electrical energy for the ISS is the light from which the station's solar panels convert into electricity.

The Russian segment of the ISS uses a constant voltage of 28 volts, similar to that used on the Space Shuttle and Soyuz spacecraft. Electricity is generated directly by solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to the Russian segment through the ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian converter unit) and in the opposite direction through the RACU voltage converter ( Russian-to-American converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be powered by the Russian Science and Energy Platform (NEP) module. However, after the Columbia shuttle disaster, the station assembly program and the shuttle flight schedule were revised. Among other things, the delivery and installation of the NEP was also abandoned, so at the moment most of the electricity is produced by solar panels in the American sector.

In the American segment, solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible foldable solar panels form a so-called solar panel wing ( Solar Array Wing, SAW); in total, four pairs of such wings are placed on the station's truss structures. Each wing is 35 m long and 11.6 m wide, and its useful area is 298 m², while the total power generated by it can reach 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate a primary constant voltage of 115 to 173 volts, which is then, using DDCU units (eng. Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), is transformed into a secondary stabilized constant voltage of 124 Volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar battery on the ISS

The station makes one revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes and spends about half of this time in the shadow of the Earth, where solar panels are not working. Its power supply then comes from buffer nickel-hydrogen storage batteries, which are recharged when the ISS goes back into sunlight. The batteries have a lifespan of 6.5 years and are expected to be replaced several times over the lifetime of the station. The first battery replacement was carried out on the P6 segment during the spacewalk of the space shuttle Endeavor STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, solar panels in the American sector track the Sun to maximize energy production. Solar panels are aimed at the Sun using Alpha and Beta actuators. The station has two Alpha drives, which rotate several sections with solar panels located on them around the longitudinal axis of truss structures: the first drive turns sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery has its own "Beta" drive, which provides rotation of the wing about its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shadow of the Earth, the solar panels are switched to Night Glider mode ( English) ("Night gliding mode"), at the same time they turn their edge in the direction of travel in order to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere, which is present at the station's flight altitude.

Means of communication

Telemetry transmission and scientific data exchange between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communication. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations, they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multipurpose communication systems.

The Russian segment of the ISS maintains communication with the Earth directly using the Lira radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. Lira makes it possible to use the Luch satellite data relay system. This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but in the 1990s it fell into disrepair and is currently not used. To restore the system's performance, Luch-5A was launched in 2012. In May 2014, 3 Luch multifunctional space relay systems operate in orbit - Luch-5A, Luch-5B and Luch-5V. In 2014, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station.

Another Russian communication system, Voskhod-M, provides telephone communication between the Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk modules and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communication with ground control centers using external antennas module "Star".

In the American segment, two separate systems are used for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and K u-band (audio, video, data transmission), located on the Z1 truss. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to the US geostationary satellites TDRSS, which allows for almost continuous contact with the flight control center in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European module "Columbus" and the Japanese "Kibo" are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the American data transmission system TDRSS will eventually be supplemented by the European one. satellite system(EDRS) and similar Japanese. Communication between the modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.

During spacewalks, astronauts use a decimeter VHF transmitter. Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle satellites also use VHF radio communications during docking or undocking (however, shuttles also use S- and K u-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spaceships receive commands from the Mission Control Center or from the ISS crew. Unmanned spacecraft are equipped with their own communication facilities. So, ATV ships use a specialized system during rendezvous and docking. Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE), the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is carried out via two completely independent S-band radio channels. The PCE begins to function starting at relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and turns off after the ATV docks to the ISS and switches to interaction via the MIL-STD-1553 onboard bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and ISS, a system of laser rangefinders installed on the ATV is used, making it possible to accurately dock with the station.

The station is equipped with approximately one hundred ThinkPad laptops from IBM and Lenovo, Models A31 and T61P, running Debian GNU / Linux. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the ISS, in particular, they have redesigned connectors, a cooling system, taken into account the 28 Volt voltage used at the station, and also fulfilled the safety requirements for working in zero gravity. Since January 2010, direct Internet access has been organized at the station for the American segment. The computers on board the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi to a wireless network and connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbps for uploads and 10 Mbps for downloading, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Bathroom for astronauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women, looks exactly the same as on Earth, but has a number of design features. The toilet is equipped with leg braces and thigh holders, and powerful air pumps are built into it. The astronaut is fastened to the toilet seat with a special spring fastener, then turns on a powerful fan and opens the suction port, where the air flow carries all the waste.

On the ISS, air from toilets must be filtered before entering living quarters to remove bacteria and odors.

Greenhouse for astronauts

Fresh greens grown in microgravity are officially on the menu on the International Space Station for the first time. On August 10, 2015, astronauts will taste lettuce harvested from the orbiting Veggie plantation. Many media outlets reported that for the first time the cosmonauts tried their own grown food, but this experiment was carried out at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main goals in the creation of the ISS was the possibility of conducting experiments at the station that require unique conditions for space flight: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation, not weakened by the earth's atmosphere. Major research areas include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science, and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology, and meteorology. Research is carried out with the help of scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories, part of the equipment for experiments requiring a vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its pressurized volume.

ISS scientific modules

At the moment (January 2012), the station includes three special scientific modules - the American laboratory Destiny, launched in February 2001, the European research module Columbus, delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese research module Kibo ". The European research module is equipped with 10 racks in which instruments for research in various fields of science are installed. Some of the racks are specialized and equipped for research in biology, biomedicine and fluid physics. The rest of the racks are universal, in which the equipment can change depending on the experiments being carried out.

The Japanese research module "Kibo" consists of several parts, which were sequentially delivered and assembled in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a sealed experimental transport compartment (eng. JEM Experiment Logistics Module - Pressurized Section ) was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of the shuttle "Endeavor" STS-123. the last part The Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when the shuttle delivered a leaky experimental transport compartment to the ISS. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).

Russia has two "Small Research Modules" (MIM) on the orbital station - "Poisk" and "Rassvet". It is also planned to deliver a multifunctional laboratory module "Science" (MLM) into orbit. Only the latter will have full scientific capabilities, the amount of scientific equipment located on two MIMs is minimal.

Collaborative experiments

The international nature of the ISS project encourages collaborative scientific experiments. Such cooperation is most widely developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Federal Space Agency of Russia. The Plasma Crystal experiment devoted to the physics of dusty plasma and conducted by the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, the Institute of High Temperatures and the Institute of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, the biomedical experiment “ Matryoshka-R ”, in which to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation, mannequins are used - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine.

The Russian side is also a contractor for contract experiments between ESA and the Japan Aerospace Research Agency. For example, Russian cosmonauts conducted tests of the robotic experimental system ROKVISS (eng. Robotic Components Verification on ISS- testing of robotic components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, located in Wesling, near Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between burning a candle on Earth (left) and microgravity on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations to conduct scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. For eleven main areas of research, 406 applications were received from eighty organizations. After evaluating the technical feasibility of these applications by RSC Energia specialists, in 1999 the Long-Term Program of Scientific and Applied Research and Experiments Planned on the Russian Segment of the ISS was adopted. The program was approved by the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu. S. Osipov and the General Director of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first studies on the Russian segment of the ISS were started by the first manned expedition in 2000. According to the initial design of the ISS, it was planned to launch two large Russian research modules (MR). The energy needed for scientific experiments was to be provided by the Energy Science Platform (NEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were canceled in favor of the construction of a single scientific module, which did not require large costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research carried out by Russia on the ISS is contractual or joint with foreign partners.

Currently, the ISS is carrying out various medical, biological and physical research.

Research in the American segment

Epstein-Barr virus, shown by fluorescent antibody staining technique

The United States is conducting an extensive research program on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of the research carried out during the flights of shuttles with Spacelab modules and in the joint program with Russia “Mir-Shuttle”. An example is the study of the pathogenicity of one of the causative agents of herpes, the Epstein-Barr virus. According to statistics, 90% of the US adult population is carriers of the latent form of this virus. In space flight, the immune system is weakened, the virus can become active and cause a crew member to become ill. Experiments to study the virus were launched during the flight of the STS-108 shuttle.

European studies

Solar observatory, installed on the module "Columbus"

The European scientific module Columbus provides 10 unified payload racks (ISPR), although some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of ESA, the following scientific equipment was installed in the racks: Biolab laboratory for conducting biological experiments, Fluid Science Laboratory for research in the field of fluid physics, installation for experiments in physiology European Physiology Modules, as well as a universal rack European Drawer Rack containing equipment for conducting experiments on protein crystallization (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental installations for the Columbus module were also installed: a remote platform for technological experiments EuTEF and solar observatory SOLAR. It is planned to add an external laboratory for testing general relativity and string theory Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.

Japanese studies

The research program carried out on the Kibo module includes the study of the processes of global warming on Earth, the ozone layer and surface desertification, and astronomical research in the X-ray range.

Experiments are planned to create large and identical protein crystals to help understand the mechanisms of disease and develop new therapies. In addition, the effect of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, as well as experiments in robotics, communications and energy will be carried out.

In April 2009, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata on the ISS conducted a series of experiments that were selected from among those proposed by ordinary citizens. The astronaut attempted to "swim" in zero gravity using a variety of styles, including crawl and butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut to even budge. The astronaut noted at the same time that “even large sheets of paper will not be able to correct the situation if they are taken in hand and used as fins”. In addition, the astronaut wanted to juggle a soccer ball, but this attempt was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back overhead. After completing these difficult exercises in zero gravity, the Japanese astronaut tried to do push-ups from the floor and make rotations in place.

Security questions

Space debris

A hole in the radiator panel of the shuttle Endeavor STS-118, formed as a result of a collision with space debris

Since the ISS is moving in a relatively low orbit, there is a certain probability of collision of the station or astronauts going into outer space with the so-called space debris. This can include both large objects like rocket stages or satellites out of order, and small ones like slag from solid-propellant rocket engines, coolants from reactor plants of US-A satellites, and other substances and objects. In addition, natural objects such as micrometeorites pose an additional threat. Considering cosmic speeds in orbit, even small objects can cause serious damage to the station, and in the event of a possible hit in the cosmonaut's spacesuit, micrometeorites can pierce the skin and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, remote monitoring of the movement of space debris is carried out from the Earth. If such a threat appears at a certain distance from the ISS, the station crew receives a corresponding warning. The astronauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre), which is a group of propulsion systems from the Russian segment of the station. Engaged engines are able to launch the station into a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In case of late detection of danger, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on board the Soyuz spacecraft. Partial evacuation took place on the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011, and March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of the massive atmospheric layer that surrounds people on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are exposed to more intense radiation from constant streams of cosmic rays. On a day, the crew members receive a dose of radiation in the amount of about 1 millisievert, which is approximately equivalent to a person's exposure on Earth for a year. This leads to an increased risk of malignant tumors in astronauts, as well as a weakening of the immune system. The weak immunity of astronauts can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among the crew members, especially in the confined space of the station. Despite attempts to improve the mechanisms radiation protection, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much in comparison with the indicators of previous studies, carried out, for example, at the Mir station.

Station body surface

During the inspection of the outer skin of the ISS, on the scrapings from the surface of the hull and windows, traces of the vital activity of marine plankton were found. It was also confirmed the need to clean the outer surface of the station due to pollution from the operation of spacecraft engines.

Legal side

Legal levels

The legal framework governing the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:

• The first the level that establishes the rights and obligations of the parties is the "Intergovernmental Agreement on the Space Station" (eng. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - IGA ), signed on January 29, 1998 by fifteen governments of the countries participating in the project - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article 1 of this document reflects the main principles of the project:
  This agreement is a long-term international structure based on sincere partnership for the comprehensive design, construction, development and long-term use of an inhabited civil space station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.... When writing this agreement, it was based on the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, ratified by 98 countries, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law.
• The first level of partnership is the basis second level called "Memoranda of Understanding" (eng. Memoranda of Understanding - MOU s ). These memoranda represent agreements between NASA and four national space agencies: FKA, ESA, KKA and JAXA. Memoranda are used for more detailed description roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is the appointed manager of the ISS, there are no separate agreements directly between these organizations, only with NASA.
• TO the third This level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the parties - for example, a 2005 commercial agreement between NASA and Roscosmos, which included one guaranteed place for an American astronaut in the crews of Soyuz spacecraft and part of the usable volume for American cargo on unmanned aerial vehicles. " Progress ”.
• Fourth the legal level complements the second ("Memorandums") and enforces certain provisions from it. An example of it is the "Code of Conduct on the ISS", which was developed in pursuance of paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - legal aspects of ensuring subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Ownership structure

The ownership structure of the project does not provide for a clearly established percentage for its members on the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article 5 (IGA), each partner only has jurisdiction over the plant component that is registered for it, and violations of the law by personnel, inside or outside the plant, are subject to proceedings under the laws of the country of which they are nationals.

The interior of the Zarya module

ISS resource agreements are more complex. Russian modules "Zvezda", "Pirs", "Poisk" and "Rassvet" are manufactured and belong to Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned Nauka module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The Zarya module was built and delivered to orbit by the Russian side, but this was done with US funds, so today NASA is officially the owner of this module. For use Russian modules and other components of the station, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the aforementioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, trusses, solar panels and two robotic arms), as agreed by the parties, are used as follows (in% of the total time of use):

1. Columbus - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
2. Kibo - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
3. Destiny - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

• NASA can use 100% of the truss area;
• By agreement with NASA, the CSA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
• Crew working time, solar power, use of ancillary services (loading / unloading, communication services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.

Legal curiosities

Before the flight of the first space tourist, there was no regulatory framework governing private flights into space. But after Dennis Tito's flight, the countries participating in the project developed "Principles" that defined such a concept as "Space Tourist" and all the necessary questions for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such a flight is possible only if there are specific medical indicators, psychological fitness, language training, and a monetary contribution.

The participants in the first space wedding in 2003 found themselves in the same situation, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the Republican majority in the US Congress adopted a legislative act on the nonproliferation of missile and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not purchase equipment and ships from Russia necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the Columbia disaster, when the fate of the project depended on Russian Soyuz and Progress, on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to pass amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions on "any protocols, agreements, memorandums of understanding or contracts." , before January 1, 2012.

Costs

The costs of building and operating the ISS turned out to be much higher than it was originally planned. In 2005, ESA estimates that from the start of work on the ISS project from the late 1980s to its then expected completion in 2010, about 100 billion euros (157 billion dollars or 65.3 billion pounds sterling) would have been spent \. However, to date, the end of operation of the station is planned no earlier than 2024, due to the request of the United States, which is unable to undock its segment and continue to fly, the total costs of all countries are estimated at a larger amount.

It is very difficult to make an accurate estimate of the cost of the ISS. For example, it is not clear how the Russian contribution should be calculated, since Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar rates than other partners.

NASA

Assessing the project as a whole, most of all NASA's expenses are the complex of flight support measures and the costs of managing the ISS. In other words, ongoing operating costs account for a much larger share of the money spent than the costs of building modules and other station devices, training crews, and delivery ships.

NASA's expenditures on the ISS, excluding Shuttle costs, from 1994 to 2005 amounted to $ 25.6 billion. 2005 and 2006 accounted for approximately $ 1.8 billion. It is projected that annual expenses will increase and by 2010 will amount to $ 2.3 billion. Then, until the completion of the project in 2016, no increase is planned, only inflationary adjustments.

Distribution of budgetary funds

An item-by-item list of NASA costs can be estimated, for example, according to a document published by the space agency, which shows how the $ 1.8 billion spent by NASA on the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

• Research and development of new equipment- $ 70 million. This amount was, in particular, spent on the development of navigation systems, on Information Support, on technologies to reduce environmental pollution.
• Flight support- $ 800 million. This amount included: per ship, $ 125 million for software, spacewalks, supply and maintenance of shuttles; an additional $ 150 million was spent on the flights themselves, on-board electronic equipment and on systems for interaction between the crew and the ship; the remaining $ 250 million went to general management of the ISS.
• Ship launches and expeditions- $ 125 million for pre-launch operations at the cosmodrome; $ 25 million for medical care; $ 300 million spent on expedition management;
• Flight program- 350 million dollars were spent on the development of the flight program, on the maintenance of ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
• Cargo and crews- $ 140 million was spent on the purchase of consumables, as well as the ability to deliver cargo and crews on Russian Progress and Soyuz.

Cost of Shuttles as part of ISS costs

Of the ten scheduled flights remaining until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the cost of the Shuttle program in the main cost of the station, since it positions it as a separate project, independently of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 of the 31 shuttle flights were not connected to the ISS, and of the eleven planned flights remaining until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program for the delivery of cargo and crews of astronauts to the ISS were:

• Excluding the first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, the cost was $ 24 billion. Of these, 20% ($ 5 billion) did not belong to the ISS. Total - $ 19 billion.
• From 1996 to 2006, it was planned to spend $ 20.5 billion on flights under the Shuttle program. If we subtract the flight to the Hubble from this amount, we end up with the same $ 19 billion.

That is, the total costs of NASA flights to the ISS for the entire period will amount to approximately $ 38 billion.

Total

Taking into account NASA's plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, as a first approximation, you can get an average annual consumption of $ 2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will amount to $ 27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 ($ 25.6 billion) and adding these figures, we get the final official result - $ 53 billion.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include the significant costs of designing the Freedom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participation in a joint program with Russia to use the Mir station in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were used many times during the construction of the ISS. Taking into account this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the Shuttles, we can talk about more than a twofold increase in the amount of expenses, in comparison with the official one - more than $ 100 billion for the United States alone.

ESA

ESA has calculated that its contribution over 15 years of the project's existence will amount to 9 billion euros. Costs for the Columbus module exceed € 1.4 billion (approximately $ 2.1 billion), including the cost of ground control systems. The total cost of developing the ATV is approximately € 1.35 billion, with each launch of the Ariane 5 costing approximately € 150 million.

JAXA

The development of the Japanese Experimental Module, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (approximately $ 2.8 billion).

In 2005, JAXA allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The Japanese experimental module has an annual operating cost of $ 350-400 million. In addition, JAXA has pledged to develop and launch the H-II transport ship, with a total development cost of $ 1 billion. JAXA's expenses for 24 years of participation in the ISS program will exceed $ 10 billion.

Roscosmos

A significant portion of the Russian Space Agency's budget is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen flights of the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft have been performed, which since 2003 have become the main means of delivering cargo and crews. However, the question of how much Russia is spending on the station (in US dollars) is not an easy one. The currently existing 2 modules in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program, and therefore the costs for their development are much lower than for other modules, but in this case, by analogy with the American programs, one should also take into account the costs of developing the corresponding modules of the station " Peace". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately assess the actual costs of Roscosmos.

A rough idea of ​​the expenses of the Russian space agency on the ISS can be obtained based on its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31.806, for 2007 - 32.985 and for 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the plant consumes less than one and a half billion US dollars per year.

CSA

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is a permanent partner of NASA, therefore Canada has been participating in the ISS project from the very beginning. Canada's contribution to the ISS is a mobile maintenance system consisting of three parts: a mobile carriage that can move along the station truss, a Canadarm2 robotic arm, which is mounted on a mobile cart, and a dedicated Dextre manipulator. ). CSA has invested an estimated $ 1.4 billion in the station over the past 20 years.

Criticism

In the entire history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps, the most criticized space project... Criticism can be considered constructive or short-sighted, you can agree with it or challenge it, but one thing remains unchanged: the station exists, by its existence it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and multiplies the experience of mankind in space flights, spending enormous financial resources on this.

Criticism in the USA

The criticism of the American side is mainly directed at the cost of the project, which already exceeds $ 100 billion. This money, according to critics, could be more usefully spent on automatic (unmanned) flights to explore near space or on science projects on Earth. In response to some of these critical remarks advocates of manned space travel say criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted and that the material payoffs from manned space exploration and space exploration are in the billions of dollars. Jerome Schnee (eng. Jerome schnee) estimated the indirect economic component from additional revenues associated with space exploration as many times higher than the initial public investment.

However, a statement from the Federation of American Scientists argues that NASA's profit margins on spin-offs are actually very low, with the exception of aeronautical developments that improve aircraft sales.

Critics also say that NASA often counts third-party development as its achievements, ideas and developments of which may have been used by NASA, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. Unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites are really useful and profitable, according to critics. NASA has extensively reported additional income from the construction of the ISS and from the work performed on it, while the official list of NASA expenses is much shorter and more secret.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park (eng. Robert park), most of the planned research studies are not of high priority. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in the space laboratory is to conduct it in microgravity, which can be done much cheaper in artificial zero gravity (in a special plane that flies along a parabolic trajectory). reduced gravity aircraft).

The plans for the construction of the ISS included two high-tech components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and a centrifuge module (eng. Centrifuge Accommodations Module) ... The first has been operating at the station since May 2011. The creation of the second was abandoned in 2005 as a result of the correction of plans to complete the construction of the station. The highly specialized experiments carried out on the ISS are limited by the lack of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were carried out on the influence of space flight factors on the human body, affecting such aspects as kidney stones, circadian rhythm (cyclicality of biological processes in the human body), the effect of cosmic radiation on the human nervous system. Critics argue that this research has little practical value, since the realities of today's near-space exploration are unmanned robotic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust (eng. Jeff Foust) argued that too many expensive and dangerous spacewalks are required to maintain the ISS. Pacific Astronomical Society (eng. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific) at the beginning of the design, the ISS drew attention to the too high inclination of the station's orbit. If for the Russian side this makes launches cheaper, for the American side it is unprofitable. The concession that NASA made for the Russian Federation due to geographic location Baikonur, ultimately, may increase the total cost of building the ISS.

In general, the debate in American society boils down to a discussion of the expediency of the ISS, in the aspect of astronautics in a broader sense. Some advocates argue that, in addition to its scientific value, it is an important example of international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS could potentially, with the proper efforts and improvements, make flights to and from more economical. One way or another, the main essence of the statements of responses to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS, rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight capabilities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FCA) to defend Russian interests in comparison with the American side, which always closely monitors compliance with its national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why Russia does not have its own space station project, and why money is being spent on a project owned by the United States, while these funds could be spent on entirely Russian development. According to the head of RSC Energia, Vitaly Lopota, the reason for this is contractual obligations and lack of funding.

At one time, the Mir station became a source of experience for the United States in construction and research on the ISS, and after the Columbia accident, the Russian side, acting in accordance with a partnership agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and astronauts to the station, practically single-handedly saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to criticism of the FCA about the underestimation of the role of Russia in the project. For example, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia's scientific and technical contribution to the project is underestimated, and that a partnership agreement with NASA does not meet the national interests financially. However, it should be borne in mind that at the beginning of the construction of the ISS, the Russian segment of the station was paid for by the United States, providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only by the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists note the small number of new scientific experiments carried out at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot manufacture and supply the necessary equipment to the station due to lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopota, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS will increase to 6 people. In addition, questions are raised about security measures in force majeure situations associated with a possible loss of control of the plant. So, according to cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes uncontrollable, it will not be possible to flood it like the Mir station.

International cooperation, which is one of the main arguments in favor of the station, is also controversial, according to critics. As you know, under the terms of an international agreement, countries are not obliged to share their scientific developments at the station. In 2006-2007, there were no new large initiatives or major projects in the space sphere between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that a country investing 75% of its funds in its project is unlikely to want a full partner, which is also its main competitor in the struggle for the leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds were spent on manned programs, and a number of satellite development programs have failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev, in an interview with Izvestia, said that for the sake of the ISS, space science again remained on Earth.

In 2014-2015, experts from the Russian space industry formed the opinion that the practical benefits of orbital stations have already been exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries have been made:

The era of orbital stations that began in 1971 will be a thing of the past. Experts see no practical feasibility either in maintaining the ISS after 2020, or in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: “The scientific and practical output from the Russian segment of the ISS is significantly lower than from the Salyut-7 and Mir orbital complexes. Scientific organizations not interested in repeating what has already been done.

Expert Magazine 2015

Delivery ships

Crews of manned expeditions on the ISS are delivered to the station on the Soyuz TPK according to a "short" six-hour scheme. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day basis. Until July 2011, cargo delivery, installation of station elements, rotation of crews, in addition to TPK Soyuz, were carried out within the framework of the Space Shuttle program, until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all manned and transport spacecraft to the ISS:

Ship	Type of	Agency / country	First flight	Last flight	Total flights

The International Space Station (ISS) is a large-scale and, perhaps, the most complex technical project in its organization in the history of mankind. Every day, hundreds of specialists around the world are working to ensure that the ISS can fully fulfill its main function - to be a scientific platform for the study of boundless outer space and, of course, our planet.

When you watch the news about the ISS, many questions arise regarding how a space station can generally operate in extreme space conditions, how it flies in orbit and does not fall, how people can live in it without suffering from high temperatures and solar radiation.

Having studied this topic and collecting all the information in a heap, I confess that instead of answering, I got even more questions.

At what altitude does the ISS fly?

The ISS flies in the thermosphere at an altitude of about 400 km from the Earth (for information, the distance from the Earth to the Moon is about 370 thousand km). The thermosphere itself is an atmospheric layer, which, in fact, is not quite space yet. This layer extends from the Earth at a distance of 80 km to 800 km.

The peculiarity of the thermosphere is that the temperature rises with height and at the same time can fluctuate significantly. Above 500 km, the level of solar radiation increases, which can easily disable equipment and negatively affect the health of astronauts. Therefore, the ISS does not rise above 400 km.

This is what the ISS looks like from Earth

What is the temperature outside the ISS?

There is very little information on this topic. Different sources speak differently. They say that at 150 km, the temperature can reach 220-240 °, and at 200 km, more than 500 °. Above, the temperature continues to rise and at the level of 500-600 km, it allegedly already exceeds 1500 °.

According to the astronauts themselves, at an altitude of 400 km, at which the ISS flies, the temperature is constantly changing depending on the cut-off situation. When the ISS is in the shade, the temperature overboard drops to -150 °, and if it is in direct sunlight, the temperature rises to + 150 °. And this is not even a steam room in a bath! How at such a temperature can astronauts generally be in open space? Is the super thermal suit really saving them?

Work of an astronaut in open space at + 150 °

What is the temperature inside the ISS?

Unlike the temperature outside the ISS, it is possible to maintain a stable temperature suitable for human life - approximately + 23 °. And how this is done is completely incomprehensible. If overboard, for example, + 150 °, then how is it possible to cool the temperature inside the station or vice versa and constantly keep it normal?

How does radiation affect astronauts in the ISS?

At an altitude of 400 km, the background radiation is hundreds of times higher than that of the Earth. Therefore, astronauts on the ISS, when they find themselves on the sunny side, receive radiation, the level of which is several times higher than the dose, for example, received with a chest x-ray. And at moments of powerful solar flares, station workers can grab a dose that is 50 times higher than the norm. How they manage to work in such conditions for a long time also remains a mystery.

How does space dust and debris affect the ISS?

According to NASA, on near-earth orbit about 500 thousand large debris (parts of spent stages or other parts of spaceships and rockets) and it is not yet known how much of such small debris. All this "good" revolves around the Earth at a speed of 28 thousand km / h and for some reason is not attracted to the Earth.

In addition, there is cosmic dust - these are all kinds of meteorite fragments or micrometeorites that are constantly attracted by the planet. Moreover, even if a speck of dust weighs only 1 gram, it turns into an armor-piercing projectile capable of piercing the station.

They say that if such objects approach the ISS, then the astronauts change the course of the station. But small debris or dust cannot be tracked, so it turns out that the ISS is constantly in great danger. How the cosmonauts cope with this is, again, unclear. It turns out that every day they risk their lives a lot.

The hole in the shuttle Endeavor STS-118 from the entry of space debris looks like a bullet hole

Why isn't the ISS falling?

Various sources write that the ISS does not fall due to the weak gravity of the Earth and the space speed of the station. That is, revolving around the Earth at a speed of 7.6 km / s (for information - the period of revolution of the ISS around the Earth is only 92 min 37 seconds), the ISS seems to constantly miss and does not fall. In addition, the ISS has engines that allow you to constantly adjust the position of the 400-ton colossus.

Do you want to track the ISS online and be ready to be in time to observe the station? But how do you know when the ISS will fly over your house or garden? Here are the best online services for this.

First, NASA has a Fast & Easy Observations website where you simply find your country and city and then display the date, local time, observation duration, and ISS approach data so you don't miss a station in the sky. True, there is one drawback - not for all countries and cities it is possible to determine the ISS coordinates online. So, for example, only large cities are available for Russia: St. Petersburg, Moscow, Volgograd, Tver, Tula, Samara, Stavropol, Pskov, Krasnodar, Yekaterinburg, Novosibirsk, Rostov, Norilsk, Krasnoyarsk, Vladivostok and other megacities. In other words, if you live in a small settlement, you can only rely on information for the city closest to you.

Second, Heavens Above is also an excellent resource for finding out when the ISS is flying over you in the sky, as well as all sorts of other satellites. Unlike the NASA website, Heaven-Above allows you to enter your exact latitude and longitude. Thus, if you live in a remote area, you can get the exact time and location to start looking for satellites on your own. The site also offers registration to visitors to enhance its capabilities and usability.

Third, Spaceweather has its own Satellite page that provides information to the US and Canada. But you can also use this link for other countries. It is interesting that you can set the calculation of coordinates not only for the ISS, but also, for example, for the Hubble telescope or satellites. For the countries of the North American continent, you only need to specify the ZIP code and select the object. For other continents, you select Country - Region / State - Locality... For example, I managed to find the coordinates of satellites and the ISS for Moscow Khimki. However, this site is often overloaded, as it is very popular with observers.

There is also this very cool monitoring of the movement of the ISS from Google. You cannot specify data for calculating the time and coordinates of the ISS location, but you have the opportunity to watch online the movement of the station.

The flight trajectory of the International Space Station in real time can also be traced on a special page of the official website Russian Center Space flight control (this will require the Java (TM) plugin to be installed). In addition to the flight path, you can learn about the orientation of the International Space Station, look into the ISS flight archive, and much more.

Additionally, you can receive an alert on Twitter when the space station is overflying you. To do this, use