Dialogue about astronomy in Milton's poem "Paradise Lost". Philosophical and religious views

From his youth, John Milton dreamed of creating a work that would glorify British literature for centuries and would be truly sublime. And he succeeded - such a work was "Paradise Lost". He took as a model the works of Homer, Virgil, Tasso, the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides ... Milton's poem reflects, as it were, the Old Testament history, but in fact, contemporaries saw in it a reflection of the history of England in the era of the bourgeois revolution. The bourgeoisie and the new nobility grew stronger and felt their strength. Royal power limited further entrepreneurial activity of both. War was declared on both the king and the landed aristocracy. Cromwell headed the bourgeoisie. King Karl Stewart was beheaded by the executioner in front of a huge crowd of people in the square. By an Act of Parliament of March 17, 1649, royalty was abolished as "unnecessary, burdensome and dangerous." A republic was proclaimed.

Cromwell was a strong-willed, talented military leader and a very domineering nature. He successfully reformed the revolutionary army, and it won victories over the royalist troops. Parliament respected him. In Europe, he was considered the largest politician.

Parliament endowed Cromwell with a royal palace, lands that bring enormous income. Cromwell began to ride in a gilded carriage, accompanied by bodyguards and a large retinue. Very soon this man was fed up with wealth, fame, and power.

Cromwell died at the age of 59 and was buried at the burial site of the kings. But three years later, the Stuart monarchy was restored, and Cromwell's corpse was removed from the grave and executed by hanging.

So, Milton became a poetic interpreter of the events that he was an eyewitness to. He glorified the revolution, sang the revolt of indignant human dignity against tyrants. The uprising became the symbol of the poem. Experts believe that he alone in the 17th century understood and appreciated the worldwide significance of the bourgeois English revolution.

Milton was born in 1608 to a wealthy notary in London. He studied at the best London school at St. Paul's Cathedral. At sixteen, he became a student at the University of Cambridge. “From my very youth, I devoted myself to literary studies, and my spirit was always stronger than my body,” the poet said about himself.

John traveled a lot in Europe, wrote poetry, plays, poems ... “You ask what I'm thinking about - he wrote to his friend. - With the help of heaven, about immortal glory. But what am I doing? I am growing wings and preparing to soar. "

Milton, dissatisfied with the policies of Charles I Stuart, wrote publicistic articles in which he denounced Anglican Church, advocated freedom of speech, defended the right to divorce ... Under Cromwell, the poet served as secret secretary of the republic. His treatise "The Rights and Duties of the King and Rulers" served as the rationale for the trial and execution of Charles I.

But the revolution led to arbitrariness, to uncontrolled power even more terrible than it was under the king. Cromwell, in fact, became a dictator. It so happened that a spiritual epiphany coincided with a physical loss of vision. Milton is completely blind.

After the death of Cromwell, the poet lived out his life away from society in a small house on the outskirts of London. He lived in poverty, sometimes starving, but he worked all the time, dictating his poems “Paradise Lost” and “Paradise Returned”, the tragedy “Samson the Fighter”.

The poem "Paradise Lost" has been translated into Russian several times. Last time A. Steinberg did it. The translation is considered to be very successful. A. Steinberg worked on it for several decades.

The poem amazes the reader with its cosmism, a grandiose picture of the universe, created by the poet's imagination.

The plot is taken from the Old Testament about the Fall of the Ancestors - Adam and Eve. It all starts with Satan's rebellion against the Almighty. Satan and his legions fight the Archangel Michael and his host. Those who rebelled at God's command are swallowed up by hell. But Satan himself, who was one of the most beautiful and powerful in the Divine hierarchy, does not completely lose his appearance after defeat. There is no light and love in it, but what remains is grandiose in Milton's poetic depiction.

In the pitch darkness, in chaos, unsubdued, with unquenchable hatred, Satan is plotting a new campaign against the Kingdom of Heaven.

To be convinced of the correctness of the Heavenly prophecy about the newly created world and new beings like Angels, Satan flies through the cosmic abysses and reaches the gates of Gehenna. The gates open before Satan. Overcoming the abyss between Hell and Heaven, Satan returns to the created world.

God sitting on the throne and the Son at his right hand see Satan flying. The Son of God is ready to sacrifice himself to atone for the guilt of Man in the event of the Fall. The Father commands the Son to incarnate and commands all of Jehovah to worship the Son forever and ever. Meanwhile, Satan reaches the Heavenly Gates and deceives Seraphim of the location of Man - Eden. Seeing a Man, Satan, in the guise of a sea raven, seizes fear, envy, despair.

Having tasted the fruit, they let Sin, and after it Death, into the newly created world. Sinful humanity falls under the rule of Satan, and only the Seed of the Woman will erase the head of the Serpent. Humanity itself is doomed to atone for original sin with prayers and repentance.

Returning to Hell, Satan and his henchmen turn into serpents, devouring dust and bitter ashes instead of fruits.

The progenitors Archangel Michael with a detachment of Cherubim are expelled from Paradise, having previously shown the path of mankind to the flood

then - the incarnation, death, resurrection and ascension of the Son of God

then - humanity until the second coming. Cherubim take up posts for the guardianship of Paradise. Adam and Eve leave Eden.

Turn around, they're the last time
To your recent, joyful shelter,
The entire eastern slope looked at Paradise,
Embraced by the blazing sword
Flowing, swirling, and in the opening of the Gate
Formidable faces were seen, fear
A fiery weapon. They unwittingly
They burst into tears - not for long. The whole world
Lied before them, where to choose housing
They had to. By the Providence of the Creator
Wingmen, striding hard,
Like wanderers, they are hand in hand
Crossing Eden, wandered
On his deserted road.

Milton glorifies Renaissance Man. Especially his physical beauty. He glorifies nature on Earth. "If in the image of Satan the rebellious spirit of Milton himself is reflected, - writes the researcher of Milton A. Anixt, - in the image of Adam - his stoic inflexibility in the struggle for a life worthy of man, then the figure of Christ embodies the desire for truth and the desire to enlighten people."

The image of Christ will become central in the poem "Paradise Returned". Satan tempts Christ with all worldly goods, but Christ rejects them in the name of good, truth and justice. His Christ is the enemy of all tyranny. Milton always believed that with the loss of freedom, virtue in a person perishes, and vices triumph.

MILTON, MILTON JOHN - English in-et, drama-turg, pub-li-cyst, statesman and politician.

Son of no-ta-riu-sa and com-zi-to-ra-lu-bi-te-la Jo-na Mil-to-na. He studied at the school of St. Paul (1620-1625) in Lone-do-no, then - at Christ-col-led-the same Cam-bridge University (1625 -1632 years). With-ni-mal active participation in the Ang-li-lysk re-vo-lu-tion of the XVII century great-wit-tel-st-ve O. Krom-ve-la (led me-w-do-folk pe-re-writing).

To early ethical experiences, Latin elements, Italian pass-to-ral-s-not-you, pa-ra-phrases of psalms (114 and 136 ), the poem "On the death of a fair infant", 1628 - under-ra-zha- E. Spence-ru; ode "On the morning of Christ's nativi-ty" (1629), na-pi-san-naya se-mi-line noah, the so-called ko-ro-lev-skoi, stanza, introduced by J. Cho-se-rum; in ethical dip-tich "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso" (between 1631 and 1633, lay in the basis of the ora-to-rii GF Gen-de-la " Funny, for-dum-chi-vy and temperate ", 1740), where against-in-post-tav-le-ny two states of man-ve-che -shi; p'e-sy-mas-ki "Zhi-te-li Ar-kadii" ("Arcades", 1632) and "Ko-mus" ("Comus", 1634), built on cut-com contra-ste sin-ha and do-ro-de-te-li. Better pro-from-ve-de-ni-em this-go-rio-da st-la tra-ur-naya elegya "Liu-si-das" ("Ly-cidas", 1638) , na-pi-san-naya by Milton on the occasion of gi-be-li at the co-rab-le-crumbling of his friend and one-but-porridge-ni-ka E. Kin-ga. In the elegy of the theme of death, close-pe-re-ple-te-na with the thought-la-mi about the knowledge of this.

In the years 1638-1639, Milton pre-took a trip to France and Italy, in-to-know-to-mile with G. Ga-li-lem. In the years of re-vo-lu-tion, Milton, who took a side-ro-well in-de-pen-den-tov, turned to pub-li-tsi-sti-ke : trak-ta-you "About Re-for-ma-tions in England and pri-chi-nah, which until now for-hold-zhi-wa-whether her" ("Of the Reformation touching church discipline in England and the causes that hitherto have hindered it, 1641), The reason of church government. .. ", 1642) - against the English-li-kan-church-vi for the protection of the pre-svy-te-ri-an, and others. In 1642 Milton did de-vush-ke from the royal family of M. Powell, who soon went from Milton to the ro-di-tele-lyam (returned to Milton in 1645, died in 1652). This is an event in-service-in-house for na-pi-sa-niya trak-ta-tov, in which Milton from-flock-shaft right-to-sup-ru -gov for divorce: "Dock-three-on and on-dock once-in-yes" ("The doctrine and discipline of divorce", 1643), etc .; you-call-whether stormy in-le-mi-ku. In the same years, Milton created the Latin treatise "On the Christian doctrine" ("De Doctrina Christiana"), in which, recognizing the importance of baptism, ut-ver-waited that only adults should accept him; the remaining 6 sacraments, as well as any other church hierarchy, he rejected. Fear-sa-ya of the possibility, which-swarm could-draw for itself about-na-ro-do-va-tak-ta-ta, Milton ot-ka -zal-Xia from his publication (published in 1825). The best-known knowledge of the 1644 "Of Education" in the spirit of re-ness sans-no-go gu-ma-niz-ma and "Are-o-pa-gi-ti-ka" ("Areopagitica", Russian translation of 1905), in which Milton played for-shi-that free-bo-dy pe-cha-ti.

In 1645, Milton published the first poetic collection of ethics "Sty-ho-tv-re-nia". In the tract-ta-te "Iko-no-bo-rets" ("Eikonoklastes", 1649) and the Latin traks-ta-takh "For-shchi-ta ang-li-sko-ro-da" ( "Pro populo Anglicano de-fen-sio", 1650 and 1654) Milton, from the flock of the idea of res-pub-li-ki, op-rav-dy-val the execution of Charles I. In 1652 Milton os -lap. Ty-ra-no-bor-che-skie-the-construction of Milton brightly appeared in the truck-ta-te free republic-li-ki "(" The ready and easy way to establish a free commonwealth ", 1660). After coming to the power of Charles II (1660) Milton was arrested and jailed in jail; blah-go-yes-rya for-stup-no-che-st-woo influential friends was-in-bo-f-dyon. In 1667, the first edition (in 10 books; later - in 12 books) of the she-dev-r Milton - the epic poem “Lost paradise ”(“ Pa-radise lost ”, Russian translation of 1777), over which Milton had been working for more than 10 years.

For-we-sat in-emy on the biblical plot of sin-ho-pas-de-nia arose at Milton's still in his youth. Milton knew the pies by J. van den Von de la on the same plot - "Lu-tsi-fer" (1654) and "Adam in from-nii" ( 1664). Po-ema, pro-long-alive-shaya tradition of epic po-ezia anti-tich-no-sti (Go-mer, Ver-giliy, Ovidiy) and Voz-ro-j-de -niya (Dan-te, T. Tas-so), na-pi-sa-na in the gen-re of the christi-an-sky scholar of the epic; she also includes gen-ry shes-tod-ne-va (ras-ska-za about the Co-creation of the world), masks, odes, gim- on, ek-lo-gi, etc.

In the "Lost Paradise", dey-st-vu-yut per-so-na-zhi biblical history: God the Father, God the Son (Messiah), Sa-ta -na, Adam and Eve, etc., as well as the al-lego-richesky fi-gu-ry that Milton brought to mind: the daughter of Sa-ta-ny - Sin, her son - Death, etc. . Po-ema za-doo-ma-na as teo-di-tseya: the purpose of av-to-ra is "goodness Pro-vi-de-nya do-ka-zat, / Path-ti Creator before tv-ryu op-rav-dav ”(translation by AA Stein-ber-ga). One-on-one created by Milton the image of Sa-ta-ny, rebelling against God and g-b-b-b-b-b-my God is yours -re-nie - man-ve-ka, with his power and artistic persuasion, many critics, and pre-f-de all-in-it-ro-man-ti-kov (W. Blake, P.B.Shel-li), see the name of the main hero in him. In the aftermath, such a tract-comrade in-ema was under-verg-well-that sharp criticism of K.S. Lewis in the book "Pre-di-word to" On-the-ryan-no-paradise "" (1942).

Pro-long-same "Paradise" became the poem "Paradise" ("Para-dise regained", 1671, Russian translation 1778), over which Milton worked from 1665 to 1670. If-if-tra-di-tsi-on-but-zhe-zhe-zhe-zhe-zhe-zhe-zhe-zh-zh-zh-zh-s-tsii-ro-val-sya with the iso-bra-same-ni one hundred, with His source of food-sacrifice, then Milton de-lo has something different: in the center of his in-ema is the source of Hri-hundred in let-you-no. Milton brought from the change in the Evangelical tale, adding to the three ka-no-nical is-ku-she-ni-yam the fourth - is-ku- the movement of the antich-noy culture and phi-lo-so-fi. Chri-stos after-to-va-tel-but from-ver-ga-et all is-ku-sheniya, and Sa-ta-na po-ni-ma-et, that before him dey -st-wi-tel-no Spa-si-tel mi-ra.

In the image of Christ's wife, in both of them, Milton's anti-tri-ni-tar-dy glances appeared. So, in the "Lost Paradise", God the Father ko-ro-nu-et-me-siyu, as if separating him from himself. In "Revived Paradise", Christ does not remember his glory in non-be-sah until he is in the world; he does not have full-but-you all-ve-de-nia.

Following the pro-from-ve-de-ni-em Milton became a ge-ro-ic tra-ge-diya to the biblical plot "Sam-son-bo-rets" (" Samson Agonistes ", 1671; ora-to-ria of Gen-de-la, 1743), which has an op-re-de-lien av-to-bio-graphic sub-text. Ut-ra-tiv physical vision, the hero of the tra-ge-diy pro-matured spirit-hov-but, he is-b-w-da-et with the price of his own life. Tra-ge-diy pre-sla-but pre-di-word "About that ro-de dra-ma-ti-che-ezia, which-to-ry na-zy-va-et -sya tra-ge-di-ei ", in which-rum Milton from-lo-lived his views, close to the class-si-tsi-es-te-ti-ke: once-de- le-nie gen-dvs to "vy-so-kie" and "low-kie", limitation of the time-me-ni of the action of one day , 5-act member, principle of right-to-do-to-be. Like genre Milton, in contrast to B. John-so-na and J. Dry-de-na and in the wake of the Italian dra-ma-tur-gum, he considered not Rome -skuyu, and the ancient Greek tra-ge-diy. "Sam-son-bo-rets" represents the so-called drama for reading and na-pi-san, like both poems, white sti-hom, to Milton has been used in the drama-turgy (K. Mar-lo, U. Shek-spir, etc.). Milton ot-ri-tsal reef-mu, see-dya in it “the image-bre-te-nie of the var-var-sko-go-ka”, and the use of the white verse in the sub- ra-zha-nie did not know the riff-we are antich-noy in ezia.

In the historical work-de "Is-to-riya Bri-ta-nii" ("The History of Britain", 1670), where the -but before the conquest of England nor-man-na-mi (1066), Milton's views on history as an in-le-is-whether to God-d-her. Milton put under the consent of many le-gene-dy, firmly rooted in the consciousness of ang-li-chan, including le- gen-do about co-ro-le Ar-to-re. Milton also comes with a com-pi-la-tive composition "A brief history of Moscovia ...", published in 1682 ; Russian translation under the title "Mos-koviya Jo-na Mil-to-na", 1875) - one of the few English books about Russia in the 2nd half of the 17th century.

In the creative work of Milton, connecting the epochs of Voz-ro-g-de-nia and the class-si-tsiz-ma, the ideas of re-ness-sans- no-go gu-ma-niz-ma and chr-sti-an-sko Middle-not-ve-ko-vya. Class-si-tsi-sts tse-ni-li in it so-che-ta-ti re-li-gi-oz-no-mo-ra-li-za-tor-sko-go na-cha-la with strict form-we; his ti-ra-no-bor-che-sky phos was close to ro-man-ti-kam.

In Russia, the production of Milton has been known since the 18th century in translations from German and French. A.S. Push-kin called Milton's name in this “isy-scan-ny and simple-soul-ny, dark, for-pu-tan-ny, vy-ra-zi-tel-ny, his -moral and brave, even to the point of senselessness "(article" About Mil-to-not and Sha-tob-rya-no-vom pe-re-in-de "Po-te-ryan -go paradise "", 1836).

Compositions:

Works. N. Y., 1931-1940. Vol. 1-20;

Poe-tical works. Oxf. 1952-1955. Vol. 1-2;

Lost heaven. Revived paradise. Other ethical pro-from-ve-de-nia / Ed. under-go-to-wee-whether A.N. Gor-bu-nov, T.Yu. Sta-mo-va. M., 2006.

Paradise Lost is an outstanding work of world literature, one of the brightest examples of literary epic, a creation that is extremely diverse in content and at the same time extremely complex and contradictory, which affected its fate among different generations of readers.

Since the plot of "Paradise Lost" is based on biblical legends, the poem was ranked among the books of a pious nature, It was considered as a poetic transposition of the Bible. It was only at the beginning of the 19th century that the English romantic poet Shelley doubted Milton's piety, but neither he nor other writers and critics who noticed the deviation of the poem from religious dogma reversed the widespread opinion. Only at the beginning of the 20th century did they really understand the true meaning of Milton's great creation. It turned out that Paradise Lost not only deviates from the church doctrine, but sometimes comes into direct conflict with it.

It is possible to understand the complex content of the poem only by standing on solid historical ground. But before we do this, it is useful to ask the question, is it worth our efforts a work created more than three hundred years ago?

In countries of English language Milton is considered the second great poet after Shakespeare. Milton's sonorous, solemn verse, vivid and impressive images correspond to the majesty of the theme chosen by the poet. This theme is a man and his fate, the meaning of human life.

The combination of a philosophical theme with a religious plot in European poetry was by no means a new phenomenon, widespread since the Middle Ages. More Dante, this the last poet the Middle Ages and the first poet of modern times, in his " Divine Comedy"put in the form of a vision of a journey through the afterlife -" Hell "," Purgatory "and" Paradise "- an all-embracing philosophy of life. The development of secular culture in the Renaissance led to the ousting of religious themes from literature. But at the end of the Renaissance, in late XVI and then in the 17th century, religious themes again penetrate poetry. In England, this was embodied in the work of John Milton (1608-1674).

Milton's worldview and literary works combined two different tendencies - adherence to the humanistic ideology of the Renaissance and puritanical religiosity. The father gave the future poet a humanistic upbringing, instilled in him a love of literature and music. At sixteen, as was customary at the time, Milton entered Cambridge University, graduated at twenty-one with a bachelor's degree and, after another three years, received a master's degree in arts. He turned down the offer to become a university teacher, since for this he had to take the clergy, settled in his father's estate and took up poetry, continuing to replenish his knowledge.

The general consensus was that it was necessary to see the world to complete his education, and at the age of thirty, not yet choosing any particular field for himself, Milton set out on a journey. Through Paris and Nice, he came to Genoa, then to Florence, Rome and Naples. Milton spent more than a year in Italy, this homeland of European humanism, where he communicated with scientists and writers. He was especially impressed by his meeting with Galileo, sick and disgraced, but who continued his scientific studies even after the persecution of the Inquisition, which demanded that he renounce seditious theories.

On the way home, Milton stopped in Geneva, home of the religious reformer Jean Calvin.

Galileo and Calvin embodied for Milton two streams of progressive European thought. In Galilee, this great scientist who became the symbol of the secular spider in its struggle against Catholic reaction, Milton saw a courageous fighter against obscurantists who sought to suppress free thought. For the young Englishman, Calvin was also a kind of symbol, the embodiment of religiosity, free from subordination to the church.

The humanistic worldview of the Renaissance did not always reject religion. No wonder one of the directions of thought of that time was called Christian humanism. Religious sentiments intensified during the decline of the Renaissance, its crisis. Spiritual dictatorship catholic church in the public life of the era was broken. Many medieval prejudices have disappeared. But the emancipation of the individual was accompanied not only by the flowering of talents. A monstrous rampant of predatory egoism and complete immoralism began. This is especially clearly reflected in Shakespeare's great tragedies, for example in King Lear, where one of the characters gives a very expressive characterization of the moral state of society: “Love cools down, friendship weakens, fratricidal strife is everywhere. palaces of treason, and the family bond between parents and children collapses "..." Our best time passed. Fierceness, betrayal, disastrous riots will accompany us to the grave "(" King Lear ", 1, 2, translation by B. Pasternak).

Humanism rehabilitated earthly life, recognized the natural human striving for joy, but only the privileged and wealthy strata of society could use this teaching. Having understood humanism very superficially, people from the noble milieu justified their unbridled desire for pleasure with them and did not take into account any moral norms. A paradoxical situation arose: the doctrine developed in the struggle against the shackles of the feudal-estate society was used to justify aristocratic arbitrariness and debauchery.

In contrast to the flatly understood humanism, the progressive thought of the epoch more and more persistently won for itself and mastered the sphere of religion. TO early XVII century England made significant steps along the path of capitalist development. The bourgeoisie grew into a great economic force, which was already cramped within the framework of the feudal monarchy. In need of an ideological support, the British bourgeoisie turned to one of the reformist currents of the then religious thought - Calvinism.

Here we are forced to recall the main moments in the history of religious movements at the turning point from the Middle Ages to modern times, without which it is impossible to understand Milton's Paradise Lost. The dominant ideological stronghold of the feudal system was the Roman Catholic Church, whose power extended to the whole of Western Europe. The advanced anti-feudal movements began with a struggle against the Catholic Church. At the beginning of the 16th century, the reformation of the church in Germany, led by Martin Luther, took place. Most of the German states refused to obey Rome and to pay a huge monetary tribute to the Pope. The reformation of the church in England soon followed. The Anglican Church ceased to obey the Pope and recognized the king as its head. The changes concerned ritual, the church became more modest in comparison with the Catholic, but the reform did not suit the growing bourgeoisie. The first reform movement was followed by the second. It was based on the desire to free the church from the rule of the king and the bishops obedient to him. The teachings of the Geneva preacher Calvin were the best suited to the needs of the bourgeois hoarders. Calvin was opposed to the centralized feudal church. He created a new form of church organization - a community of believers, not ruled by anyone and arranging prayers without any rituals. F. Engels wrote: "The structure of the Church of Calvin was thoroughly democratic and republican; and where the kingdom of God was already republicanized, could the earthly kingdoms remain loyal to kings, bishops and feudal lords?"

However, among the English bourgeois, the new religious trend, which received the general name of Puritanism, split into two groups. The more moderate Presbyterians retained some semblance of the old church organization and recognized the spiritual and organizational leadership of the elders (elders), while the most zealous reformers denied all spiritual authority. They are called independents. If such parallels are permissible, then the Prosbyterians can be called the Girondists of the English Revolution, and the Independents - its Jacobins. Milton joined the Independents.

He returned from a trip abroad to the beginning of the intensification of the struggle between the king and the Puritan bourgeoisie, which ended in a civil war and a victorious Puritan revolution that overthrew the king, and took an active part in the revolution as a publicist. He presented theoretical works in which he substantiated the right of the people to overthrow a bad monarch and argued that the will of the people is the only legal basis for all power. When the victorious Puritans put King Charles I on trial, Milton proclaimed the right of the people to execute the king.

Milton occupies an honorable place in the history of social and political thought as the ideologist of the English bourgeois revolution and one of the founders of the theory of bourgeois democracy. However, already in the course of the Puritan revolution, he had to be convinced of the difference between the theory and practice of the bourgeois revolution. Milton shared the illusions of those revolutionaries who hoped that the overthrow of the king would lead to the creation of a truly democratic state. These illusions were shattered by the actual course of events. After the victory of the bourgeoisie over the nobility, power in the country was increasingly taken over by Oliver Cromwell, who led the struggle against the royal camp. Milton, who collaborated with Cromwell, urged him not to abuse his power. Cromwell suppressed all opposition in parliament, forced him to assign him the title of Lord Protector of the country, and even made this title hereditary. Beginning under the slogans of democracy, the bourgeois revolution in England ended with the one-man dictatorship of Cromwell.

A political turn, unexpected for Milton, prompted him to distance himself more and more from participation in government affairs in which he was involved. This was also due to the fact that Milton, who was visually impaired, became completely blind in 1652. He continued to fulfill the duties of a Latin secretary (diplomatic correspondence was conducted in the international language of the time, Latin) with the assistance of assistants.

When Cromwell died in 1658 and his weak-willed son Richard became the protector, Milton was encouraged and returned to political activity in the hope of restoring democracy. The pamphlet he wrote in favor of the "rapid establishment of a free republic" did not meet with support. The people were depressed and tired, and the bourgeoisie needed a strong power to defend itself against the disaffected poor. The capitalists made an agreement with the aristocrats, and the monarchy was restored in the country.

The Restoration regime dealt harshly with former rebels, especially those responsible for the execution of the king. Milton miraculously managed to escape punishment. Blind, he lived in hiding from possible persecution, guarded by his third wife and daughters, as well as a few old friends.

Nothing could break the staunchness of revolutionary Milton. Now, after the defeat of the revolution, he returned to where he began his activity, to poetry.

Already in his youth, he created a number of small poetry, which testified to his outstanding talent. But, having gone into political struggle, he abandoned poetry. True, in the last years of the republic, Milton again wrote a small number of poems, but for fifteen years he devoted his main forces to publicistic prose. During the years of the Restoration, Milton created three great poetic works: the poems "Paradise Lost" (1667), "Paradise Returned" (1671) and the poetic tragedy "Samson the Fighter" (1671). All these works were written on the subjects of the Old and New Testaments. They clearly testified that Milton remained true to his ideal of freedom and was still an enemy of the monarchy.

The very choice of subjects had a fundamental meaning.

The Bible was the main ideological weapon of the revolutionary bourgeois Puritans. It is appropriate here to recall the deep thought of Karl Marx about the ideological cover of bourgeois revolutions. “Just when people seem to be only busy with remaking themselves and their surroundings and creating something yet unprecedented,” K. Marx wrote in The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. spells, summoning the spirits of the past to their aid, borrowing from them names, battle slogans, costumes, in order to play out a new scene of world history in this borrowed language in a dress sanctified by antiquity "..." Cromwell and the English people used the language for their bourgeois revolution , passions and illusions borrowed from the Old Testament. "

In light of this, it is understandable why Milton was faithful to the Bible as a source of wisdom and poetic images and traditions. But it cannot be said that the experience of the bourgeois revolution passed without a trace for him. The appeal to biblical stories was an undeniable challenge in relation to the social and state order that was established after the Puritan revolution. But Milton looked at the revolution now, after it had passed, with different eyes. Paradise Lost is home to the best traditions of the Puritan revolution, but taken as a whole, the work is a critical revision of the political experience accumulated by Milton during the years of the Republic (Commonwealth), as the new system officially continued to be called even when its ruler seized more power than the one possessed by the king overthrown by the revolution.

Paradise Lost begins with a depiction of the war between heaven and hell; on one side, God, his archangels, angels - in a word, the whole host of celestials; to another fallen angel-Satan, the spirits of evil Beelzebub, Mammon and the entire synclite of demons and devils. It would seem that everything is clear and simple. But once you read the speech of the inhabitants of hell, this clarity turns out to be imaginary. The spirits cast down from heaven are plotting a rebellion against God. It is impossible not to pay attention to how they call it. "The King of Heaven", "Sovereign, the One Autocrat" - he is for those cast down into the hellish abyss a despot and a tyrant. For the Puritan Milton, God was a holy shrine. For the revolutionary Milton, any one-man power is unbearable. We understand, of course, that evil spirits say all bad things about the king of heaven, for whom it is natural to blaspheme God.

But one cannot fail to notice the aura of heroism that surrounds Milton Satan.

Rebel Lord, With a stately posture surpassing everyone, How the tower rises. No, not at all He has lost his former greatness! Sorrow The pale face darkened, Whipped by lightning; gaze, Glittering from under thick eyebrows I kept boundless courage, Unbroken pride ...

This is how Satan addresses his minions after defeat:

We're unsuccessful They tried to shake His throne And they lost the battle. So what? Not everything is lost: the fuse is preserved Indomitable will, alongside With immense hatred, thirst for revenge And with courage - not to yield forever. Isn't this a victory? After all, we have Remains what He cannot Not by fury, not by force to take away Unfading glory! If i An adversary whose kingdom has shaken From the fear of this hand, I would pray on my knees for mercy I would be ashamed, I would be ashamed Would be covered and bitter would be a shame, Than overthrow. By the will of fate Imperishable is our empyrean composition And the power of God; passing The crucible of battles, we have not weakened, But they hardened and now it is more true We have the right to hope for victory ...

Whose feelings are expressed in this courageous speech - a character created by the poet's imagination, or, perhaps, the very creator of this image, a revolutionary and spokesman for the ideas of revolution? and both. This speech is quite appropriate in the mouth of Satan, cast down from heaven and defeated in the fight against the angelic armies of God. But Milton himself, who even after the restoration of the monarchy, remained a republican, a supporter of democracy, could say so about himself.

In Paradise Lost, there are many lines that violate the clear logic of biblical tradition. Two series of ideas coexist in Milton's mind. God is the embodiment of the highest good, Satan and his associates are the devil of evil; but the same god for Milton is the heavenly king, and as such he is associated with earthly kings, hated by the poet, and then the poet cannot but sympathize with those who rebel against the sovereign power.

There is another contradiction in the poem. Milton admires the heroic defiance of Satan to the extent that it expresses intransigence towards any tyranny, earthly and heavenly. But the rebellion is not accidentally smothered in defeat. Not from the Bible, but in his own imagination, which reworked the impressions of modern times, the poet drew all the colors to describe the struggle between heaven and hell. Milton had the opportunity to be convinced that the English revolution, which revealed the limited goals and self-interest of the bourgeoisie, did not bring triumph to good on earth.Echoes of this conviction sound in the poem, where many words are said about the senselessness and harmfulness of wars and violence for mankind. Therefore, in the subsequent books of Paradise Lost, the rebellious fighter Satan is opposed to the Son of God, ready to suffer for all mankind. In this contrast between Satan and Christ, the denial of individualism and egoism is symbolically expressed, in contrast to which the idea of altruism and philanthropy is put forward. This is how its creator argues with himself throughout the poem.

We repeat, there is an undoubted inconsistency in this. Here it is pertinent to recall one of Goethe's statements. Talking with Eckermann, the author of "Faust" admitted that in one of the scenes of this great creation there is a clear violation of the logical sequence. “Let's see,” Goethe said, laughing, “what the German critics will say about this. Will they have the freedom and courage to disregard such a deviation from the rules. , which the mind cannot and should not be guided by. If fantasy did not create something incomprehensible to the mind, it would be worthless. Fantasy distinguishes poetry from prose, where the mind can and should rule. " This reasoning of the great German poet is very useful to the reader of Paradise Lost. Milton's poem is a creation of artistic fantasy, and it should not be approached with the requirements of reason and strict logic. Fiction has its own laws.

The beginning of "Paradise Lost" is especially sinful with inconsistencies, but further the reader encounters unexpected turns of action and fluctuations in the author's assessments. In the third book, God says that man, all people succumb to sin. It turns out that it is possible to atone for the guilt of mankind only with a sacred sacrifice - to take upon oneself death. One of the immortal inhabitants of heaven must decide on this.

He asked, but Empyreus was silent. The heavenly choir was silent. Nobody I did not dare to speak for a Man, All the more so - to accept his guilt Deadly, retribution incurred On your own head.

The English revolutionary romantic poet Walter Savage Lapdore put it this way in his Imaginary Conversations: “I don’t understand what prompted Milton to make Satan such a magnificent being, so inclined to share all the dangers and suffering of the angels he seduced. I don’t understand, on the other hand, what could have prompted him to make the angels so cowardly that even at the call of the Creator, not one of them expressed a desire to save the weakest and most insignificant of thinking creatures from eternal destruction. "

If Paradise Lost cannot be called an orthodox Christian work, it would be equally wrong to deny the poet has faith. Milton's thought revolved in the circle of concepts and representations of Puritanism, constantly coming into collision with his dogmas, when they came into conflict with the principles of humanism.

The humanism of the Renaissance broke the church teaching of the Middle Ages about the frailty of earthly life. An enthusiastic hymn to man was created by the Italian Pico della Mirandola in his "Speech on the Dignity of Man", proclaiming man the most beautiful of everything created by God. But he also pointed out the duality of his nature: "Only man gave the Father seeds and embryos that can develop in any way ... He will give vent to the instincts of sensuality, run wild and become like animals. He will follow reason, a heavenly being will grow out of him. . He will begin to develop his spiritual powers, become an angel and a son of God. " Humanists believed and hoped that it was the best aspects of human nature that would prevail.

Pico della Mirandola painted at the end of the 15th century. A century and a half later, Milton saw that the hopes of the humanists were far from being realized. Milton joined the Puritans in his youth, for he believed that the moral rigor preached by them could resist both aristocratic licentiousness and bourgeois individualism. He became convinced, however, that the same vices were often hidden behind the ostentatious morality of the Puritans. In this regard, the following passage in Milton's poem deserves attention, where an unexpected, seemingly, feature of Satan, whom the poet opposes to the hypocritical Puritans, is noted; the spirits of hell praise Satan and

... thank you for That he is ready to sacrifice himself For the common good. Not until the end The virtues of the Spirits have died out Rejected, to the shame of bad people, Flaunting beautiful to look at By actions inspired by pride, And under the guise of zeal for good, Vanity vanity.

A careful reading of the text reveals that behind a seemingly fantastic plot hides reflections about life, testifying to the great insight of the poet, who is well versed in people and life circumstances. Milton has accumulated many such sober and sometimes bitter observations. But he was not interested in particulars and individual cases, but in a person as a whole, and he expressed his view of him, clothed a philosophical poem in a religious plot.

If in the first books the contrast between the forces of heaven and hell symbolizes the struggle between good and evil in life, then the central theme of "Paradise Lost" is the reflection of this struggle in the human heart. This topic is clearly defined in the conversations of the overthrown angels, discussing how they can continue to fight against God after defeat. Satan has heard that God is preparing to create a certain new world and a new being - man. To seduce him from the path of good - this is the goal that Satan now sets himself, so that evil will triumph.

Satan in religious mythology has always been the embodiment of forces that destroy man. Milton raised naive medieval ideas about human nature to new philosophical heights. Drawing on the entire centuries-old history of mankind, which he still has to tell in the poem, Milton gives him a harsh characterization.

The forces of evil have united Consent reigns Among the damned demons, but a man A creature possessing consciousness, Mends discord with his own kind; Though at the mercy of Heaven He has the right to hope and a covenant The Lord knows: to keep the eternal peace, He lives in hatred and enmity, Tribes ravage the land By relentless wars, carrying Destruction to each other ...

Milton's contemporary philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who belonged to the opposite political camp, nevertheless, in his assessment of modernity and modern man agreed with the poet and expressed it in a short aphoristic form; "Man is a wolf to man." Hobbes, however, believed that without violence and coercion, it is impossible to curb people's bad selfish instincts. In contrast, Milton retained faith in human reason and the power of persuasion.

The story of Adam and Eve, which is narrated below, has a symbolic meaning. It contrasts two states of humanity - the original paradise existence in ideal conditions, when people were innocent and knew no vices, and life "after the Fall." Following the biblical legend, Milton claims that the "corruption" of humanity began from the moment they ate the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. The embryo of the philosophical idea of this parable is already contained in the Bible. Milton developed it into a whole doctrine, linking it with a problem that was the central point of Calvinism and Puritanism. According to the latter, man is sinful from the beginning. His original sin must be atoned for strict life full of repentance and limitations.

Milton solves the problem in the spirit of humanism. The books depicting the blameless life of Adam and Eve in paradise speak of man as a creature that is good and good in nature. But the archangel Raphael, sent by God, warns that human nature is complex:

You were created perfect but perverse You were made righteous, but keep There is good in yourself - you only have power, Zane is gifted with free will, Fate not subordinate or strict Necessities.

There is no need to repeat the myth of the fall of man, eloquently expounded by Milton. The duality of the poet's worldview is reflected here as well. According to the meaning of the biblical legend, Eve, and after her Adam, committed a sin. But could Milton, a man of great culture, recognize such a good as knowledge as a sin? The bliss of paradise is, according to Milton, an illusion that does not correspond to the nature of man, for in a man the physical and spiritual must be in harmony. The paradise life of Adam and Eve was incorporeal, and this is most clearly seen in their love. With the knowledge of good and evil, they first became imbued with a sense of their bodily nature. But sensuality did not kill spirituality in them. This is best manifested in the fact that, upon learning of Eve's misconduct, Adam decides to share the guilt with her. He does this out of love for her, and his love and sympathy strengthens Eve's love for him. True, then a quarrel occurs between them, but it ends in reconciliation, for they are aware of the indivisibility of their destinies.

The Puritan Milton should have taken a harder attitude towards the hero and the heroine. But it is worth reading the lines dedicated to the bodily beauty of Eve, as it becomes obvious that nothing human was alien to the poet.

However, one cannot fail to notice that in "Paradise Lost" there is still no idea of the equality of man and woman. For Milton, a man in the highest sense is Adam. This tribute to the prejudices of its time cannot stifle the compassion with which the author treats his heroine. Even the "sin" committed by her, the author justifies, since it has as its source a truly human striving for knowledge.

The essence of Milton's philosophy of life was expressed in the speech of Adam after the expulsion of him and Eve from paradise. Eve desperately contemplates suicide. Adam calms her down with a speech about the great value of life. He admits that they are doomed to torment and trials, and is in no way inclined to underestimate the hardships and dangers of earthly life, so unlike heavenly bliss. But for all its difficulties, life in the eyes of Adam is not bleak. He says to Eve:

He predicted torments of hardship for you And childbirth, but this pain Rewarded in a happy moment When, rejoicing, your womb You will see the fruit; and I'm just a side Touched by a curse - cursed is the Earth; I must earn my bread in labor. What a disaster! Idleness would be worse. Labor will support me and strengthen me.

Active life and work - such is the destiny of a person and this is by no means a curse. Milton - and he does this more than once - corrects the Bible from the standpoint of humanism in the name of affirming human life and dignity.

Paradise Lost is a kind of encyclopedia of poetry. Archangel Raphael expounds to Adam the philosophy of nature - the origin of the Earth, the structure of the sky and the movement of the luminaries, talks about living and dead nature, about the bodily and spiritual principles of life. Of course, all this appears in the guise of biblical mythology, but attentive reader will notice that Milton's narrative is interspersed with concepts and views that are by no means ancient, but contemporary poet... Milton calmly admits of anachronisms. Biblical characters know that there is a telescope; they heard about the discovery of Columbus and mention the Indians he saw on the newly discovered continent. And when the forces of hell are looking for a means to cope with the heavenly host, they come up with gunpowder and shoot cannons!

All historical epochs are mixed in the poem. Along with the legendary history of Israel, the events of the Trojan War, Roman history and the fate of Julius Caesar are described, the ancient British king Uther, the medieval king Charlemagne, the Italian scientist Galileo ("sage of Tuscany") are named. Paradise Lost poetry has a worldwide reach. Climbing a high mountain, Adam, accompanied by the archangel Michael, sees

The vastness where the cities towered In the oldest and newest centuries, The capitals of the notorious states, From Flounder, where Khan Katai ruled, From Samarkand, where the Oka flows, Where is Tamerlane's proud throne, And to Beijing - a magnificent palace Chinese emperors; Then The Forefather stretched out his gaze freely Before Agra and Lagora - cities The Great Mogul; further down, To the golden Chersonese; and there, Where the Persian King lived in Ecbatana, And later Shah ruled in Isfahan; To Moscow - the state of the Russian Tsar, And to Byzantium, where the Sultan sat ...

We have to cut off this list in the middle - it is so great. This is only a prologue to what can be called Milton's philosophy of history, which the poet put into the mouth of the Archangel Michael. The Archangel shows Adam the future of the human race. First, the peaceful labor of a farmer and a shepherd, but suddenly the idyllic picture is replaced by the terrible sight of the first death: a brother killed his brother. Death reigns in the life of mankind: some are killed by brutal violence, others

Fire, water and hunger; very many Gluttony, hawkishness; generate They are serious illnesses ...

Vices are taking over mankind more and more. Some indulge in pleasures, others are possessed by belligerence. The times will come, the archangel says, when

Only brute force will be honored Her heroic prowess will be considered And courage. Overcome in battles Conquer peoples and tribes, Return with prey, piling up As many corpses as possible - this is the crown The glory to come. Anyone who could Reach triumph, they will dignify A victorious hero, a father Human race, offspring of the gods And even a god, but they are truer Deserve the title of bloodsuckers And the plagues of humanity; but Fame will be found on Earth And laurels, and bearers of merit The authentic ones - oblivion will swallow them up.

The Archangel foresees the punishment that God will inflict on the sinful human race - a worldwide flood; he prophesies about the appearance of the son of God - Christ, who with his torments will atone for the sins of people. But great example martyrdom for the salvation of mankind will be used by the churchmen - they will come as

wolves are fierce, accepting The disguise of the shepherds, and will turn The Holy Sacraments of Heaven for the Benefit Selfishness and pride, darkening By the tradition and deceit of doctrines And superstition - the Truth ...

However, the time will come, and lies, violence, false teachings - everything that prevents people from living will be thrown into dust.

After all, the whole Earth will become Paradise then, Edenic far surpassing The vastness of happy days.

Having cognized the greatness and wisdom of the deity, Adam decides to live obedient to his will. The archangel teaches him:

Life ... not to love, There is no need to despise. Live Godly ...

Adam agrees with this. The concluding part of the poem is imbued with a spirit of humility and obedience, but even in it, Milton's characteristic note breaks through:

I have now comprehended That to suffer for the truth is a heroic deed To accomplish and the highest of victories Achieve.

We have far from exhausted all the richness of the poem's ideas. Our goal was to help get closer to the true meaning of the work, which at first glance seems to be far from the issues of concern to humanity in our time. The thoughtful reader will discover the deep significance of Milton's poetry, the independence of the author's judgments, who used the biblical plot in order to express his understanding of life, which in many respects does not coincide with the meaning of the Bible.

In creating the poem, Milton drew on the centuries-old tradition of epic poetry. If the oldest epic poems were the offspring folk art, then in later times, not a folk, but a literary epic arose, the beginning of which was laid by the ancient Roman poet Virgil. Milton knew ancient and new poetry, he set himself the goal of reviving the classical form of the epic. But the times of a developed civilization were unfavorable for this. In Milton's poem, from an artistic point of view, a contradiction was also laid. The ancient epic was an expression of the collective consciousness of the people. A book or literary epic bore the indelible stamp of the individual consciousness of the author. It was necessary to have such a powerful individuality, which was inherent in Milton, in order to create a work of such great poetic power, so fully expressing the era and its contradictions, as Paradise Lost.

The style of the poem is distinguished by its sublimity. The characters' speeches sound majestic and solemn. Each of them is a lengthy monologue, imbued with pathos, for each speaking person is full of consciousness of the significance of the events taking place. Milton's lush eloquence has, however, different tones. It is easy to see this by comparing the furious appeals of Satan, the slow utterances of God, the instructive tone of the tales of the archangels, the dignified monologues of Adam, the tender speech of Eve. Note at the same time that Satan, as the leader of the fallen angels, is distinguished by a genuine incendiary speech, but, acting in the role of a serpent - the seducer of Eve, he reveals a kind of logic and cunning of the tempter.

The landscapes of Milton make a great impression, they are majestic and enormous, they have a cosmic scale, so corresponding to the content of the poem. The poet possesses an extraordinary fantasy, a powerful imagination that allows him to color the meager lines of the biblical story with multicolored descriptions.

Much, very much in Paradise Lost bears the stamp of the time when the poem was created. But true poetry overcomes everything alien to new generations. And Milton's majestic verse in the new translation by Arkady Steinberg, which was first published in 1976, sounds quite well for us. Entering the world of Milton's poetry, one can, through everything unusual and strange for a modern reader, comprehend the significance of the ideas of the work and feel the greatness of the personality of the courageous poet-fighter ...

English John Milton

English poet, politician and thinker; author of political pamphlets and religious treatises

short biography

The famous English poet, publicist, thinker, politician - was born in London on December 9, 1608. His father was a successful notary, a versatile educated man who nevertheless adhered to puritanical views, who raised his son in a spirit of asceticism and religious worship. John Milton was a highly educated man. After studying at home and at the school of St. Paul in 1625, he became a student at Christ's College, Cambridge University, from which he graduated in 1632 with a Master of Arts.

Having made a difficult choice, Milton abandons the career of a clergyman and for six years leaves for his father's estate, located not far from the capital, where he continues to study independently. At the beginning of 1638, he set off on a trip to France and Italy, during which he met many famous people, in particular, G. Galileo. In 1639 he urgently returned to England in connection with rumors of an approaching civil war.

Early poetic works of John Milton - short poems "Merry" and "Pensive", dramatic pastoral "Comus" - are a reflection of his bright mood, inner harmony. Other periods of his biography were no longer so cloudless. After settling in London after a trip, Milton founded a private educational institution, in which he taught his nephews, but soon became interested in public, journalistic activities. In 1641 the first prose pamphlet on the English Reformation was published. Subsequently, Milton, being a vivid adherent of the revolution, an enemy of the monarchy, wrote a number of political pamphlets on the topic of the day, eloquently demonstrating his oratorical gift, rich imagination and indifference to the fate of his homeland.

In 1642, the poet married Mary Powell, a young girl with whom he had very little in common. A month later living together the newly-made wife left for her parents and returned only in 1645, for all this time she deprived Milton of peace. During the years 1645-1649. he began to study much less public affairs, most likely by delving into preliminary work on the history of Britain. The execution in January 1649 of Charles I forced him to part with his solitude and burst out with a bold pamphlet "The Duties of the Sovereign and Governments." In March 1649, Milton was appointed secretary to the Council of State, whose duties were charged with correspondence in foreign languages.

The 50s became a real black streak in Milton's life. In February 1952, he completely lost his sight, in May his wife died during childbirth, and in June his little son died. The second wife, with whom he tied fate at the end of 1656, died at the beginning of 1658. Until 1655, the blind Milton continued to work as a secretary with the help of assistants - scribes and readers.

In the period 1660-1674. Milton, humanly, was completely alone: he did not develop a relationship with the remaining two daughters. After the accession to the throne of Charles II, he fell into disgrace. His sharp political pamphlets were burned, he happened to be in prison, even his life itself was in danger and was saved only thanks to influential friends. However, it was at this difficult time that he wrote his best works on biblical themes - Paradise Lost (1667) and Paradise Returned (1671), as well as Samsonorets (1671), which became a worthy end to his literary path. On November 8, 1674, John Milton died in London.

Biography from Wikipedia

John Milton(eng. John Milton; December 9, 1608, London - November 8, 1674, ibid.) - English poet, politician and thinker; author of political pamphlets and religious treatises.

Youth. First works

Born into the family of a successful notary. At the age of 14, John began to write his little passages, which did not pass well. Parents did not support him, only Milton's grandmother-Anna provided help. She instilled in the boy a love of poetry and literature. After the death of Anna Milton, the boy gave up writing. He received a very good education - first at home and at the school of St. Paul, and then - at the University of Cambridge. It was at the university that John began his career as a writer again and was appreciated by the rector of the university, who later gave him a good start in the world of literature. At the end of the course, he spent six years at his father's estate Horton (near London), immersed in self-education and self-improvement. There he wrote at least four poems. This first youthful period of Milton's life ended in 1637-1638 with a trip to Italy and France, where he met Galileo, Hugo Grotius and others famous people that time.

In contrast to most great people, Milton spent the first half of his life in complete peace of mind; suffering and mental storms darkened his mature age and old age.

The light mood of young Milton corresponds to the character of his first poems:

"L'Allegro" ("Merry") and "Il Penseroso" ("Pensive"), where Milton draws a person in two opposite moods: joyful and contemplatively sad - and shows how nature is painted for the contemplator with the change of these moods. Both short poems are imbued with immediate feeling and a special grace that characterizes the lyrics of the Elizabethan period and is no longer found in Milton himself.
"Lucidas" ("Lycidas"). The poem gives subtle descriptions of idealized rural life, but the mood itself is deeper and reveals the patriotic passions lurking in the poet's soul; the fanaticism of the revolutionary Puritan is strangely intertwined here with melancholic poetry in the spirit of Petrarch.
"Komos" ("Comus"). This is one of the most brilliant dramatic pastorals ( masks), for which at that time the fashion had not yet passed.

Maturity

From 1639 to 1660 the second period in life and work lasts. Returning from Italy, he settled in London, educated his nephews and wrote a treatise "On education" ("Tractate of Education, to Master Samuel Hartlib"), which has a mainly biographical interest and shows Milton's aversion to all routine.

In 1642 he married Mary Powell - and this marriage turned him until then a serene existence into a series of domestic calamities and material hardships. His wife left him in the first year and, by her refusal to return, drove him to despair. Milton extended his own unfortunate experience of family life to marriage in general and wrote the polemical treatise The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce. In February 1652 he went blind.

In his old age, Milton found himself alone in the close circle of his family - his third wife (the first and the second died) and three daughters from his first marriage; he forced the latter to read aloud to him in languages they did not understand, which aroused in them an extremely unfriendly attitude towards him. For Milton, complete loneliness came - and at the same time the time greatest creativity... This last period of his life, from 1660 to 1674, was marked by three genius works: "Paradise Lost", "Paradise Regained" and "Samson the wrestler" ("Samson Agonistes").

Views

Milton and politics

Having joined the ranks of the "Independent" party, Milton devoted a whole series of political pamphlets to various issues of the day. All these pamphlets testify to the strength of the poet's rebellious soul and the brilliance of his imagination and eloquence. The most remarkable of his popular rights defenses is devoted to the demand for freedom for the printed word (Areopagitica: A Speech for the Liberty of unlicensed Printing to the Parliament of England).

Of the remaining 24 pamphlets, the first ("On the Reformation" - "Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England and the Causes that hitherto have hindered it") appeared in 1641, and the last - ("A quick and easy way to the establishment of a free republic" - "A ready and easy way to establish a free Commonwealth ") in 1660; thus, they cover the entire course of the English revolution.

With the onset of parliamentary rule, Milton took over as government secretary for Latin correspondence. Among other commissions carried out by Milton during his secretariat was a response to the anonymous royalist pamphlet "The Image of the King, a Portrait of His Holy Majesty in Solitude and Suffering" ("Eikon Basilike"), which appeared after the execution of Charles I. Milton wrote the pamphlet "The Iconoclast" ("Eikonoklastes"), in which he wittily beat the arguments of the anonymous author. Less successful was Milton's polemic with other political and religious opponents, Salmasius and Morus.

Milton may have been the founder of the Calf Head Club, created in 1650 to taunt the memory of the executed king.

Marchmont Nadham magazine publisher "Mercurius Politicus" 1650-1660, was associated with many of the influential Republican writers of his generation, including Algernon Sidney, Henry Nevile, Thomas Cheloner, Henry Marten and John Milton. Milton, as secretary of the Council of State in the early 1650s, oversaw Nadham's publishing activities and the two men later became personal friends.

In 1652, Milton went blind, and this seriously affected his material resources, and the restoration of the Stuarts brought him complete ruin; the defeat of his party was even more difficult for Milton.

Philosophical and religious views

The publication in 1825 of the treatise De Doctrina Christiana raised the question of how the religious views of John Milton corresponded to the religious norm of their time. In particular, it was discussed whether Milton was not antitrinitarian or an arian.

Creation

« Areopagitics: Speech on freedom of the press from censorship addressed to the Parliament of England»

This is John Milton's polemical anti-censorship treatise. Areopagitics is considered one of the most influential and heartfelt philosophical speeches in defense of freedom of speech and press.

Published on November 23, 1644, in the midst of the English Civil War, Areopagitica borrows its name from a speech by the Athenian orator Isocrates, written in the 5th century BC. NS. Like Isocrates, Milton did not intend to address the meeting in person, having drawn up the text in the form of a pamphlet, the very release of which violated the ban on uncensored publication refuted by the poet. By writing Areopagitics, John showed in it how difficult it was for him to deal with all the hardships that happened to him during the years of the revolution. Here he describes the deaths of his friends and relatives, loved ones and enemies. “It’s never been so hard for me before,” wrote Milton, and in 1652 he went blind.

Being a supporter of parliament, Milton lashed out with harsh criticism of the 1643 resolution adopted by the deputies on the preliminary censorship of publications, noting that there was no such order in either classical Greece or Ancient Rome... The text of the treatise is full of references to ancient and biblical sources that support the arguments of the English poet, who had previously suffered from censorship when trying to publish several treatises in defense of divorce and from the loss of his wife, daughters, all sisters, brother, best friend Michael, his only son. He only has faith in himself and a few children to take care of. Taking care of them is not easy for him, all this domestic bustle seriously interferes with him, then he reflects all his thoughts in his treatise "on education."

"Lost heaven"

Paradise Lost appeared in print in 1667, Paradise Returned and Samson the Fighter in 1671.

Paradise Lost is a Christian epic about the indignation of angels who have fallen away from God and the fall of man. In contrast to the heroic epics of Homer and medieval epics, as well as Dante's poem, Paradise Lost does not allow the poet's creative inventions. Puritan Milton chose a biblical story and conveyed it according to the words of Scripture; besides, his characters belong for the most part to the realm of the superhuman and do not admit the realism of descriptions.

On the other hand, angels and demons, Adam and Eve and other characters in Milton's epic have a certain image in the popular imagination brought up on the Bible - and Milton, a deeply national poet, never deviates from these traditions. These features of the material on which Milton worked are reflected in his poem; the technical side of the descriptions is conditional, there is little imagery in the presentation; biblical creatures often seem to be just an allegory.

The great significance of “Paradise Lost” is in the psychological picture of the struggle between heaven and hell. Milton's ebullient political passions helped him create a grandiose image of Satan, who was driven to evil by his thirst for freedom. The first song of “Paradise Lost”, where the defeated enemy of the Creator is proud of his fall and builds a pandemonium, sending threats to the sky, is the most inspired song in the entire poem and served as the primary source of Byron's demonism and all romantics in general.

The militant religiosity of the Puritan embodied the spirit of the times in the image of a soul striving for freedom. The pathos of this demonic (in the literal sense of the word) side of "Paradise Lost" corresponds to the idyllic part - poetic descriptions of paradise, the love of the first people and their exile. Countless poetic beauties in the transmission of feelings, musicality of verse, formidable chords that speak of irreconcilability in the matter of faith, give eternal life to the epic of the 17th century.

Paradise Returned and Samson the Fighter

The poem "Paradise Returned" (1671) conveys the story of the temptation of Jesus Christ by the spirit of evil and is written more coldly and artificially.

In the tragedy, written by Milton in his old age - "Samson the Fighter" - the poet reflected in the image of the biblical hero the broken hopes of his party.

Memory

Translations

Russian translations of Milton's works:

M.A.P.A. (that is, the Moscow Academy, Prefect Ambrose (Serebrennikov)), "Paradise Lost" is a heroic poem (Moscow, 1780; 3rd ed. With the introduction of "The Returned Paradise", M., 1803; 6- ed., M., 1827, with a biography of Milton, 1828; 7th ed., M., 1860; translation from French);
E. P. Lyutsenko, "Paradise Lost" (St. Petersburg, 1824); F. Zagorsky, “Paradise Lost” and “Paradise Returned” (Moscow, 1827; 4th ed., 1842-1843);
E. Zhadovskaya, “Paradise Lost”, with the introduction of the poem “Paradise Returned” (M., 1859; very unsuccessful translation in verse);
A. Zinoviev, “Paradise Lost” (M., 1861);
S. Pisarev, Paradise Lost (St. Petersburg, 1871; poetry); Paradise Lost, with the addition of Paradise Returned (M., 1871);
A. Shulgovskaya, “Paradise Lost and Returned” (St. Petersburg, 1878);
H. M. Borodin, "Paradise Lost and Returned" (M., 1882; 2nd ed., 1884, translated from French);
V. B-b, "Paradise Lost and Returned" (M., 1884, translated from French); Paradise Lost, ed. A.F. Marx, from fig. (SPb., 1895); Andreev, "The Birth of Christ", hymn (St. Petersburg, 1881); "Areopagitics", Milton's speech addressed to the English parliament, 1644 ("Modern Review", 1868, no. 5).
O. N. Chyumina. Paradise Lost and Returned. Poems by D. Milton. / In a new verse translation by O. Chyumina (with 50 large drawings by the artist G. Dore). - St. Petersburg: Edition of A. A. Kaspari, 1899 (in 1901 was awarded half

Brief biography of the poet, basic facts of life and work:

JOHN MILTON (1608-1674)

John Milton was born on December 9, 1608 in London, the son of a successful notary. His father was a versatile educated man, well-read, a great lover of music. He was a staunch Puritan. Since all Milton's ancestors were Catholics, the parents deprived the father of the future poet of the inheritance for apostasy. Having settled in London, Milton Sr. made a living by writing for those who turned to him for help in petitioning the court.

John Milton dictates his poems to his daughters. Artist Mikhail Munkassky

The boy was educated at home, and most of the subjects he passed under the guidance of his father. At the age of fifteen, John was sent to St. Paul, from where two years later he transferred to the University of Cambridge. The future poet studied at Christ's College and was preparing to receive a bachelor's degree and then a master of arts. And in fact, and in another case, it was required to take the clergy. After agonizing thought, Milton decided to abandon his church career. The parents didn't mind.

At twenty-four years old, John Milton left Cambridge and went to his father's estate of Horton in Buckinghamshire, where he lived freely for almost six years. At that time, he was mainly engaged in self-education, studying classical literature.

Milton created his first poetic work - "Anthem for Christmas" in Cambridge. In Horton, the poet composed the pastoral elegy Lysidas, as well as the dramas Arcadia and Comus. He also wrote the magnificent idyllic poems L'Allegro and Il Penseroso.

In 1637, with the blessing of his father, John made a two-year trip to France and Italy, where, by the way, he met and was welcomed by Galileo Galilei.

Rumors of imminent civil war prompted Milton to hastily return to England. The poet settled in London and opened a private educational institution in the suburb of St Brides-Churchyard for his nephews, John and Edward Phillips.

Milton's journalistic activity soon began. His first pamphlet - the treatise "On the Reformation in England" - was published in 1641. This was followed by the treatises "On the episcopal dignity of the higher priesthood", "Reproach over the defense of the exhortator", "Discourse on the government of the church", "Justification of Smektimnuus". In other words, church problems became the main topic of his journalism.

In the summer of 1642, Milton rested for a month near Oxford (from these places came his family). A civil war was already in full swing in the country. Against the "cavaliers" - the so-called supporters of the king for their long curls - came out "round-headed" - the supporters of parliament, cut into a circle. The "cavaliers" won, and in the ranks of the "roundheads" there was a bickering between Presbyterians and Independents. Not being a military man or a politician, Milton chose to stay aloof. He took up personal affairs and returned home with a sixteen-year-old bride, née Mary Powell. They got married in 1643. This was the end of the poet's serene life.

All of Mary's relatives were staunch royalists. Almost immediately, political squabbles began between them and the Puritan Milton. While the royalists were victorious, the Powell family triumphed. A month after the wedding, the wife asked for leave to visit her parents, left by agreement with her husband for two months and refused to return.

Meanwhile, in London, the Convention was formed to fight against the royalists - an alliance of Scotland with the English parliament. The army of the Puritans was led by the Independent Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), and the victorious procession of the "roundheads" began. Milton sided with the Independents and came up with a number of political pamphlets in support of their ideas. The poet's work was highly appreciated by both the Puritans and Cromwell. In the summer of 1645, when the royalists were completely defeated, the Powells needed the support and protection of their son-in-law, and Mary urgently returned to her husband. Milton acted nobly, rendering all-round assistance to his relatives.

In 1645-1649 Milton retired from public affairs. He was busy pondering and collecting materials for the History of Britain, and also worked on a generalizing treatise On Christian Doctrine.

Meanwhile, the revolutionaries captured Charles I. A trial took place, and in 1649 the king was publicly beheaded. An extraordinary uproar arose in royalist circles in Europe - the Puritans executed the anointed of God. The question arose whether anyone had the right to trial and kill the monarch. At the same time, it was argued that the king was free to do whatever he wanted with his subjects, and no one would dare to protest, since the will of the monarch is the will of God. Even a bad king is God's permission to punish the people for their sins.

Less than two weeks after the beheading of Charles I, Milton appeared in print with a pamphlet "Duties of Sovereigns and Governments." Against the background of the recent execution of the criminal king, and Charles, as historians of all directions confirm, was a bad king, the poet's speech sounded unusually harsh and was more than into the hands of Oliver Cromwell.

With gratitude, the authorities did not hesitate. Already in March 1649, Milton was appointed the "Latin" secretary for correspondence in foreign languages at the Council of State.

In total, the poet created in Latin three apologies for the execution of the king - "Defense of the English people", "Re-defense" and "Justification for oneself."

In February 1652, Milton almost went blind, which was perceived by the royalists as God's punishment. In May of the same year, Mary Milton died with the birth of his third daughter, Deborah. In June, before he was one year old, the poet's only son, John, died. The year 1652 turned out to be harsh for Milton.

Despite his blindness, the poet for several more years served as secretary at the State Council thanks to the readers, assistants, and scribes. The poet was very worried about the time of Cromwell's dictatorship. He was finally convinced that the so-called republicans are even worse than the notorious monarchists. The latter had no shame, no conscience, no fear of God, and the new ones turned out to be even more shameless, even shameless, even more godless. The thirst for the Restoration was growing in the crowd. In 1655 Milton retired.

The poet tried to find solace in the family. At the end of 1656, he married Katharina Woodcock, but at the beginning of 1658 the woman died. Milton remained in the company of his daughters. The girls were obedient, but their father was treated with increasing hatred. The blind man now and then forced them to read aloud to him texts written in Latin, which the poor things did not know. This tedious process turned into a daily torture for young, full of vitality girls. Meanwhile, John Milton was just entering the heyday of his genius. Lonely, unloved by everyone, he is finally ripe to create the main works of his life.

At the very beginning of the revolution, the pregnant Queen Henrietta Maria fled to France. There she gave birth to the heir to the throne, to whom she gave the name of her father - Karl. Everywhere whispered about the imminent accession to the throne of the new king Charles II Stuart.

Shortly before the Restoration, John Milton published three daring pamphlets against the monarchy - A Treatise on the Participation of Civil Power in Church Affairs, Considerations Concerning the Most Appropriate Ways to Remove Mercenaries from the Church, and A Quick and Easy Way to Establish a Free Republic.

In the days when the last pamphlet went out of print, General Monk carried out a coup d'état. King Charles II (reigned 1660-1685) was called to the throne.

Charles's accession to the throne was a disaster for Milton. The poet was immediately arrested and imprisoned. It was about the trial of the traitor and his execution. However, through the efforts of Milton's friends, they were released. Several of his books, including both The Defense of the English People, were publicly burned.

The blind poet returned to his private life, now completely. In 1663, he married for the third time to twenty-four-year-old Elizabeth Minschel, a cousin of his friend Dr. Podjet. Spiritual closeness with his wife did not work out for Milton, the marriage was unhappy.

Back in 1658, the poet began work on the poem "Paradise Lost". He graduated from it in 1665, and published it two years later. Following was the poem "Paradise Returned", the plot for which was the Gospel story of the temptation of Christ in the wilderness, which Milton published in 1671. And then was born last poem the poet "Samson the Fighter".

In the last years of his life, the poet became interested in Russia. In 1682 his book "A Brief History of Muscovy" was published.

John Milton died on November 8, 1674. He was sixty-six years old. They buried him at Westminster Abbey.

John Milton (1608-1674)

From his youth, Milton dreamed of creating a work that would glorify British literature for centuries and would be truly sublime. And he succeeded - such a work was "Paradise Lost". He took as a model the works of Homer, Virgil, Tasso, the tragedy of Sophocles and Euripides ...

Milton's poem reflects, as it were, the Old Testament history, but in fact, contemporaries saw in it a reflection of the history of England in the era of the bourgeois revolution.

The bourgeoisie and the new nobility grew stronger and felt their strength. Royal power limited further entrepreneurial activity of both. War was declared on both the king and the landed aristocracy. Cromwell headed the bourgeoisie. King Karl Stewart was beheaded by the executioner in front of a huge crowd of people in the square. By an Act of Parliament of March 17, 1649, royalty was abolished as "unnecessary, burdensome and dangerous." A republic was proclaimed.

Milton was born in 1608 to a wealthy notary in London. He studied at the best London school at St. Paul's Cathedral. At sixteen, he became a student at the University of Cambridge.

“From my very youth, I devoted myself to literary studies, and my spirit was always stronger than my body,” the poet said about himself. John traveled a lot in Europe, wrote poetry, plays, poems ... “You ask, what am I thinking? - he wrote to his friend. - With the help of heaven, about immortal glory. But what am I doing? .. I am growing my wings and getting ready to soar. "

Milton, dissatisfied with the policy of Charles I Stuart, wrote publicistic articles in which he denounced the Anglican Church, advocated freedom of speech, defended the right to divorce ...

Under Cromwell, the poet served as secret secretary of the republic. His treatise "The Rights and Duties of the King and Rulers" served as the rationale for the trial and execution of Charles I.

But the revolution led to arbitrariness, to uncontrolled power even more terrible than it was under the king. Cromwell has essentially become a dictator. It so happened that a spiritual epiphany coincided with a physical loss of vision. Milton is completely blind.

The poem "Paradise Lost" has been translated into Russian several times. The last time it was done by A. Steinberg. The translation is considered to be very successful. A. Steinberg worked on it for several decades.

The poem amazes the reader with its cosmism, a grandiose picture of the universe, created by the poet's imagination.

In the pitch darkness, in chaos, unsubdued, with unquenchable hatred, Satan is plotting a new campaign against the Kingdom of Heaven.

Meanwhile, Satan reaches the Heavenly Gates and deceives Seraphim of the location of Man - Eden. Seeing a Man, Satan, in the guise of a sea raven, seizes fear, envy, despair.

Satan, disguised as a fog, enters Paradise and dwells in the sleeping Serpent. The serpent seeks Eve and slyly deceives her, praising her before all other creatures. Leading Eve to the Tree of Knowledge, the Serpent convinces her to partake of the fruit. The free will granted by God to Man turns into the fall of Eve. Adam, out of love for Eve, realizing that she died, decides to die with her. Having tasted the fruit, they let Sin, and after it Death, into the newly created world. Sinful humanity falls under the rule of Satan, and only the Seed of the Woman will erase the head of the Serpent. Humanity itself is doomed to atone for original sin with prayers and repentance.

Returning to Hell, Satan and his henchmen turn into serpents, devouring dust and bitter ashes instead of fruits.

The progenitors Archangel Michael with a detachment of Cherubim are expelled from Paradise, having previously shown the path of mankind to the flood; then - the incarnation, death, resurrection and ascension of the Son of God; then - humanity until the second coming. Cherubim take up posts for the guardianship of Paradise. Adam and Eve leave Eden.

Turning around, they are for the last time

To your recent, joyful shelter,

They looked at Paradise: the entire eastern slope,

Embraced by the blazing sword

Flowing, swirling, and in the opening of the Gate

Formidable faces were seen, fear

A fiery weapon. They unwittingly

They burst into tears - not for long. The whole world

Lied before them, where to choose housing

They had to. By the Providence of the Creator

Wingmen, striding hard,

Like wanderers, they are hand in hand

Crossing Eden, wandered

On his deserted road.

(Translated by A. Steinberg)

Milton glorifies Renaissance Man. Especially his physical beauty. He glorifies nature on Earth.

"If in the image of Satan the rebellious spirit of Milton himself is reflected, - writes the researcher of Milton A. Anixt, - in the image of Adam - his stoic inflexibility in the struggle for a life worthy of man, then the figure of Christ embodies the desire for truth and the desire to enlighten people." The image of Christ will become central in the poem "Paradise Returned". Satan tempts Christ with all worldly goods, but Christ rejects them in the name of good, truth and justice. His Christ is the enemy of all tyranny. Milton always believed that with the loss of freedom, virtue in a person perishes, and vices triumph.

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