The basics of survival in various emergencies. Autonomous survival in extreme situations

METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

THEME No. 7

G. Nizhnekamsk

METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

THEME No. 7:

The basics of survival in various emergency situations

G. Nizhnekamsk

Training and Methodological Center for Civil Defense and

Emergency situations in Nizhnekamsk

METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

THEME No. 7

The basics of survival in various emergencies

Methodical development

Discussed and approved

At the methodological meeting

Training Center for Civil Defense and Emergencies

G. Nizhnekamsk

Minutes No. ________

From "____" _________ 2004

G. Nizhnekamsk

Learning objectives:

To convey to the audience how survival is organized in various emergencies.

Time: 2 hours.

Method of carrying out: Lecture.

A place: Class.

Study questions and timing:

Introductory part:

Checking the preparedness of trainees - 5 min.

The main part (study of the issues of the topic):

1. Fundamentals of survival, optimal and emergency

human life support conditions. Survival threshold

person (conditions, time, possibility of returning to life) - 20 min.

2. Physiological aspects of human survival.

Possible consequences for the human body, staying

in extreme conditions. - 30 minutes.

3. Extreme conditions and their impact on humans (heat, cold, wind, dust, mixed conditions - 20 min.

4. Survival in the natural environment. Organization of housing, shelters, food, security. Determination of location. Protection from animals and insects. Traveling in the natural environment - 20 min.

Conclusion:

Summing up the results of the lesson - 5 min.

Literature and teaching aids:

1. Textbook survival in extreme situations.-M .: OOO Publishing house Yauza, 2002.-352 p.

2. Library for the Protection of the Population in Emergencies: Issue 1. Emergencies natural/ Under total. ed. Vorobieva Yu.L.-M .: ZAO "Papyrus", 1998. - 48 p.

3. The textbook of the rescuer: Under the general editorship of. Yu. L. Vorobyova. -M., 1997.-520s.

Material support:

Posters, schemes.

At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher announces the topic, learning objectives, educational questions of the lesson to be learned and the order of their processing.

Then the leader of the lesson proceeds to the presentation of the material of the topic according to the questions posed in this development.

Throughout the lesson, the teacher organizes an exchange of views, seeking the correct answers.

The lesson ends with a summary, for which 2 to 5 minutes of study time should be allotted.

Question 1.

Fundamentals of survival, optimal and emergency conditions for human life support. Human survival threshold (conditions, time, possibility of returning to life)

The basics

Survival is based on the simple things of your mental preparation, the clothes you wear, and everything you take with you. To survive, you need to master the art of survival, especially the psychological aspect of it, since it ultimately determines whether you survive or die.

Survival psychology

To survive, you need survival skills, but they alone won't save you. First of all, you need the right attitude to the situation. All knowledge in the feast loses its value if you do not have the will to live.

The will to live is the fundamental factor in the peak situation. It is known that the mind can surrender faster than the body, but with a survival mindset, a person gains tremendous opportunities to get out.

Think about it. No matter which difficult situation you find yourself, remember - you have the necessary resources to overcome any difficulties. This is your fortitude and your physical capabilities. Make them work effectively for you - and you will achieve great results.

HOW TO FOCUS YOUR MIND ON SURVIVAL

Two huge dangers to life lurk in our own brains. It is the pursuit of comfort and passive contemplation. If not suppressed in time, they can lead to demoralization and death. Fortunately, both of these threats can be easily dealt with by anyone.

The desire for comfort is a consequence of modern urban living conditions. Their Western standards have made people pampered, because most of them are fenced off from the aggression of the forces of nature and the environment. Westerners - and perhaps you included - live and work in warm, cozy and reliable buildings, with a high-quality healthcare system and a guaranteed supply of food and water.

In an extreme situation, you probably won't have anything like that, at least at first. You will have only the clothes you are wearing - no food, no water, no shelter The sudden disappearance of the familiar comfort conditions that you used without hesitation, in itself is a big blow to your composure and can lead to complete demoralization How to fight with this dangerous state of mind caused by the loss of things that you considered absolutely necessary for a normal life?

First, you need to understand for yourself that the values of modern civilization are not fundamental for solving the problem of survival. Just discard them. After all, you can do without delicacies for lunch, a TV or an air conditioner. Secondly, you will have to understand that the discomfort that you are experiencing is - nothing compared to the troubles that will fall on you if you indulge in despondency and self-pity.

Passive contemplation is also a consequence of familiarization with the benefits of civilization. A bureaucratic society relieves a person of situations in which it is necessary to make a critical decision for life. Almost all decisions we make are everyday and banal. Initiative is withering away, and most people tend to passive, almost sheep-like contemplation. However, having got into an emergency situation, you will be obliged to act independently, make all decisions absolutely independently. If something confuses you here, think that the result of passivity, doing nothing, most likely, will be your death. The alternative is to take control of the situation and - long life What do you like best?

YOU SHOULD NOT LOST YOURSELF EARLIER, CHOOSE A PURPOSE AND ACT!

Gomel Engineering Institute of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Belarus

Life safety

Survival basics

Prepared

Aniskovich I.I.

Gomel 2009

Basic concepts of survival

Human life has always been fraught with dangers. It is no coincidence that our distant ancestors, taking the first steps along the path of evolution, learned to use the stone not only as a tool of labor, but also as a weapon.

The struggle for existence forced people by hook or by crook to cling to life, to adapt to any adversity, no matter how hard they were, to boldly face the dangers. The desire to realize the seemingly impossible, permeating the entire history of mankind, helps to understand the incredible efforts made by people in different parts of the world in order to adapt to harsh natural conditions. Man has always had the ability to adapt to the natural and artificial environment - from primitive hunters who went out to the beast with a stone ax in their hands, to space travelers of the second half of our century, who have been in a state of weightlessness for a long time, mobilizing all their physical and mental capabilities. Survival is active, expedient actions aimed at preserving life, health and performance in an autonomous existence. It is for people whose lives are constantly fraught with dangers that preliminary preparation, both physical and psychological, is very important. Rescuers, servicemen of many branches of the armed forces, tourists going on long routes, many scientists and researchers must go through a preliminary full adaptation process, as a result of which the body gradually acquires resistance to certain environmental factors that was not previously available and thus gets the opportunity to “live in conditions previously incompatible with life ", which means full adaptation to the conditions of polar cold, sultry deserts or lack of oxygen at mountain heights, fresh water in the salty sea. People who have undergone full adaptation have a chance not only to save life itself, but also to solve problems that were previously unsolvable.

The adaptation process is very complex and multi-stage. At its first stage, the stage of adaptation to any new factor, the organism is close to the maximum of its capabilities, but it does not solve the problem that has arisen completely. However, after some time, if a person (or animal) does not die, and the factor requiring adaptation continues to act, the capabilities of the living system increase - the extreme, or urgent, stage of the process is replaced by the stage of effective and sustainable adaptation. This transformation is a nodal link in the entire process, and its consequences are often striking. Extreme conditions - an event (or a sequence of events) in which a person, through his own preparedness, the use of equipment and equipment, as well as the involvement of additional, previously prepared resources, is able to prevent an emergency, and, if necessary, help himself and others after an emergency. An extreme situation is an event outside of personal human experience, when a person is forced to act (or not act) in the complete absence of equipment, equipment and initial training. (The basic information on ways to overcome ES is not formalized in principle, based on the very definition of an extreme situation). Most people and animals put in extreme situations, from which there is no way out, do not die, but acquire one or another degree of adaptation to them and keep their lives until better times. Such stressful situations - long periods of hunger, cold, natural Disasters , interspecific and intraspecific conflicts are always widely represented in the natural habitat of animals. In the social environment of a person, the same scheme operates. During a relatively short period of its history, mankind went through periods of slavery, serfdom, world wars, but at the same time did not degrade, demonstrating a high efficiency of adaptation to extreme situations. Of course, the cost of such adaptation is unjustifiably high, but these indisputable facts inevitably lead to the conclusion that the body must have sufficiently effective specialized mechanisms that limit the stress response and prevent stress damage and, most importantly, preserve life and health. In general, all this corresponds to the well-known everyday observation - people who have gone through severe life trials acquire a certain resistance to damaging environmental factors, i.e. vital in any extreme situation. Imagine that a miracle happened, and today's man suddenly found himself in the primitive conditions of human existence. Making his way along the damp walls of the cave, under the ringing clatter of his own teeth, our hero recalls the fire with unexpected joy. Just how to chop wood? Well, okay, you can break the branches. He habitually hits himself on the pocket. Oh, horror, there are no matches! At first, our time traveler does not realize the full depth of the catastrophe that has befallen him. But after a minute it becomes covered with a cold sweat. He can't imagine how you can make a fire without matches! Feverish attempts to make fire by rubbing wooden sticks against each other, by striking sparks do not lead to anything - the kindling stubbornly refuses to flare up. Further, with inexorable consistency, it turns out that a representative of our time cannot hunt without a gun, fish without lines and hooks, cannot build even the most primitive shelter, cannot imagine how to protect his mortal body from hundreds of dangers lurking from all sides. Hunted looking around, he rushes through the ancient forest, occasionally pounced on berries that do not saturate at all. Our contemporary is doomed. He has to survive in an autonomous existence. Autonomous existence is the activity of a person (a group of people) without outside assistance. The only chance to prolong its existence is to seek help from the local aborigines. That's that! And then he meets the real masters of that era: the genius of getting food, the genius of making a fire. With tremendous effort, starting from the very basics, the hapless traveler comprehends the science of "survival", hardly catching up to the level of development of primitive man. There is nothing exaggerated in this fantasy. Even astronauts, before taking their place in a spaceship, walk hundreds of kilometers along the paths of survival - forest wilds, hot desert sands. Modern man, and even more so a professional rescuer, regardless of the planned actions and the route of movement in the terrestrial and unearthly space, the timing and geographic location, must be ready to act in an emergency, without communication with the outside world, when you can rely only on yourself. For a person caught in an extreme situation due to unforeseen circumstances, such as an airplane crash, a ship crash, military personnel, as well as lost tourists, survival is mainly a psychological issue, with the most important factor in this case being the desire to survive. Whether the person is left alone or in a group, emotional factors can manifest themselves - experiences due to fear, despair, loneliness and boredom. In addition to these mental factors, trauma, pain, fatigue, hunger and thirst also affect the desire to survive. How long will a person in trouble have to be in an autonomous existence in extreme conditions? This depends on a number of reasons that determine the duration of the autonomous existence.

Reasons for the duration of autonomous existence:

Remoteness of the area of search and rescue operations from settlements;

Disruption or complete absence of radio communication and other types of communication;

Unfavorable geographic, climatic and meteorological conditions in the area of the search and rescue operations;

Availability of food supplies (or lack thereof);

Availability of additional search and rescue forces and means in the area of search and rescue operations.

Aims and Objectives of Survival Rescuers

The goal of training rescuers in survival is to develop sustainable skills for acting in various conditions of the environment, foster high moral and business qualities, self-confidence, reliability of rescue equipment and equipment, and the effectiveness of search and rescue support.

Survival is based on solid knowledge in a wide variety of fields, from astronomy and medicine to recipes for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

Survival techniques are different in each climatogeographic region. What can and should be done in the taiga is unacceptable in the desert and vice versa.

A person should know how to navigate without a compass, send a distress signal, go to the village, get food with the help of gathering, hunting, fishing (including without a gun and the necessary tackle), provide himself with water, be able to protect himself from natural disasters and much other.

Practical development of survival skills is essential. It is necessary not only to know how to behave in a given situation, but also to be able to do it. When the situation becomes threatening, it is too late to start learning. Prior to high-risk hikes, it is necessary to conduct several emergency field exercises, as close as possible to the real situation of the future routes. It is necessary to calculate in advance theoretically and, if possible, check practically all possible emergencies.

The main tasks of training rescuers in survival are to provide the necessary amount of theoretical knowledge and to teach the skills of practical actions on:

Terrain orientation in various physical and geographical conditions;

Providing self and mutual assistance;

Construction of temporary shelters and the use of available means of protection from the effects of adverse environmental factors;

Procurement of food and water;

Use of communication and signaling facilities to bring additional forces and equipment to the area of search and rescue operations;

Organization of crossings over water obstacles and swamps;

Use of rescue craft;

Preparation of helicopter landing sites;

Evacuation of victims from the disaster area.

Factors affecting survival

Learning how to survive is the main factor that determines the favorable outcome of autonomous existence.

Risk factors

Climate. Unfavorable weather conditions: cold, heat, strong wind, rain, snow can greatly reduce the limit of human survival.

Thirst. Lack of water entails physical and mental suffering, general overheating of the body, rapidly developing heat and sunstrokes, dehydration of the body in the desert - inevitable death.

Hunger. Long-term lack of food depresses a person morally, weakens physically, increases the impact on the body of unfavorable environmental factors.

Fear. Reduces the body's resistance to thirst, hunger, climatic factors, leads to erroneous decisions, provokes panic, mental breakdowns.

Overwork. It appears as a result of strenuous physical activities, insufficient food supply, severe climatic and geographical conditions, due to the lack of adequate rest.

Natural disasters: hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, sandstorms, fires, avalanches, mudflows, floods, thunderstorms.

Diseases. The greatest threat is posed by injuries, diseases associated with the effects of climatic conditions, and poisoning. But we should not forget that in an emergency, any neglected callus or microtrauma can lead to a tragic outcome.

Survival factors

Will to live... With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation. Bounces off a falling tree, clings to stationary objects when falling. Long-term survival is another matter. Sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical, mental stress and the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-considered overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without having exhausted his reserves of strength to the end.

Survival based only on biological laws of self-preservation is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful. You can call it the will to live. Any skill and knowledge become meaningless if a person resigns himself to fate. Long-term survival is ensured not by the spontaneous desire "I do not want to die", but by the goal set - "I must survive!" The desire to survive is not an instinct, but a conscious need! Survival Tool - Various standard and homemade emergency kits and emergency supplies (like a survival knife). If you are going on a dangerous journey, you need to complete emergency kits in advance, based on the specific conditions of the hike, terrain, time of year, and the number of participants. All items must be tested in practice, checked many times, duplicated if necessary. General physical preparation does not require comments. Psychological preparation consists of the sum of such concepts as the psychological balance of each member of the group, the psychological compatibility of the participants, the similarity of the group, the real representation of the conditions of the future route, training trips, which are close in terms of loads and climatic and geographical conditions to the real ones (or better, they exceed them twice). The correct organization of rescue operations in the group, a clear distribution of responsibilities in the marching and emergency modes is of no small importance. Everyone should know what to do in the event of a threat of emergency.

Naturally, the above list by no means exhausts all the factors that ensure long-term survival. Once in an emergency, first of all, you need to decide which tactics should be followed - active (independent access to people) or passive (waiting for help). In passive survival, when there is absolute certainty that the missing person or the group is being sought, that rescuers know their whereabouts, and if there is an untransportable victim among you, you need to immediately start building a capital camp, installing emergency signals around the camp, and providing food on the spot.

Life support. Assessing the situation and making an informed decision

How to behave in extreme cases? Let's start with the basics and remember the key word "SURVIVAL" for this situation:

S - assess the situation, recognize dangers, look for ways out of a hopeless situation.

U - Too much haste hurts, but make decisions quickly.

R - remember where you are, find your location.

V - defeat fear and panic, constantly control yourself, be persistent, but obey if necessary.

I - improvise, be creative.

V - value your means of existence, recognize the limits of your capabilities.

A - behave like a local, be able to evaluate people.

L - learn to do everything yourself, be independent and independent.

A group of people. First of all, you need to choose an elder, a person who knows and is able to take all the necessary measures aimed at survival. If your group heeds the tips below, the chances of being rescued and returning home will be greatly increased. Should:

Decisions are made only by the senior of the group, regardless of the situation;

Carry out the orders of the senior group only;

Develop a sense of mutual support in the group.

All this will help to organize the group's activities in such a way that the best way ensure survival.

First of all, it is necessary to assess the current situation, which in turn consists of assessing the factors affecting survival.

The health status of the group members, physical and mental condition;

The impact of the external environment (air temperature and the state of atmospheric conditions in general, terrain, vegetation, the presence and proximity of water sources, etc.).

Availability of emergency supplies of food, water and emergency equipment.

Provide self and mutual assistance (if necessary) and draw up an action plan based on specific conditions, which should include:

Carrying out orientation on the ground and determining your location;

Organization of a temporary camp. Choice suitable place for the construction of a shelter, taking into account the relief, vegetation, water sources, etc. Determination of the place for cooking, storing food, placing a latrine, the location of signal fires;

Providing communication and signaling, preparation of radio facilities, operation and maintenance of them;

Distribution of responsibilities between group members;

Establishment of duty, tasks of duty officers and determination of the sequence of duty;

Preparation of visual signaling equipment;

As a result, an optimal mode of behavior in the current situation should be developed.

Help from local residents.

In most areas, where a person or a group of people may be injured in a disaster, there are always local residents. If you find yourself in a civilized country, the locals will always come to your aid and will do whatever is necessary to make you home as quickly as possible.

To enlist the support of the locals, follow these guidelines:

It is better if the locals are the first to make contact;

Deal with a recognized leader or chief on all matters; - show friendliness, courtesy and patience. Don't show that you are afraid;

Treat them humanly;

Respect their local customs and habits;

Respect the personal property of local residents; be especially respectful of women;

Learn from the locals how to hunt and obtain food and water. Listen to their advice on the dangers;

Avoid physical contact with them, but so that it is invisible to them;

Make a good impression of yourself. Other people after you may need the same help.

When carrying out the RPS, rescuers often have to carry out tasks far from settlements, spend several days in “field conditions”, face a variety of extreme situations, which imposes additional requirements on their ability to work in these conditions. Strong knowledge in various fields, the ability to use them in any conditions are the basis of survival. Going to the RPS, rescuers should, along with tools and protective equipment, have the following set of necessary items that can be useful in any climatic and geographical zone: a signal mirror, with which you can send a distress signal at a distance of up to 30-40 km; hunting matches, a candle or dry fuel tablets for making a fire or heating a shelter; alarm whistle; a large knife (machete) in a sheath, which can be used as a knife, ax, shovel, spear; a compass, a piece of thick foil and polyethylene, fishing accessories, signal cartridges, an emergency kit of medicines, a supply of water and food.

Signaling

Rescuers need to know and be able to practice special signals. Rescuers can use campfire smoke during the day and bright light at night to indicate their own location. If you throw rubber, pieces of insulation, oil rags into the fire, black smoke will be emitted, which is clearly visible in cloudy weather. To receive white smoke, which is clearly visible in clear weather, green leaves, fresh grass, damp moss should be thrown into the fire.

To send a signal from the ground to an air vehicle (aircraft), a special signal mirror can be used (Fig. 1). It is necessary to keep it at a distance of 25-30 cm from the face and look through the sighting hole at the plane; by turning the mirror, align the light spot with the sighting hole. In the absence of a signal mirror, objects with shiny surfaces can be used. For sighting, you need to make a hole in the center of the object. The light beam must be sent along the entire horizon line, even in cases where the noise of the aircraft engine is not heard.

Rice. 1 Special signal mirror.

At night, the light of a hand-held electric torch, a torch, or a bonfire can be used for signaling.

A bonfire made on a raft is one of the distress signals.

Good signaling means are brightly colored objects and special coloring powder (fluorescein, uranine), which are scattered on snow, ground, water, ice when an aircraft (helicopter) approaches.

In some cases, sound signals (shout, shot, knock), signal flares, smoke bombs can be used.

One of the latest advances in target designation is a small rubber balloon with a nylon sheath, covered with four luminous paints, under which a light bulb flashes at night; the light from it is clearly visible at a distance of 4-5 km. Before launch, the balloon is filled with helium from a small capsule and held at a height of 90 m with a nylon rope. The kit weighs 1.5 kg.

In order to facilitate the search, it is advisable to apply the International Air Signal Code Table "Earth-Air" (Fig. 2). Its signs can be laid out with the help of improvised means (equipment, clothing, stones, trees), directly by people who must lie on the ground, snow, ice, trampled in the snow.

Fig. 2. International Air Signal Code Table

"Earth - Air"

1 - A doctor is needed - serious bodily injury;

2 - Medicines are needed;

3 - Unable to move;

4 - We need food and water;

5 - Requires weapons and ammunition,

6 - Map and compass required:

7 - We need a warning light with a battery and a radio station;

8 - Indicate the direction of travel;

9 - I am moving in this direction;

10 - Let's try to take off;

11 - The vessel is seriously damaged;

12 - It is safe to land here;

13 - Requires fuel and oil;

14 - Everything is in order;

15 - No or negative;

16 - Yes or positive;

17 - I do not understand;

18 - A mechanic is required;

19 - Operations completed;

20 - Nothing was found, we continue to search;

21 - Information received that the aircraft is in this direction;

22 - We found all the people;

23 - We found only a few people:

24 - We are unable to continue, we return to the base;

25 - Divided into two groups, each going in the indicated direction.

Along with the ability to give signals, rescuers must be able to work and live in the field, taking into account meteorological (weather) factors. Special meteorological services are responsible for monitoring and forecasting the weather. Information about the weather is transmitted by means of communication, in special reports, and put on maps using conventional symbols.

In the absence of information about the weather, rescuers must be able to determine and predict on local grounds. To obtain reliable information, it is advisable to make a weather forecast simultaneously for several of them.

Signs of steady good weather

It is quiet at night, the wind increases during the day, and dies down in the evening. Direction

the wind near the ground coincides with the direction of movement of the clouds.

When the sun sets, the dawn is yellow, golden or pink with a greenish tint in a distant space.

Fog accumulates in the lowlands at night.

After the sun sets, dew appears on the grass, and with sunrise it disappears.

In the mountains, haze covers the peaks.

Cloudless at night, clouds appear in the morning, increase by noon and disappear in the evening.

Ants do not close the passages in the nest.

It is hot during the day and cool in the evening.

Signs of approaching bad weather

The wind intensifies, becomes more even, blows with the same force both during the day and at night, and sharply changes direction.

The clouds are getting stronger. Cumulus clouds do not disappear in the evening, but increase.

Evening and morning dawns are red.

It seems warmer in the evening than in the afternoon. Temperatures drop in the mountains in the morning.

At night there is no dew or it is very weak.

Near the earth, fog appears after sunset, and by sunrise it dissipates.

During the day, the sky becomes cloudy, becomes whitish.

The crowns around the moon are getting smaller.

The stars twinkle strongly.

Chickens and sparrows bathe in the dust.

Smoke begins to travel along the ground.

Signs of persistent bad weather

Light continuous rain.

The ground has fog, dew.

Both at night and during the day are moderately warm.

The air is damp day and night, even without rain.

Small crowns close to the Moon.

Stars shimmer with red or bluish light when they twinkle.

Ants close the passages.

The bees do not leave the hive.

The crows scream heart-rendingly.

Small birds are hammered into the middle of the tree crown.

Signs of a better weather

The rain stops or comes intermittently, in the evening a creeping fog appears, dew falls.

The difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures is increasing.

It gets colder.

The air is getting drier.

The sky is clear in the gaps.

The crowns around the moon are increasing.

The twinkling of the stars decreases.

The evening dawn is yellow.

Smoke from chimneys and from the fire rises vertically.

The bees in the hives are noisy. Swifts and swallows rise higher.

Mosquitoes huddle in a swarm

The coals in the fire quickly become covered with ash.

Signs of stable, low-cloud weather

Prevailing north or north-east wind.

The wind speed is low.

Creeping fog at night.

Abundant frost on grassy land or tree branches.

Iridescent pillars on the sides of the sun or a reddish pillar across the sun disk. Sunset with a yellowish tint.

Signs of a change to cloudy, snowy weather

Change in wind direction to the south-east, then to the south-west. A change in the wind from south to north and its strengthening - to a blizzard. Increased cloudiness. Light snow begins. The frost is weakening.

Blue spots appear over the forest.

Dark forests are reflected in low dense clouds.

Signs of persistent cloudy, snowy weather without heavy frost

Light frost or, with a south-westerly wind, thaw.

Towards the thaw, the blue spots over the forest intensify.

Sustainable south-east or north-east wind.

The direction of movement of the clouds does not coincide with the direction of the wind near the ground.

Light continuous snow.

Signs of a change to frosty weather without precipitation

The wind moves from the south-west to the west or north-west, the frost intensifies.

Cloudiness is decreasing.

Frost appears on the grassy land and trees.

The blue spots above the forest fade and soon disappear altogether.

The weather imposes certain requirements on the organization of a bivouac, temporary housing, life and rest during multi-day RPS. With this in mind, rescuers are organizing a bivouac. It should be located in avalanche-safe and rock-safe areas, near a source of drinking water, and have a supply of dead wood or firewood. It is impossible to arrange a bivouac in the dry beds of mountain rivers, near the shallows, in dense bushes, coniferous thickets, near dry, hollow, rotten trees, in thickets of flowering rhododendron. After removing stones, branches, debris from the site and leveling it, rescuers can start setting up the tent. (Fig. 3)

The tents are different design features, capacity, material. Despite this, they are all designed to protect humans from cold, rain, wind, moisture, insects.

The procedure for setting up the tent is as follows:

Expand the tent;

Stretch and secure the bottom;

Install the racks and tighten the guy wires;

Fasten the exit and tighten the roof braces;

Eliminate roof creases by pulling (loosening) the braces;

Dig a ditch around the tent 8-10 cm wide and deep to drain water in case of rain.

Dry leaves, grass, ferns, reeds, moss can be placed under the bottom of the tent. When setting up a tent on snow (ice), empty backpacks, ropes, windbreakers, blankets, foam rubber should be placed on the floor.

The pegs are driven at an angle of 45 ° to the ground to a depth of 20-25 cm. Trees, stones, and ledges can be used to secure the tent. The back wall of the tent should be positioned towards the prevailing winds.

In the absence of a tent, you can spend the night under a piece of tarpaulin, polyethylene or equip a hut from scrap materials (branches, logs, spruce branches, leaves, reeds). It is installed on a flat and dry place, in a clearing or on the edge of a forest.

In winter, the sleeping area must be free of snow and ice.

Fig. 3 Options for setting up tents.

In a snowy winter, rescuers should be able to make shelters in the snow. The simplest of these is a hole dug around a tree, the size of which depends on the number of people. From above, the pit must be closed with branches, a dense cloth, covered with snow for better thermal insulation. You can build a snow cave, snow dugout, snow trench. When entering a snow shelter, you should clean your clothes of snow and dirt, take a shovel or knife with you, which can be used to make ventilation holes and pass in case of snow collapse.

For cooking, heating, drying clothes, signaling, rescuers use fires of the following types: "hut", "well" ("log house"), "taiga", "nodia", "fireplace", "Polynesian", "star", " pyramid". "Shalash" is convenient for making tea quickly and lighting the camp. This fire is very "gluttonous", it burns hot. "Well" ("log house") is kindled if you need to cook food in a large bowl, dry wet clothes. In the "well" the fuel burns more slowly than in the "hut"; a lot of coals are formed, which create a high temperature. At the "taiga" one can cook food simultaneously in several pots. On one thick log (about 20 cm thick), several thinner dry logs are placed, which approach the ends at an angle of 30 °. necessarily on the leeward side. The fuel burns for a long time. You can spend the night near such a bonfire. "Nodya" is good for cooking food, heating during the night, drying clothes and shoes. Two dry logs up to 3 m long are placed close to each other, flammable fuel (thin dry twigs, birch bark) is lit in the gap between them, after which a third dry log of the same length and 20-25 cm thick is placed on top. flies are driven into the ground on both sides. They will at the same time serve as supports for the stick on which the bowlers are hung. The "node" burns up slowly, but it burns with an even flame, for several hours. Any fire must be made only after careful preparation of the site: collecting dry grass and dead wood, making a deepening in the ground, fencing the place where it will be bred with stones. Dry wood, grass, reeds, and shrubs serve as fuel for the fire. It has been noticed that many sparks are given by burning spruce, pine, cedar, chestnut, larch. Oak, maple, elm, beech are burning quietly. To quickly kindle a fire, kindling is needed (birch bark, small dry branches and firewood, a piece of rubber, paper, dry fuel) It is tightly packed with a "hut" or "well". To make the kindling light better, put a piece of a candle in it or put dry alcohol. Thicker dry branches are laid around the kindling, then thick firewood. In damp weather or during rain, the fire must be covered with a tarpaulin, a backpack, a thick cloth. You can light the fire with matches, a lighter, sunlight and a magnifying glass, rubbing, flint, a shot. In the latter case, it is necessary:

Open the cartridge and leave only gunpowder in it;

Lay dry cotton wool on top of the powder;

Shoot into the ground, while observing safety measures;

The smoldering cotton wool will keep the fire going.

For setting up a fire in winter time it is necessary to clear the snow to the ground or build a deck of thick logs on the snow, otherwise the melted snow will extinguish the fire. To prevent a fire from causing a fire, it must not be built under low tree branches, near flammable objects, on the leeward side, relative to the bivouac, on peat bogs, near reed and reed thickets, dry grass, moss, in spruce and pine forests. In these places, the fire spreads from high speed and is difficult to extinguish. In order to prevent the spread of fire, the fire must be surrounded by a ditch or stones. The safe distance from the fire to the tent is 10m. To dry clothes, shoes, equipment near a fire, they should be hung on poles or ropes located on the leeward side at a sufficient distance from the fire. A mandatory rule is to put out the fire (with water, earth, snow) when leaving the bivouac. Successful fulfillment by rescuers of the tasks assigned to them is possible only on condition of restoration and maintenance of high mental and physical performance of the body throughout the entire period of work. This is based on a balanced diet. It is important not only the correct ratio of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in food, but also the obligatory presence of vitamins and other biologically active substances The daily ration of a rescuer should include at least 1.5 g of protein per kilogram of body weight, almost the same amount of fat and 4 times more carbohydrates, as well as about 30-35 g of table salt, vitamins, water, etc.

LITERATURE

1. Search and rescue operations-M., EMERCOM of Russia, 2000.

2. Disasters and people - M., "Publishing house AST-LTD", 1997.

3. Accidents and disasters - M., Publishing House of the Association of Construction Universities, 1998.

4. Survival - Mn., "Lazurak", 1996.

5. Self-rescue without equipment - M., "Russian Journal", 2000.

6. Military topography - M., Military Publishing, 1980.

7. Manual on the aviation search and rescue service of the USSR.– M., Voenizdat, 1990.

8. Instructions to the crew of the Mi-8MT helicopter. - Military Publishing, 1984.

9. Instructions for the crew of the Mi-26.- Military Publishing, 1984.

10. Instructions to the crew of the An-2 aircraft - Military Publishing, 1985.

11. Textbook "Fundamentals of military topography" Svetlaya Roscha, IPPK Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Belarus, 2001.

12. First aid for injuries and other life-threatening situations - St. Petersburg, DNA Publishing House, 2001.

Nowadays, in addition to roomy boats suspended from imposing davits, giving a romantic flavor to sea vessels, modest, like metal barrels, containers are installed on the deck along the sides, sheltering inflatable rubber rafts from the sun and rain. Inflatable liferafts have appeared in the navy and aviation quite recently. In 1955, the 1st International Conference on Rescue Vessels was held in Lisbon. It was the first time that the question was raised about the use of inflatable rafts as a means of assistance in an accident at sea. But only five years later, at the II International Conference in London, 45 participating countries signed a convention, according to which an automatically inflated rubber raft was officially recognized as a means of rescuing crews and passengers on ships over 500 tons of displacement, along with lifeboats and boats. In 1967, France, and later other countries, obliged the captains of ships of any class, including fishing schooners and pleasure yachts, to have inflatable liferafts on board. Without them, the port authorities will not release a single ship today and not a single aircraft flying over the ocean will take off. Indeed, rafts have many advantages over other life-saving appliances (boats, lifeboats, etc.).

Survival in natural emergencies.

Earthquakes. Earthquakes are formidable natural disasters in terms of the number of victims, the amount of damage, the size of the territories they cover and the difficulty of protecting against them. Despite the efforts of seismologists, earthquakes often occur unexpectedly. In the world, 15,000 earthquakes are recorded annually, of which 300 are destructive. The intensity of earthquakes is measured on the 12-point Richter scale.

If an earthquake catches you in a building, it is best to run out of it into an open place within 15-20 seconds. You cannot stand near buildings, brick fences, high walls. Under no circumstances should the elevator be used - it may get stuck. And if you could not get out into the street, you need to hide in a pre-selected safe place, open the door to the staircase and stand in the opening. You can hide under a table, in a wardrobe, cover your face with your hands so as not to get hurt by pieces of plaster, glass, dishes, paintings. In all cases, stay away from windows. The safest place is at the main walls. On the street, you should move away from buildings as soon as possible in the direction of squares, squares, parks, wide streets, sports grounds, undeveloped grounds. Be especially wary of dangling wires.

Floods. Floods are flooding of an area due to a rise in the water level caused by various reasons (spring snowmelt, heavy rainfall and rainfall, ice congestion on rivers, dam breakthrough, wind surge, etc.)

Having received a warning about the threat of flooding, you must first of all inform your loved ones and neighbors about this and immediately go to a safe place - on a hill (for subsequent evacuation to a safe area), follow the messages on the local radio. If there is time, take measures to save property, and take the upper floors, attics, roofs of buildings ourselves. You cannot climb small trees, pillars, because they can be washed away and dumped.

For movement, you must use the means available "at hand" or you can build them yourself from logs, boards, car cameras, etc. If it is impossible to leave the flooded area, wait for help on the roofs of buildings, giving signals (swing a pole with a bright cloth tied, in the dark - blink a flashlight). Once in the water, try to throw off heavy clothes and shoes, use floating objects and wait for help.

Tsunami. Tsunami is a generally accepted international scientific term, derived from the Japanese word for "big wave that floods the bay." The exact definition of a tsunami sounds like this - these are long waves of a catastrophic nature, arising mainly as a result of tectonic movements on the ocean floor.

At the present stage of the development of science, it is not possible to accurately predict the time and place of an earthquake, but after it has occurred, the possibility of a tsunami at a particular point can be predicted.

A tsunami is not a single wave, but a series of several waves. Therefore, stay away from the danger zone until all waves have passed or until the alarm is cleared; a tsunami hazard can exist for several hours. An impending tsunami could be heralded by a noticeable rise or fall in sea level along coastline... Such a signal should always serve as a warning - you have 5 - 35 minutes left. Never go down to the sea to look at the bottom exposed during a tsunami or watch a tsunami. When you see the approaching wave, it will be too late to escape. At the first signs of a tsunami mentioned above, one should quickly and orderly leave the coast and take refuge in places whose height above sea level is at least 30-40 m. sea, because the rivers themselves can serve as a conduit for the water wall rushing against their current. If there is no hill nearby, you need to move away from the sea shore at a distance of 2-3 kilometers.

Hurricanes, cyclones, typhoons, storms, tornadoes, storms. This emergency is caused by the movement of air masses at high speed. The wind speed during a hurricane is 30 - 40 m / s, during a storm 20 - 30 m / s, during a storm 15 - 30 m / s, with a typhoon more than 50 m / s. Cyclones and typhoons are accompanied by heavy rains. Tornado is a vortex movement of air with tremendous speed, sometimes exceeding the speed of sound, in the form of a dark column with a diameter of several tens to hundreds of meters. The hurricane wind destroys strong and light buildings, devastates fields, breaks wires, knocks down poles and uproots trees, drowns ships, damages vehicles.

Having received a storm warning, it is necessary to: close windows, doors, attics; remove from balconies and loggias everything that can be discharged by a hurricane; turn off the gas, put out the fire in the stoves, prepare lanterns, candles, lamps; at home to occupy an inner room, away from windows; stock up on water, food, keep the radio, TV, receiver on; in an open area, take refuge in a ditch, pit, ravine; take refuge in a protective structure; prepare medicines and dressings.

Fires. Fire is an uncontrollable combustion process that entails the death of people, the destruction of material values. Fires occur spontaneously (up to 10%) or at the will of a person (up to 90%) Causes of fires: careless handling of fire; lightning; arson.

The characteristic of the destructive effect of fires is the temperature of combustion and the speed of movement of fires. By their nature, forest fires can be local, underground and raised. In case of ground fires, the fire moves at a speed of 0.1-1 km / h only along the surface layer, in case of crown fires - 3-10 km / h, the fire covers the crowns of trees, soil fires occur in the thickness of combustible material (peat, shale, brown coal ). A steppe fire occurs during the dry season when grasses and breads ripen. The speed of such a fire is 20-30 km / h.

When carrying out RPS in the natural environment, rescuers often have to perform tasks far from settlements, spend several days in “field conditions”, face a variety of extreme situations, which imposes additional requirements on their ability to work in these conditions.

Strong knowledge in various fields, the ability to use them in any conditions are the basis of survival. Going to the RPS, rescuers should, along with tools and protective equipment, have the following set of necessary items that can be useful in any climatic and geographical zone: a signal mirror, with which you can send a distress signal at a distance of up to 30-40 km; hunting matches, a candle or dry fuel tablets for making a fire or heating a shelter, a whistle for signaling; a large knife (machete) in a sheath that can be used as a knife; axe; shovel; prison; compass; a piece of thick foil and polyethylene; fishing equipment; signal cartridges; emergency kit of medicines; supply of water and food.

Signaling... Rescuers need to know and be able to practice special signals.

Rescuers can use campfire smoke during the day and bright light at night to indicate their own location. If you throw rubber, pieces of insulation, oil rags into the fire, black smoke will be emitted, which is clearly visible in cloudy weather. To obtain white smoke, which is clearly visible in clear weather, green leaves, fresh grass, and damp moss should be thrown into the fire.

A special signal mirror can be used to send a signal from the ground to an air vehicle (aircraft). It is necessary to keep it at a distance of 25-30 cm from the face and look through the sighting hole at the plane, turning the mirror, align the light spot with the sighting hole. In the absence of a signal mirror, objects with shiny surfaces can be used. For sighting, you need to make a hole in the center of the object. The light beam must be sent along the entire horizon line, even in cases where the noise of the aircraft engine is not heard.

Signaling by the mirror

At night, the light of a hand-held electric torch, a torch, or a bonfire can be used for signaling.

A bonfire made on a raft is one of the distress signals.

Good signaling means are brightly colored objects and special dye powder (fluorescein, uranine), which are scattered on snow, ground, water, on ice when an aircraft (helicopter) approaches.

In some cases, sound signals (shout, shot, knock), signal flares, smoke bombs can be used.

One of the latest advances in targeting is a small nylon-sheathed rubber balloon covered in four glowing paints, under which a light bulb flashes at night; the light from it is clearly visible at a distance of 4-5 km. Before launch, the balloon is filled with helium from a small capsule and held at a height of 90m with a nylon rope. The weight of the set is 1.5 kg.

In order to facilitate the search, it is advisable to apply the International Air-to-Air Signal Table. Its signs can be laid out with the help of improvised means (equipment, clothing, stones, trees), directly by people who must lie on the ground, snow, ice or trampled on the snow.

International Air-to-Air Signal Table:
1 - A doctor is needed - serious bodily injury; 2 - Medicines are needed; 3 - Unable to move; 4 - We need food and water; 5 - Requires weapons and ammunition; 6 - Map and compass required; 7 - We need a warning light with a battery and a radio station; 8 - Indicate the direction of travel; 9 - I am moving in this direction; 10 - Let's try to take off; 11 - The vessel is seriously damaged; 12 - It is safe to land here; 13 - Requires fuel and oil; 14 - Everything is in order; 15 - No or negative; 16 - Yes or positive; 17 - I do not understand; 18 - A mechanic is required; 19 - Operations completed; 20 - Nothing was found, we continue to search; 21 - Information received that the aircraft is in this direction; 22 - We found all the people; 23 - We found only a few people; 24 - We are unable to continue, we return to the base; 25 - Divided into two groups, each going in the indicated direction.

Signs of steady good weather

It is quiet at night, the wind increases during the day, and dies down in the evening. The direction of the wind near the ground coincides with the direction of movement of the clouds.
When the sun sets, the dawn is yellow, golden or pink with a greenish tint in a distant space. Fog accumulates in the lowlands at night.
After sunset, dew appears on the grass, and with sunrise it disappears. In the mountains, haze covers the peaks.
Cloudless at night, clouds appear in the morning, increase by noon and disappear in the evening.
Ants do not close the passages in the nest. It is hot during the day and cool in the evening.

Signs of approaching bad weather

The wind intensifies, becomes more even, blows with the same force both during the day and at night, and sharply changes direction.
The clouds are getting stronger. Cumulus clouds do not disappear in the evening, but increase.
Evening and morning dawns are red.
It seems warmer in the evening than in the afternoon. Temperatures drop in the mountains in the morning.
At night there is no dew or it is very weak.
Near the earth, fog appears after sunset, and by sunrise it dissipates.
During the day, the sky becomes cloudy, becomes whitish.
The crowns around the moon are getting smaller.
The stars twinkle strongly.
Chickens and sparrows bathe in the dust.
Smoke begins to travel along the ground.

Signs of persistent bad weather

Light continuous rain.
The ground has fog, dew.
Both at night and during the day are moderately warm.
The air is damp day and night, even without rain.
Small crowns close to the Moon.
Stars shimmer with red or bluish light when they twinkle.
Ants close the passages.
The bees do not leave the hive.
The crows scream heart-rendingly.
Small birds are hammered into the middle of the tree crown.

Signs of a better weather

The rain stops or comes intermittently, in the evening a creeping fog appears, dew falls.
The difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures is increasing.
It gets colder.
The air is getting drier.
The sky at the zenith in the gaps is clear.
The crowns around the moon are increasing.
The twinkling of the stars decreases.
The evening dawn is yellow.
Smoke from chimneys and from the fire rises vertically.
The bees in the hives are noisy. Swifts and swallows rise high into the sky.
Mosquitoes huddle in a swarm.
The coals in the fire quickly become covered with ash.

Signs of stable, low-cloud weather

Prevailing north or north-east wind.
The wind speed is low. Creeping fog at night.
Abundant frost on grassy land or tree branches.
Iridescent pillars on the sides of the sun, or a reddish pillar across the sun disc.
Sunset with a yellowish tint.

Signs of a change to cloudy, snowy weather

Change in wind direction to the south-east, then to the south-west.
A change in the wind from south to north and its strengthening - to a blizzard.
Increased cloudiness.
Light snow begins.
The frost is weakening.
Blue spots appear over the forest.
Dark forests are reflected in low dense clouds.

Signs of persistent cloudy, snowy weather without severe frost

Light frost or, with a south-westerly wind, thaw.
Towards the thaw, the blue spots over the forest intensify.
Sustainable south-east or north-east wind.
The direction of movement of the clouds does not coincide with the direction of the wind near the ground.
Light continuous snow.

Signs of a change to frosty weather without precipitation

The wind moves from the south-west to the west or north-west, the frost intensifies.
Cloudiness is decreasing.
Frost appears on the grassy land and trees.
The blue spots above the forest fade and soon disappear altogether.

Setting up a tent tent

Tents differ in design features (frame, frameless), capacity, material. Despite this, they are all designed to protect humans from cold, rain, wind, moisture, insects.

The procedure for setting up the tent is as follows:

unfold the tent;
stretch and secure the bottom;
install the racks and tighten the braces;
fasten the exit and pull the roof braces;
eliminate roof creases by pulling (loosening) the braces;
Dig a ditch around the tent 8-10 cm wide and deep to drain water in case of rain.

Dry leaves, grass, ferns, reeds, moss can be placed under the bottom of the tent. When setting up a tent on snow (ice), put empty backpacks, ropes, windbreakers, blankets, and polyurethane foam mats on the floor.

In winter, the sleeping area must be free of snow and ice.

For cooking, heating, drying clothes, signaling, rescuers use fires of the following types: "hut", "well" ("log house"), "taiga", "no-dya", "fireplace", "Polynesian", "star" , "Pyramid".

Types of fires: a - "hut"; b - "well"; в - "taiga"; g - "nodia"; d - "fireplace"; e - "Polynesian"; g - "star"; h - "pyramid".

"Shalash" is convenient for making tea quickly and lighting the camp. This fire is very "gluttonous", it burns hot. "Well" ("log house") is kindled if you need to cook food in a large bowl, dry wet clothes. In the "well" the fuel burns more slowly than in the "hut", a lot of coals are formed, which create a high temperature. At the "taiga" one can cook food simultaneously in several pots. On one thick log (about 20 cm thick), several thinner dry logs are placed, which approach each other at an angle of 30 °, always from the leeward side. The fuel burns for a long time. You can spend the night near such a bonfire. "Nodya" is good for cooking, heating during the night, drying clothes and shoes. Two dry logs up to 3 meters long are placed close to each other, flammable fuel (thin dry twigs, birch bark) is lit in the gap between them, after which a third dry log of the same length and 20-25 cm thick is placed on top. flyers are driven into the ground on both sides of them. They will at the same time serve as supports for the stick on which the bowlers are hung. The "node" flares up slowly, but it burns with an even flame for several hours.

Any fire must be made only after careful preparation of the site: collecting dry grass and dead wood, making a deepening in the ground, fencing the place where it will be bred with stones. Dry wood, grass, reeds, and shrubs serve as fuel for the fire. It has been noticed that a lot of sparks are given by burning spruce, pine, cedar, chestnut, larch. Oak, maple, elm, beech are burning quietly.

To quickly kindle a fire, you need a kindling (birch bark, small dry branches and firewood, a piece of rubber, paper, dry fuel). It fits tightly with a "hut" or "well". To make the kindling light better, put a piece of a candle in it or put dry alcohol. Thicker dry branches are laid around the kindling, then thick firewood. In damp weather or during rain, the fire must be covered with a tarpaulin, a backpack, and a thick cloth.

Making fire by friction

You can light a fire with matches, a lighter, sunlight and a magnifying glass, rubbing, flint, or a shot. In the latter case, it is necessary:

open the cartridge and leave only gunpowder in it;
put dry cotton wool on top of the gunpowder;
shoot into the ground, while observing safety measures;
The smoldering cotton wool will further light the fire.

To set up a fire in winter, it is necessary to clear the snow to the ground or build a flooring of thick logs on the snow, otherwise the melted snow will extinguish the fire.

To prevent a fire from causing a fire, it must not be built under low tree branches, near flammable objects, on the leeward side, relative to the bivouac, on peat bogs, near reed and reed thickets, dry grass, moss, in spruce and pine forests. In these places, the fire spreads with great speed and is difficult to extinguish. In order to prevent the spread of fire, the fire must be surrounded by a ditch or stones.

The safe distance from the fire to the tent is 10 meters.

To dry clothes, shoes, equipment near a fire, they should be hung on poles or ropes located on the leeward side at a sufficient distance from the fire.

A mandatory rule is to put out the fire (with water, earth, snow) when leaving the bivouac.

Successful fulfillment by rescuers of the tasks assigned to them is possible only on condition of restoration and maintenance of high mental and physical performance of the body throughout the entire period of work. This is based on a balanced diet. It is important not only the correct ratio of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in food, but also the obligatory presence of vitamins and other biologically active substances in it. The daily diet of a rescuer should include at least 1.5 g of protein per kilogram of his body weight, almost the same amount of fat and 4 times more carbohydrates, as well as about 30-35 g of table salt, vitamins, water, etc.

The average daily requirement of an adult for nutrients is presented in the table.

Average daily requirement of an adult for nutrients (formula for a balanced diet according to A.A.Pokrovsky)

The diet of a rescuer performing work in difficult conditions (energy consumption 4150 kcal)

The energy consumption of the human body at an average and above average intensity of loads is from 3200 to 4000 kcal per day. Under extreme loads, energy consumption rises to 4600-5000 kcal. At the same time, the diet should consist of various products containing all the elements necessary for the body. An example of a balanced diet is presented above.

The specified list can be supplemented with forest products (mushrooms, berries, fruits of wild trees), hunting, fishing.

The consumption of food products is carried out in the established mode, which includes two to three meals a day, if possible, every day at the same time. For lunch, 40% of the daily ration is spent, for breakfast - 35% and for dinner - 25%.

For supporting high level the rescuer must adhere to the optimal mode of drinking water consumption.

The water lost by the body must be replaced, otherwise the dehydration process begins. Loss of water in the amount of 1-2% of body weight causes a person to have a strong thirst; at 3-5% nausea, fever, apathy, fatigue occur; at 10%, irreversible changes appear in the body; at 20%, a person dies. The need for water depends on the intensity of work, the temperature and humidity of the air, and the weight of the human body. With a relatively limited physical mobility, the need for water ranges from 1.5-2.0 liters per day in areas with moderate temperatures, up to 4-6 liters or more per day in the desert and tropics. With high physical and nervous stress, the need for water increases 2-3 times.

In natural and artificial reservoirs, water quality often does not meet the requirements for safe use. Therefore, it is advisable to boil it before use. Before boiling, polluted or marsh water must be treated with potassium permanganate or special preparations. Water can also be filtered using depressions in damp earth, thick cloth, special filters. If the water is oversaturated with salt (sea, salt lakes), then it must be desalinated by evaporation and condensation. Water with a lack of salt (high-altitude water bodies, mountain rivers) can be salted.

During the RPS in the natural environment, rescuers may encounter poisonous snakes and blood-sucking insects. Ability to behave in similar situations is a professional integral feature of lifeguards.

On the territory of the CIS, out of 56 species of snakes, cobra, gyurza, efa, shitomordnik and all types of vipers are dangerous to humans. The latter are most common in Russia. It is necessary to be guided by the rule - with each snake encountered, treat it as poisonous and bypass its side.

There are many remedies to protect against mosquitoes and other blood-sucking insects. Creams "Taiga", "Tabu", liquid "On a halt", etc. are quite reliable. Ordinary petroleum jelly mixed with naphthalene-containing substances can be successfully used. A good remedy is a 10% alcohol solution of dimethyl phthalate. The gauze cover reliably protects open areas of the body from mosquito bites during sleep. Unfortunately, often rescuers do not attach importance to protection from mosquitoes and forget that these insects are carriers of pathogens of many diseases that are dangerous to human health and life. Every rescuer needs to be able to protect himself from the bites of blood-sucking insects and ticks. Prophylactic vaccinations against tick-borne encephalitis should be done and promptly resumed.

The most affordable measure of protection against ticks is wearing clothes with tight cuffs on the arms and legs and a hood, and boots on the legs. You can enhance the protective properties of clothing by saturating it with repellents. The body should be examined periodically and if ticks are found, they should be removed immediately.

An encounter with wild animals, especially with predatory (wolf, bear, lynx), large ungulates (elk, wild boar, deer) and reptiles (poisonous snakes), can pose a danger to humans during outdoor activities. The vast majority of wild animals avoid meeting humans. Animals sense a person before he can see them, and almost always try to get out of his way. However, the behavior of many animals changes significantly under certain conditions. Most animals are dangerous during the mating season, during the hunt, when they are injured, when they protect their young, when they are caught by the prey and in self-defense. In summer, the attack of wild animals on humans is very rare. It was found that a tiger rushes on a peka for no reason in 4% of all cases of meeting it. According to many experts, most of the sudden encounters between a man and a brown bear end in a swift flight of the beast. Although cases of bear attacks on humans, and the European part of the country are observed almost every year. A meeting with a wolf conceals a significant danger to humans. V last years it is noted that people encounter wolves in the forest zone more often than before. Wild ungulates common for Russian forests - moose wild boars, deer, roe deer - are more cautious than predators. However, during the mating season, these animals are distinguished by increased excitability and aggressiveness, and meeting with them during this period is dangerous. The most serious danger to a person can be a sudden meeting with a wolf or fox, which are sick with rabies. In this case, the attack cannot be avoided, therefore it is necessary to bypass the places where, according to information, there are sick animals. In winter, a real danger to humans is a meeting with a wolf or a connecting rod bear (a connecting rod bear is a bear that has not hibernated in its den for the winter). According to experts, in order to reduce the possibility of meeting with wild dangerous animals in natural conditions, you need to know the following. Any species of wild animal prefers certain habitats that it is desirable to know. When planning to go out into nature, it is best to try to avoid such places. During the hike, you must be observant and careful, try to timely detect the presence of dangerous wild animals in the area. The presence of animals can be determined by their footprints in the soil, peeled tree bark, the presence of droppings, feeding places or the remains of prey. Having noticed such traces, it is necessary to increase vigilance. It must be remembered that animals try to avoid danger and move away from it. Therefore, moving through the forest, sometimes it is worth letting know about your presence, talking loudly, calling out to each other, as if warning the animals and giving them the opportunity to leave. In the forest, it is undesirable to meet a herd of wild boars that are feeding. You can identify such a place by the noise that wild boars make. In the forest, following the route, it is necessary to avoid animal paths, impassable, overgrown with bushes, a section of the forest. To ensure safety, the rule should be strictly observed: never destroy animal shelters, since in the face of the loss of their own "home" or the death of their offspring, the most peaceful animals become dangerous. Most often, in nature, a person can meet a snake. On the territory of Russia, the common viper is the most common type of poisonous snake. This snake is found on the territory of Russia from the western borders to Sakhalin. Vipers live, as a rule, in swamps, in clearings, in forest glades and forest edges. The color of the viper is from light gray to almost black. Characteristic feature this snake has a thin zigzag strip along the back. In summer, vipers prefer to hide under the roots of rotten stumps, in crevices of stones, in the holes of other animals. After wintering, in April, with the onset of warmth, the vipers crawl out to the surface. In the second half of May, their mating season begins. During this time, the vipers become more aggressive. Having met a person, the viper first of all tries to hide. A snake attack can occur if a person inadvertently stepped on it or approached it so close that he entered the zone of its attack. Usually snakes bite in the leg (if stepped on). Therefore, where snakes are found, you should not walk barefoot, as well as in light open shoes. Rubber or leather boots reliably protect from a snake bite. During summer outdoor recreation, ubiquitous blood-sucking insects deliver a lot of troubles to humans. These are mosquitoes, midges, biting midges and horseflies, which appear in early May and disappear only in autumn. Their bites are painful, and their continuous presence day and night tires a person, negatively affects his mood, and reduces the positive impression of communicating with wildlife. These insects can also be carriers of infectious diseases. Therefore, being in places where there are a lot of mosquitoes, midges, horseflies, you should cover all parts of the body with clothing as much as possible. During the hike, parking should be arranged in open, well-ventilated areas, and a fire should be made to repel insects. Other insects also pose a certain danger to humans in natural conditions: bees, wasps, bumblebees, hornets, if their habitats are disturbed. Nests of forest bees and wasps are located in trees, hornets - in tree hollows, and bumblebees - in underground burrows. It is better to bypass them and not disturb them. In the second half of summer, wasps and hornets can bring a lot of trouble. They have a sweet tooth and flock to the smell of fruits, jam, sweets. These insects are very aggressive and attack for no particular reason. Bumblebees are considered more peaceful than bees, and they attack extremely rarely, since they have less reason to worry about their home. After being bitten by a bee, wasp, bumblebee or hornet, an itchy swelling forms on the human skin. For some people, the bite can be very dangerous: after 5 minutes, a painful blister appears, which increases within two days, and more serious consequences of the bite may appear urticaria, swelling, sore throat, vomiting. Keeping this in mind, it is advisable to bypass the habitats of these insects during the campaign, and even more so not to destroy the nests. If during the movement you accidentally disturb a swarm of bees, you should freeze and do not move for a few minutes until the insects calm down, and then carefully leave the dangerous place. When a swarm of bees is attacked, one can only escape by fleeing, covering his face with his hands. You need to run to water or dense bushes to hide from insects. During the hike, in order not to be bitten by bees or hornets, it is recommended to lubricate open areas of the body with cologne, to which mint oil is added, mint drops. In the natural environment, humans are still trapped by a formidable enemy - ticks. Ticks are carriers of encephalitis. The period of greatest activity of ticks comes in the spring and the first half of summer. Terrain orientation is the determination of your position relative to the sides of the horizon and local objects. Depending on the nature of the terrain, the availability of technical means and visibility, the side of the horizon can be determined by the position of the Sun, the Pole Star, by signs of local objects, etc. In the northern hemisphere, the direction not north can be determined by becoming at the local noon with your back to the Sun. The shadow will indicate the direction to the north, west to the left, east to the right. Local noon is determined using a vertical pole 0.5 - 1.0 m long the smallest value the length of the shadow from it on the surface of the Earth. The moment when the shadow was the shortest in terms of marks on the Earth corresponds to the passage of the Sun through this meridian. Determination of the cardinal points using the clock: the clock must be placed horizontally and rotated so that hour hand pointed to the sun. Through the center of the dial, the bisector of the angle formed between this line and the hour hand is mentally drawn, showing the north-south direction, with south until 12 o'clock to the right of the Sun, and after 12 o'clock - to the left. At night in the Northern Hemisphere, the northward direction can be determined using the North Star, located approximately above the North Pole. To do this, you need to find the constellation Ursa Major with a characteristic arrangement of stars in the form of a bucket with a handle. An imaginary line is drawn through the outermost two stars of the bucket, and the distance between these stars is plotted on it 5 times. At the end of the fifth segment there will be a bright star - Polaris. The direction to it will correspond to the direction to the north. You can navigate by some natural signs. So, for example, on the north side, the trees have a coarser bark covered with lichen and moss at the foot, the bark of birch and pine on the north side is darker than on the south, and tree trunks, stones or rock ledges are thicker covered with moss and lichens. During thaws, snow lasts longer on the northern slopes of the hills. Anthills are usually protected by something from the north, their north side is steeper. Mushrooms usually grow on the north side of trees. On the surface of the trunk of conifers, facing south, more resin drops are released than on the north. These signs are especially clearly visible on trees standing alone. On the southern slopes, the grass grows faster in spring and many flowering shrubs have more flowers.