Brief psychological dictionary karpenko petrovsky yaroshevsky. Petrovsky A.V

SPb .: Prime-Evroznak, 2003 .-- 632 p. - ISBN 5-93878-086-1. Many students and teachers call this book the main psychological book in the country, because a good dictionary is the basis for both theoretical research and practical work... This book has stood the test of time. This is the latest edition of the famous dictionary. The dictionary contains more than 1600 articles, more than 160 Russian authors. The volume of the dictionary in comparison with previous editions (`Psychological Dictionary`, 1983, 1996) has doubled. The dictionary is structured in a fundamentally new way: each article is published in the author's edition; English equivalents are indicated for most terms. A new system of cross-references has been introduced, so it became possible to find a much larger number of concepts and terms than the number of articles themselves. Many articles, as is customary in the tradition of fundamental dictionaries, have additions written either by editors or by contributors.
Big psychological dictionary can be called a fundamental book, which is of great interest not only to students, specialists, but also to people for whom psychological knowledge has become an indispensable need for satisfying cognitive, professional and personal interests.
Personalities.
List of authors.
List of abbreviations and list of symbols.
Dictionary Entries AND I
Thematic subject index.
General scientific, methodological and philosophical concepts.
Related humanitarian sciences(linguistics, ethnography, etc.).
Related information and cybernetic sciences.
Related biomedical sciences.
Methods of psychology and other sciences (including methods of statistics).
Branches of psychology.
Developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
Zoopsychology, Ethology and Comparative Psychology.
Engineering psychology, labor psychology and ergonomics.
Medical psychology, pathopsychology (see also neuropsychology, psychotherapy and psychocorrection).
Neuropsychology.
General psychology.
Psychology of sensations and perception.
Attention psychology.
The psychology of memory.
Psychology of thinking and imagination.
Psychology of emotions, motivation and will.
Parapsychology.
Educational psychology and psychological education service.
Psychogenetics.
Psycholinguistics and psychosemantics.
Psychology of art, psychology of creativity.
Psychology of consciousness, behavior and personality, differential psychology.
Psychology of management.
Psychometrics.
Psychomotor skills.
Psychotherapy and psychocorrection.
Psychophysics.
Psychophysiology and psychopharmacology.
Sexology and sexopathology.
Social psychology (including psychology of communication and interpersonal relations).
Special psychology.
Ethnopsychology.
Legal psychology.
Directions, concepts, approaches and schools of psychology, history of psychology.
Activity approach.
Behavioral Psychology.
Gestalt psychology.
Cognitive Psychology.
Cultural-historical psychology and psychology of activity.
Psychoanalysis.
Other.
Personalities.

1. A. V. Petrovsky and M. G. Yaroshevsky. Psychology. Dictionary), Moscow: Politizdat, 1990, p. 167.

2. MI Stankin "Psychology of communication". Moscow: Institute of Pract. psychology, 1996 p. 164..

voluminous questions: “Why is conformism manifested?”, and “Who manifests conformism?” Drawing conclusions from the chapter, the American author draws attention to the fact that social psychology should be supplemented by attention to the power of social pressure to the power of the individual. We are not puppets. In a group we are the best we realize how we differ from others. Great importance is attached to this problem in this textbook, the significant contribution of psychologists involved in this field is used.

In the textbook by G.M. Andreeva, Lasswell's model of the communicative process is shown, which includes five elements, such as: communicator, text, channel, audience and efficiency. Approximately the same model of the communicative process is described on the pages of an American textbook, which shows four factors of this process: the "communicator", the message itself, the channel and the audience. Using this model, D. Myers gives an example of the action of the latter in the process of being drawn into a sect. The information is quite interesting, and unique for Russian social psychology, since, apparently, no developments or research in this regard has yet been observed.

Moving on to the next chapter, which is called "the influence of groups", we can already compare it with our section "Social psychology of groups" in a Russian textbook. But let's see in which direction the consideration of this issue in an American textbook will go. So the group: "two or more persons who interact with each other, influence each other for more than a few moments and perceive themselves as us." Let's turn to the psychological dictionary of A.V. Petrovsky and see that only the definition of a small group is similar to that described above in the American version. "Small group - from.

a relatively small number of directly contacting individuals united by common goals or objectives. "

This chapter examines three examples of such collective influences as, "social facilitation" - increasing dominant reactions in the presence of others; "social laziness" - the tendency of people to exert less effort when they join forces for a common goal; and "deindividualization" - loss of self-awareness and fear of self-esteem. Of particular interest is the problem of leadership, which is also described in detail in the textbook by G.M. Andreeva. Leadership in the American textbook is defined as a process by which certain group members motivate and lead the group. it is seen from the pages of D. Myers does not set such clear boundaries between the concepts of leader and leader. However, in the American textbook there are designations, in addition to the formal and informal nature of leadership, the role of target and social leaders. Target leaders organize work, set standards and focus on achieving the goal ... Social leaders bring the team together, resolve conflicts and provide support. Target leaders often use a directive style to give the right orders, they focus the group's attention and efforts on the task at hand. Social leaders often exhibit a democratic leadership style, in which power is delegated to group members and their participation in decision-making is encouraged. As can be seen from the text, there are only two leadership styles in the American version: directive and democratic. At the same time, G.M. Andreeva describes three leadership styles, such as: authoritarian, democratic and conniving styles. ...

The next chapter introduces us to the penetration of social psychology into the realm of justice, and more specifically into the jury. Like all other experiments in social psychology, the laboratory experiments described here help us formulate theoretical positions and principles that we can apply when interpreting the more complex world of our everyday life. life.

To summarize the second part "Social impacts", we note the more important sections of our research, such as "Conformity", "Beliefs", "Group influence" and "Leadership". The last section "Social psychology and justice", we are interested in penetration American social psychology into the US justice system. Having analyzed how we think of each other and how we influence each other, we finally come to the third aspect of social psychology - how we relate to each other. Our feelings and actions in relation to people are negative Chapters Eleven and Twelve, "Prejudice" and "Aggression," explore the unpleasant aspects of human relationships. Prejudice is unnecessarily negative attitudes. It also has emotional roots. Prejudice provides a sense of social excellence and can also make it easier to mask feelings of inferiority .Aggression - physical or verbal behavior aimed at harming someone There are two different types of aggression: hostile (anger) and instrumental (goal).

The factors influencing aggression are very convincingly described, as well as: aversive incidents, agitation, climate (heat), pornography, television and group influences. Comparative analysis of the section "group influences" in the American textbook, and the section "spontaneous groups and mass movements" in textbook G.M. Andreeva, at.

the use of rather similar terms is noteworthy, such as "contamination" and "distraction of responsibility" and "deindividualization" - a concept that we have already considered above.

The title of the next chapter speaks for itself: "- Attraction and closeness." Not a single chapter so easily yielded to a certain analysis and synthesis as this. After all, wherever a person lives, his relationships with others - really existing or anticipated - determine the mood of his thoughts and the color of emotions. Finding a kindred spirit - a person who supports us and whom we can trust, we feel that we are accepted and appreciated for who we are. In love, we feel irrepressible joy, yearning for love and affection, we spend billions on cosmetics, outfits and diets.

Moving on to the definition of altruism, one can be horrified by so many examples given at the very beginning of the chapter. Having collected and compared examples of indifference and heartlessness, and, on the contrary, manifestations of feelings of compassion and help, the author already leads to an independent "decoding" of this concept. Altruism is a motive. helping someone, not consciously connected with their own selfish interests. Altruism is selfishness on the contrary. Asking the question "Why do we provide help?" to help us, to respond with help, the norm of social responsibility forces us to provide assistance, etc. D. Myers distinguishes two types of altruism:

1. - ALTRUISM based on interchange;

2. - ALTRUISM does not imply any additional conditions. ...

People tend to help when they already see that others have rushed to help, or when they are in no rush. Finally, there is a tremendous phenomenon: "Good mood - good deeds."

In crisis situations, in cases of emergency, women are more likely to receive help than men, although help comes from the latter. Women are also more likely to seek help. We are more likely to help those who need help and deserve it, as well as those who similar to us.

The final chapter of this textbook addresses the issue of conflict and reconciliation. Conflict is the perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. What causes conflicts?

In the course of socio-psychological research, several reasons for this have been identified. Characteristically, these reasons are the same at all levels of social conflicts, be it interpersonal, intergroup or international conflicts. The trend leading to an arms race is traced by the example of the phenomenon of "Mirror Perception". The examples of a very recent confrontation between the superpowers of the USSR and the United States are very relevant in this textbook.

Investigating the problem of conflicts, D. Myers delved into international conflicts without properly reflecting interpersonal and intergroup conflicts. And again, there are no clear boundaries for the separation of conflicts, feeling a certain unstructuredness with sufficient thoughtfulness of the textbook. Although conflicts are easily generated and fueled by social dilemmas, competition and distortions perception, some equally powerful forces such as contact, cooperation, communication and reconciliation can turn enmity into harmony. ...

2Z A K L Y J E N I E

Finally, I would like to express my point of view regarding this textbook, having conducted my own research. There is no reason to disagree with the opinion of Professor A.L. Svenitsky about the uniqueness of this textbook and its unconditional influence on our social psychology and psychologists. in favor of the American textbook. But right away it should be noted that American social psychology and Russian social psychology are two different approaches, two completely different topics and topics of studying social psychology, different aspects of research problems, etc. social psychology the main emphasis is placed on personality and its study, on personality and its behavior in a group. In our national social psychology, the emphasis is on the group, interactions in the group and the collective. The absence of research on mass movements and large groups in the textbook of D. Myers is immediately striking. , which in the textbook G.M. Andreeva, for example, attaches particular importance. Collectivism in the American textbook is nothing more than a cultural approach opposite to individualism. You can not compare the definitions in our domestic sources, they are obviously different, but to the concept and meaning of individualism, for example, in the textbook of A.V. Petrovsky, you no longer want to go back, trying to find something positive in it.

The American textbook pays considerable attention to the problem of conformity, raises a number of questions requiring further research and reflection. Unfortunately, the problem of conformism in our country, unfortunately, according to the sources. All references, if any, refer mainly to American authors and their research. ...

Based on these few comparisons, we can conclude about a completely different approach to studying social psychology, which was described above, relying mainly on the data of practical research. Theorized Russian social psychology is inferior to the American one, at least in areas of application. in this study, a brief excursion through all the chapters, and, accordingly, brief conclusions on them. Throughout the study, the author tried to make a comparison of almost "two different social psychologies from textbooks." - or a solid comparison, in his research. Trying to make a comparison on certain problems and issues, the author eventually came to a comparison of the definitions of some basic psychological problems. Having felt some similarities, but in the main differences again, the researcher at the end of his work made conclusions about completely different NS Approach of studying social psychology in American and Russian social psychology.

The textbook by D. Myers, as already described above, contains a huge number of various kinds of publications, practical research, examples from all kinds of sources. The design, ways of presenting the material, its richness, argumentation noticeably distinguish it from our domestic textbooks.

In his research, the author basically took the textbook "Social Psychology" by G.M. Andreeva as a basis and came to the conclusion that this source undoubtedly needs to be republished and supported by both practical research and "a convincing number of convincing examples", etc. Despite the fact that a new edition of the textbook by G.M. Andreeva was taken for this study, it is not very different.

The same applies to the textbook of A.V. Petrovsky "Social Psychology", which simply needs to be republished anew, ridding it of the ideological foundations, focusing on the current constantly changing situation. This also applies to our entire social psychology as a whole, which can orient itself , for example, to the American one, but in turn there is confidence that it will further develop in its own way.

2B I B L I O G R A F I Z

1. G.M. ANDREEVA "SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY". TEXTBOOK FOR THE HIGHER

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. - M .: ASPECT PRESS, 1997.

PETER, 1997.

3. T.V.KUTASOVA "CHRESTOMATIA ON SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY". Teaching

A SECOND HANDBOOK FOR STUDENTS. - M .: MEZHDUNARO-

SINGLE PEDAL ACADEMY, 1994.

4. AVPETROVSKY "SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY". TEACHING AID FOR

STUDENTS PED.IN-TOV. - M .: ENLIGHTENMENT,

5. A. V. PETROVSKY, M. G. YAROSHEVSKY. "PSYCHOLOGY". DICTIONARY. -

M .: POLITIZDAT, 1990.

6. MI STANKIN "PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION". COURSE OF LECTURES .- M .: INS-

TITUTE OF PRACTICE PSYCHOLOGY, 1996.

2MOSCOW CITY PEDAGOGICAL

2 UNIVERSITY

Course work on the topic: "Comparative analysis of domestic and

American Social Psychology "

Student of the Faculty of Psychology

Third year, first group

Ernesto Rodriguez.

2Moscow, 1998

2 B E D E N I E

21. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

22. SOCIAL THINKING

23. SOCIAL IMPACT

24. SOCIAL RELATIONS

2Z A K L Y J E N I E

2B I B L I O G R A F I Z

This term paper was written in the Lexicon, and translated into the Word. Surrendered: May, 1998. Prof. Glotochkin A.D. Score: 5 points. For comparison, the book by D. Myers was taken, see the list of literatures

And the observer (M. Storms experiment) Figure 4 3.3. G.M. Andreeva, N.N. Bogomolova, L.A. Petrovskaya. Theories of dyadic interaction (Andreeva G.M., Bogomolova N.N., Petrovskaya L.A. Modern social psychology in the West ( theoretical directions). M .: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1978. S. 70-83) Behavioral orientation includes as one of the methodological principles ...

To approach its own psychological study. As an example of the use of one of the most famous psychosemantic methods - the private semantic differential - one can cite the study of ethnic stereotypes of Americans, Afghans, Indians, Cubans, Poles, Russians, Finns and Japanese among Soviet students, conducted by E.L. Koneva under the leadership of V.S. Ageeva. ...

- the famous Russian psychologist Artur Vladimirovich Petrovsky was born on May 14, 1924 in Sevastopol. His fate is complex and interesting. When the Great began Patriotic War, he volunteered for the front. After demobilization, Petrovsky, having worked for some time at a military factory, entered a vocational school. The next stage of his education was the school of working youth, where the young Petrovsky became interested in philology and after graduation entered the philological faculty of the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute named after V.P. Potemkin, and then to graduate school. The topic of his Ph.D. thesis combined aspects of two sciences: philology and psychology, which Petrovsky had become interested in by that time, and in 1950 he defended his first scientific work The psychological views of A.N. Radishchev.

In the future, Petrovsky conducted serious research in the field of the theory of psychology, he works at the departments of psychology of the Volgograd Pedagogical Institute, the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute, the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. IN AND. Lenin. The result of his activity is the book Conversations on Psychology, published in 1961. In parallel, Petrovsky is studying the history of psychology; this topic will interest him throughout his life, so it is no coincidence that his doctoral dissertation, defended in 1965, was called the Path of Formation of the Foundations of Soviet Psychology. Investigating the history of the development of psychological thought in Russia, Petrovsky for the first time raises the question of the need for an objective scientific assessment pedology, so popular at the beginning of this century, as well as psychotechnics, reflexology, reactology, and the works of V.M. Bekhterev, V.A. Wagner, P.P. Blonsky and others.

In 1966, a significant event took place in Petrovsky's career: he received the title of professor and became the head of the Department of Psychology at Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. In 1967, Petrovsky's book The History of Soviet Psychology was published. In 1968 he became a corresponding member of the USSR ALN, then - academician-secretary of the department of psychology and developmental physiology, and since 1971 - full member APN USSR. In parallel, he works on the editorial boards of the journals Voprosy psikhologii and Vestnik MGU. In 1972, Petrovsky left the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute and became the head of the laboratory of personality psychology at the Research Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR. This laboratory will operate under his leadership from 1972 to 1993. Analyzing the laboratory's work, two main scientific trends can be identified. The first is the historical and psychological trend already known to us, the roots of which go back to the 60s. XX century. Research in this area continues to the present day by Petrovsky and his followers. During this period, the following books by A.V. Petrovsky: Questions of history and theory of psychology (1984), History of psychology (1994, in collaboration with M.G. Yaroshevsky), Questions of history and theory of psychology (1984), History and theory of psychology (1996, in collaboration with I.G. Yaroshevsky ), Fundamentals of Theoretical Psychology (1997, co-authored with I.G. Yaroshevsky). During this time, more than 20 candidate and doctoral dissertations were defended on the development of these ideas.

The second direction is associated with problems of personality and interpersonal relations in groups different types and belongs to the field of social psychology. The theory of activity mediation of interpersonal relations, developed by A.V. Petrovsky, or rather, its stratometric concept formed the basis of this direction. This concept makes it possible to differentiate groups according to their level of development and to investigate the structure of intragroup connections. Petrovsky studied the connections between members of different groups and showed the illegality of the spread of addictions identified in groups of one level of development to other groups. The three-phase concept of personality development formulated by Petrovsky revealed the regularity of the change in the stages of adaptation, individualization and integration when entering new group or when the status changes to the previous one. On this basis, Petrovsky proposed age-related periodization, the essence of which is that for each developing individuality, the path to social maturity passes through the macrophases of childhood (mainly personality adaptation), adolescence (mainly individualization) and adolescence, leading to the integration of the individual in society.

From these positions, Petrovsky subjected the concept of the leading activity to a critical reassessment. V general theory interpersonal relations Petrovsky, exploring the factors that determine the significance of another person for the subject, proposed a three-factor model of the significant other. As a basis for this model, Petrovsky considers power, attraction (attractiveness) and reference (authority). Complex relationships and quantitative changes in these factors form the reflected subjectivity of the significant other. In the early 1980s, Petrovsky develops the concept of personalization, which forms the theoretical basis of the laboratory's research in the field of problems of the developing personality. On the basis of the above concepts, the following works were created: a collective monograph - Psychological Theory of the Collective (1979) and Petrovsky's books Personality, Activity, Collective (1982), Popular Conversations on Psychology (1981), Psychology of a Developing Personality (1987) and a number of others. The main data obtained in the research were included in the content of textbooks and teaching aids published under the editorship of Petrovsky: General Psychology (1970), Age and pedagogical psychology(1973), Social Psychology of the Collective (1978), Social Psychology (1987), Introduction to Psychology (1995).

In 1976, Petrovsky received the title of vice-president of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, and from 1978 to 1985 this amazingly efficient person, without stopping the management of the laboratory, also became the head of the Department of Pedagogy, Psychology and Teaching Methods. high school at the faculty of advanced training of Moscow State University. But nevertheless, his main hobby was the laboratory of personality psychology, he devoted most of his time and energy to it. Petrovsky creates it like an artist paints a picture, carefully selecting employees. In the early 1990s. the laboratory undergoes a significant reduction and in 1993 it was transformed into a group of personality psychology, which in January 1999 again received the status of a laboratory, but, having changed the profile scientific research, is now called the laboratory of the theory and history of psychology. The emphasis is shifted to the development of the foundations of theoretical psychology, and above all the categorical-conceptual system of psychological knowledge: after all, as early as 1996, Petrovsky began to develop a special area of ​​psychology - theoretical psychology. The subject of this science is the reflection of psychology, which reveals in its categorical system the key problems of the basic principles of research. In order to resolve these problems, Petrovsky proposed a multilevel categorical system. With the help of such a system, one can more fully characterize the human psyche at the protopsychological, basic, metapsychological and extrapsychological levels, as well as show inter-level and intra-level connections. Thus, Petrovsky actually managed to build a system of psychological theories, each of which is based on one of the categories included in the general categorical system.

In the late 1990s. Petrovsky and his students are also developing a special area of ​​historical and psychological research - the political history of psychology. The subject of study here is the development of psychological science, depending on the political environment, which took shape in totalitarian states. Independent direction in the laboratory of the theory and history of psychology, research by L.A. Karpenko, devoted to the problems of analyzing the concepts of numerous areas of psychology and interdisciplinary relationships. Simultaneously with the research work, the laboratory staff are working on dictionary and reference editions on psychology, which have been published since 1983. During this period, they were published under the general editorship of A.V. Petrovsky and M.G. Yaroshevsky, compiled by L.A. Karpenko the following reference editions: Brief psychological dictionary (1985); Psychology. Dictionary (1990). Work is underway on the creation of the Psychological Encyclopedia and a series of reference editions Lexicon, which is a series of eight dictionaries compiled on a thematic basis. For almost 30 years of research carried out by the laboratory staff under the leadership of A.V. Petrovsky, 63 doctoral and master's theses were defended. Petrovsky was the editor and co-author of a number of textbooks on general, social, developmental, educational and theoretical psychology. Together with M.G. Yaroshevsky, this scientist developed a multilevel system of psychological training in universities, for which in 1997 he was awarded the RF Government Prize in the field of education. He has been a consultant for such famous films as Seven Steps Beyond the Horizon, Me and Others, Scarecrow. During its scientific activities he published over 1500 articles, textbooks, teaching aids, monographs, reference books, many of which have been translated into foreign languages, and all these are the fruits of the activities of the great Russian scientist Artur Vladimirovich Petrovsky.

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Dictionary / Under. ed. A.V. Petrovsky // Psychological lexicon... Encyclopedic Dictionary in six volumes / Ed.-comp. L.A. Karpenko. Under total. ed. A.V. Petrovsky. - M .: PER SE, 2005 .-- 251 p.

The dictionary "General Psychology" highlights the theoretical and methodological aspects of psychological cognition, including the latest research on this topic. The characteristics of the historical prerequisites for the development of psychology, trends, branches, concepts are given; ideas about the most important mental properties, processes and states; psychology of language and speech; the most common methods of psychology. Five sections of the dictionary correspond to the subject structure of General Psychology. As such, it can be useful both to students and teachers of psychology departments of universities, as well as to everyone who is interested in psychology.

Abstraction[lat. abstractio - distraction] - one of the basic operations of thinking, consisting in the fact that the subject, isolating any signs of the studied object, is distracted from the rest. The result of this process is the construction of a mental product (concept, model, theory, classification, etc.), which is also denoted by the term "A."

M.G. Yaroshevsky

Aviation psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the psychological patterns of the labor activity of aviation specialists. The subject of aviation systems is the psyche of a person who controls complex aviation systems. The object of an A. p. Is the activity of an individual and a collective, its content, conditions, organization. The subject of air traffic control is the flight and engineering personnel, aviation dispatchers.

V.A. Bodrov

Austrian (Graz) school- a group of researchers (H. Ehrenfels, S. Vitasek, V. Benussi and others) who worked in the 1880-1910s. mainly at the University of Graz under the leadership of the philosopher and psychologist A. Meinong, who founded the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Austria (1894) and developed in theoretical terms the ideas of his direct teacher F. Brentano. It is known primarily for the formulation and theoretical and experimental development of the problem of the integrity of consciousness posed by Ehrenfels. It was Ehrenfels who introduced psychological science the term "gestalt quality" to denote the integrity of the mental image (that is, the irreducibility of its properties to the sum of the properties of its constituent sensations) and consciousness as a whole. In A. sh. the properties of some integral mental formations were investigated (including experimentally - on the basis of optical-geometric illusions, pathology of perception). Thus, A. sh. paved the way for the transition of psychology from an elementary strategy of cognition, characteristic, for example, of associative psychology, to a holistic approach proposed and developed by Gestalt psychology and the Leipzig school, although representatives of the A. sh. in general, did not go beyond the elementary way of knowing. They considered the quality of integrity ("gestalt quality") - for example, melody, form - as another element of perception, joining the initial sum of sounds or visual sensations as another new element - "automatically" (Ehrenfels) or as a result of a special "productive" spiritual act (Meinong). The absence or presence of such an act was explained in A. sh. the absence or emergence of optical-geometric illusions and the peculiarities of the perception of music, in particular amusia (Vitasek, Benussi). At the same time, A. sh. posed the problem of other units of analysis of consciousness, rather than in associative psychology, the problem of holistic factors and the problem of the subject's activity in building a holistic image (which was later illegally ignored by Gestalt psychology). A. sh. also contributed to the development of the problems of perception of space, optical-geometric illusions, apparent movement, philosophical, epistemological and ethical issues.

HER. Sokolova

Autokinetic effect- one of the illusory movement of phenomena observed in a situation of prolonged fixation of the gaze on a motionless object of small size against a uniform, "unstructured" background. For example, if in a dark room one stares intently at a stationary luminous point, then after a while (1-3 minutes) this spot is perceived as chaotically moving in different directions. A. e. may have a paradoxical character: the sensation of movement arises simultaneously with the perception of the same object as motionless. Manifestation of A. e. depends on the illumination and structure of the stimulus field, eye movements, body posture, instructions, the subject's attitude, social norms, and other factors. Amplitude of movements at A. e. can reach several tens of degrees, without coinciding either in amplitude or direction with eye movements. Therefore, A. e. cannot be explained by the displacement of the image along the retina or by the own movements of the eye. The generally accepted explanation of A. e. currently does not.

IN AND. Panov

Automatism(in psychology) [Greek. automatos - self-acting] - an action realized without the direct participation of consciousness. Distinguish between "primary" A., which is the functioning of congenital, unconditional reflex programs, and "secondary" A., formed in vivo. With "secondary" A., a rigid, unambiguous connection is established between certain properties of situations and a series of sequential operations that previously required conscious orientation.

A.I. Podolsk

Agape- an ancient concept denoting love for one's neighbor. In Greek philosophy, a distinction was introduced between the concepts of "A.", which expressed active, gifting love, oriented towards the good of one's neighbor, and "eros," which represented passionate love focused on satisfying one's own needs. Since the beginning of the spread of Christian culture, the concept of "A." received a new impetus for development: in early Christian communities, in order to form love for one's neighbor, special evening meals were arranged for all members of the community (which received the same name), the purpose of which was to express fraternal feelings to each other. In many philosophical systems, the concept of "A." took a central place, for example, in the philosophy of Plotinus ("Enneads") or Ch.S. Peirce (1839-1914), who saw in him the creative energy of the evolution of nature.

THEM. Kondakov

Adaptation- adaptation of structures and functions of the body to environmental conditions. A.'s processes are aimed at maintaining homeostasis. The concept of A. is used as a theoretical one in those psychological concepts that interpret the relationship between the individual and his environment as processes of homeostatic balancing (for example, gestalt psychology, Piaget's theory of intellectual development). Along with sensory A. (i.e., with an adaptive change in the sense organs to an active stimulus), psychology speaks of A. to social conditions, A. to a children's institution, school A. (or maladjustment), etc.

B.M. Velichkovsky

Sensory adaptation(from Lat. adaptatio - to adapt and sensus - feeling, sensation) - adaptive change in sensitivity to the intensity of the stimulus acting on the sensory organ; can also manifest itself in a variety of subjective effects (see sequential image). A. s. can be achieved by increasing or decreasing absolute sensitivity (eg, visual dark and light adaptation).

B.M. Velichkovsky

Agitation[fr. agitation - strong excitement, agitated state] - an affective state of a person arising in response to a threat to life, an emergency and other psychogenic factors. A. manifests itself in the form of strong motor excitement, accompanied by anxiety, fear, loss of focus in actions, accelerated obscure speech.

L.A. Karpenko

Activity- 1) "causality of the cause" (I. Kant); 2) the active state of living organisms as a condition for their existence in the world. An active being is not just in motion, it contains within itself the source of its own movement, and this source is reproduced in the course of the movement itself. In this case, we can talk about the restoration of energy, structure, properties, processes and functions of a living being, its place in the world, generally speaking, about reproducing any dimensions of its life, if only they are considered essential and inalienable. Bearing in mind this special quality - the ability for self-movement, during which the individual reproduces himself - they say that he acts as a subject A. reflex acts, search A., arbitrary acts, will, acts of free self-determination and self-determination of the subject. In relation to the activity of A., the subject is defined as a dynamic condition for its formation, realization and modification, as a property of its own movement. A. is characterized here by the following properties: spontaneity, that is, the conditionality of the acts produced by the specifics internal states the individual at the moment of action, in contrast to the reactivity as their conditionality by the previous situation; arbitrariness, that is, the conditionality of what is done by the actual goal of the subject, in contrast to field behavior; oversituationalism, that is, going beyond the boundaries of the predetermined, in contrast to adaptability as the limitation of actions within the framework of the given; efficiency, that is, stability in relation to the goal being realized, in contrast to passivity as a tendency to resist the circumstances that must be met in the future. The phenomenon of A. as a unity of spontaneity, arbitrariness, oversituationality and effectiveness cannot be understood within the framework of the traditional "cause-and-effect" scheme, as well as the "target causality" scheme. Apparently, it is necessary to single out a special type of causality, determined by the specifics of the actual state of the individual at the moment of action. This causality can be called actual. In contrast to determination from the side of the past (ordinary cause-and-effect relations) or from the side of a possible future (target determination), in this case the determinative meaning of "moment" is emphasized. The correct form for describing this type of causality is contained in Kant's works - in his ideas about the "interaction" (or "communication") of substances.

V.A. Petrovsky

Updating[lat. actio - action, activity] - the process and result of voluntary (intentional) or involuntary (unintentional) mental actions, consisting in extracting from the memory of the assimilated information or experience and preparing them for immediate use. For example, for recognition, recall, recollection or direct reproduction of any information, it is necessary to extract (actualize) from long-term or short-term memory the corresponding thoughts, images, feelings, desires, movements that were already in the experience of the subject. In this case, A. can be easy or difficult, complete or incomplete, generalized or selective, depending on the level of retention of the extracted information in memory. According to modern concepts, the process of A. is provided due to the excitation of previously formed systems of temporary connections in the nervous system.

L.A. Karpenko

Allusion[lat. alludere - to make fun of, hint] - an expression with which the speaker hints at a well-known historical event, literary work, image, etc., that is, "a reference to cultural tradition" (R. Barth). A. can consist in a direct mention ("the real William Tell", "a new Moses is required", etc.), in a hint through a similar sounding word ("Genialissimus" in V. Voinovich) and be hidden. Hidden A. often are peripheral ("like a biblical strongman, he lifted the Gaze gate on himself" (A.P. Chekhov) - meaning Samson) or arranged as a riddle (for example: "Another poet in a luxurious style / Painted the first snow for us" ( A.S. Pushkin) - we are talking about P.A.Vyazemsky). According to the purpose of creation, A. neutral and parodic (ironic) are distinguished; by the scope of distribution - well-known and contextual. The latter are understandable only in a certain epoch, in a certain circle, etc., such as, for example, "curly Mitreys, wiser Kudreiki" - a hint of V.V. Mayakovsky on the contemporary poets of K.N. Mitreykin and A.A. Kudreiko. A.'s technique was widely used to mask the meaning in conditions of censored printing ("Aesopian language"). A case is possible when the perceiver sees A. where, according to the author's intention, it does not exist: for example, the saying "Here's to you, grandmother, and St. George's Day" can be perceived as an allusion to serfdom.

S.A. Shapoval

Ambivalence of feelings[greek. amphi - around, around, on both sides, dual + lat. valentia - strength] - internally contradictory emotional condition or an experience associated with an ambivalent attitude towards a person, object, phenomenon and characterized by simultaneous acceptance and rejection (for example, the experience of jealousy, in which feelings of love and hate can be combined). The term A. ch. Was proposed by the Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist E. Bleuler to denote contradictory attitudes and reactions inherent in schizophrenics, which quickly replace each other. This term soon became more widely used in psychology and psychiatry. The complex contradictory feelings that appear in a person in connection with the diversity of his needs and in connection with the multifaceted nature of the phenomena of the surrounding reality, which simultaneously attract to themselves and at the same time scare away, cause both negative and positive feelings, have come to be called ambivalent. A. h. Appears early enough in children in relation to the surrounding objects and people. In particular, A. ch. Is manifested in the phenomenon of ambivalent behavior, which is observed in many young children.

E.O. Smirnova

Analysis[greek. analysis - decomposition, dismemberment] - the process of dismembering the whole into parts. A. is included in all acts of practical and cognitive interaction of the organism with the environment. A person based on practical activities developed the ability to carry out A. at the level of operating with concepts. A. as a necessary stage of cognition is inextricably linked with synthesis and is one of the basic operations that make up the real process of thinking.

OK. Tikhomirov

Analysis by synthesis- the term of the late S.L. Rubinstein, characterizing the initial universal "mechanism" (or basic form) of thinking, which he and his students studied. A. h. C. means that in the process of thinking the cognized object is included in more and more new connections and therefore appears in more and more new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts; from the object so. as if all the new content is being exhausted; it seems to turn each time its other side, all new properties are revealed in it. For example, one and the same segment of a straight line, included in various geometric shapes, appears in correspondingly different qualities: as a bisector, a median, a parallelogram diagonal, etc. ensures the continuity of thinking and, in general, the mental as a process, since in the course of the latter, the cognizing subject continuously interacts with the object, and not with the signs, words, concepts, meanings, meanings, etc. (they are all in varying degrees express the content of this object). Thus, A. h. With. ensures not only the continuity of thinking as a process (the "same" object is included in all new connections), but also mental new formations (it also appears in new qualities). One and the same cognizable object is an indissoluble unity of already known (for a given subject) and still unknown, new properties and their relationships, that is, the old and the new belong, respectively, not to two different objects, but to one object. A. h. C. and all thinking as a whole as a process is formed by a person mainly unconsciously, unconsciously inside and in the course of thinking as an activity carried out by the subject mainly consciously (under the control of always conscious goals, etc.). A. h. C. is a mechanism of thinking as a process of not only an individual, but also a group subject. When, in the course of a group solution of a problem, an object, being included in different systems of connections, appears in correspondingly new qualities, then these systems of objective essential relations are first isolated by different individuals, respectively. Then a discussion may arise between the latter. Consequently, various systems of relations and the qualities of an object that appear in them are, as it were, personified by different individuals and therefore correlate (synthesize) with each other in subjects and through subjects. The composition of these relations also includes the changing in the process of thinking the attitude of a person to the cognized object, because, while discovering new qualities of the object, the subject, at the same time, more and more adequately determines their significance for his activity and communication. In the course of thinking as a process, motivation is formed for its further course. With this approach to the problem, meaning and meaning appear primarily as, to varying degrees, disclosed and experienced by the subject. different qualities the same object. Thus, A. h. With. - it is a thinking, and not the actual speech mechanism of human thinking, always inextricably linked with language and speech. This is an alternative position in relation to the one according to which not only communication, but also thinking is a function of speech, and therefore the latter is the mechanism of mental activity. There is no reason to so strongly absolutize speech, although it, without alienating it from thinking, is undoubtedly the most important means of communication. Thinking and its mechanism "A. h. S." - this is not a function of speech, but of a subject carrying out activities (including cognitive), communication, behavior, contemplation, etc.

A.V. Brushlinsky

Analytical psychology- the system of views of the Swiss psychologist K.G. Jung, who gave her this name in order to delimit her from a related direction - psychoanalysis of Z. Freud. Attaching, like Freud, a decisive role in the regulation of behavior to the unconscious, Jung singled out, along with its individual (personal) form, the collective, which can never become the content of consciousness. The collective unconscious forms an autonomous mental fund in which the inherited (through the structure of the brain) experience of previous generations is captured. The primary formations included in this fund - archetypes (universal human prototypes) underlie the symbolism of creativity, various rituals, dreams and complexes. As a method for analyzing hidden motives, Jung proposed a test for word association: an inadequate response (or delayed response) to a stimulus word indicates the presence of a complex. The purpose mental development human A. p. considers individuation - a special integration of the contents of the collective unconscious, thanks to which the personality realizes itself as a unique indivisible whole. Although A. p. Rejected a number of postulates of Freudianism (in particular, libido was understood not as sexual, but any unconscious psychic energy), however, the methodological orientations of this direction have the same features as other branches of psychoanalysis, since the socio-historical essence of the motivating forces is denied. human behavior and the predominant role of consciousness in its regulation. Jung's typology of characters, according to which there are two main categories of people - extroverts (aimed at external world) and introverts (aimed at inner world), has received, independently of A. n. development in specific psychological research personality.

M.G. Yaroshevsky

Analogy[greek. analogos - appropriate, proportional] - similarity between objects in some respect. The use of A. in cognition is the basis for the advancement of guesses and hypotheses. Arguments on A. often led to scientific discoveries. The reasoning for A. is based on the formation and actualization of associations. A targeted search for A. is also possible. Tasks for establishing A. are included in the content of psychodiagnostic examinations. Difficulties in finding similarities between objects on an abstract basis can serve as an indicator of insufficient development of thinking or its violation.

OK. Tikhomirov

Application form[fr. enquкte - a list of questions] is a methodological tool for obtaining primary sociological and socio-psychological information, formatted as a set of questions logically related to the central task of the study. Questionnaires are conducted in order to find out biographical data, opinions, assessments, value orientations, attitudes, dispositions, etc.

IN AND. Slobodchikov

Anticipation[lat. anticipatio - anticipation] - the ability of the system in one form or another to anticipate the development of events, phenomena, results of actions. In psychology, two semantic aspects of the concept "A." are distinguished: 1) a person's ability to imagine the possible result of an action before its implementation (W. Wundt), as well as the ability of his thinking to imagine a way to solve a problem before it is actually solved; 2) the ability of the human or animal body to prepare for a reaction to an event before it occurs. This expectation (or "anticipatory reflection") is usually expressed in a certain posture or movement and is provided by the mechanism of the acceptor of the results of action (P.K. Anokhin). A. is especially significant in creative, research activities.

L.A. Karpenko

Apperception[lat. ad - to, perceptio - perception] - the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general content of a person's mental activity and his individual characteristics. The term A. was proposed by the German philosopher G. Leibniz, who interpreted it as a distinct (conscious) perception of a certain content by the soul. According to W. Wundt, A. is a universal explanatory principle, an "inner spiritual force" that determines the course of mental processes. In contrast to these ideas about A. as an internal spontaneous activity of consciousness, modern scientific psychology treats A. as a result of life experience an individual who provides hypotheses about the characteristics of the perceived object, its meaningful perception. Distinguish between stable A. - the dependence of perception on the prevailing personality traits (worldview, beliefs, education, etc.) and temporary A., in which situationally arising mental states(emotions, expectations, attitudes, etc.).

A.V. Petrovsky

Aristotle's experience (Aristotle's illusion)- the illusion of touch, the essence of which is that if a small round object (for example, a pea) is placed between two crossed fingers of the hand (index and middle or others), then there is a feeling of touching not one, but two objects. The illusion is amplified by lightly sliding your crossed fingers over the object. There are known references to this phenomenon in the 17th - 19th centuries. Over time, A. about. was described for other parts of the body: lips, tongue, ears. A. about. was explained by the unfamiliarity, artificiality, unnatural position of the fingers. V modern research, considering a modified version of A. o., the search for the transition point from the normal position of the fingers to the crossed one is carried out, that is, the boundaries where adequate tactile sensations are replaced by illusory ones. Currently, there are no convincing explanations for A. about. It is also not clear at what level of the nervous system (peripheral or central) this illusion arises.

N.L. Morina, T.S. Pogoreltseva

Artifact[lat. artefactum - artificially made] is a fact that is not characteristic of the natural course of this process and is artificially caused. In experimental psychology, A. means data generated by the very methodology or conditions of studying the process and in fact not characteristic of it. In criminal psychology, A. is called artificially induced (for example, for the purpose of simulation) processes and states.

A.A. Brudny

Archetype[greek. archetypos - prototype, literally "the most ancient example"] - a way of organizing the psyche through forms that pass from generation to generation. A. - the central concept of analytical psychology. According to K. Jung, A. is the structural elements of the human psyche, which are hidden in the collective unconscious, common to all mankind. They are inherited in the same way as body structure is inherited. A. sets general structure personality and the sequence of images that emerge in consciousness when creative activity awakens, therefore, spiritual life bears an archetypal imprint.

A.A. Brudny

Associative psychology (associationism)- a common name for a number of concepts and schools that considered association as the main (or even the only) mechanism of the functioning of consciousness and psyche, striving for a strictly deterministic way of explaining mental phenomena. In the development of A. p. The following stages can be distinguished. 1. Prerequisites for the emergence of A. p.: The allocation of an association as an explanatory principle for a limited circle mental phenomena and processes of behavior (IV century BC - early XVIII v.). The mechanism of association was explained by the processes of remembering Plato and Aristotle. Subsequently, the principle of association was used to explain the processes of mastering one's passions (R. Descartes), the acquisition of experience (T. Hobbes), some features of the "movement of thought" (B. Spinoza), the formation of prejudices and "false ideas" (J. Locke), perception space (J. Berkeley). In D. Hume, association becomes the explanatory principle of the entire cognitive sphere of the psyche. During this period, the very term "association" (Locke) appears. 2. "Classical associationism" (mid-18th - early 19th centuries). During this period, complete systems of anatomy arise, in which association becomes the explanatory principle of the entire psyche in general (D. Hartley, T. Brown, James Mill). Calling his associative concept "mental mechanics", Mill thus emphasized the most characteristic feature associative theories of this time: the desire to deduce all the laws of mental life from inherently mechanical connections (associations) further indivisible elements (sensations or representations). 3. Mid XIX - early XX century. The beginning of the crisis in the theory of artifacts and the development of individual ideas in the archetypal sector in experimental and practical research. The theory fixes the position of the impossibility of reducing the "laws of the spirit" to mechanical laws and puts forward the demand for a "reverse" introduction into the concept of A. n. The activity of the subject, I ("mental chemistry" by John Stuart Mill, "creative associations" by A. Ben); attempts are being made to consider associations in a biological (evolutionary) aspect (G. Spencer). V experimental research and in practice, the ideas of A. p. are used to explain the laws of memory (G. Ebbinghaus), in the diagnosis of pathological changes in the psyche (E. Kraepelin, Z. Bleuler), in studies of motivation (Z. Freud), in the practice of forensic examination (associative experiment) etc. 4. 1920s. The final disappearance of A. p. As a direction and the assimilation of his ideas in various industries psychological theory and practice. The idea that "an association is generally not so much a" mechanism "as a phenomenon, of course, fundamental, which itself requires an explanation and disclosure of its mechanisms, is becoming generally recognized" (S.L. Rubinstein). A critical analysis of the various ideas of the A. p. Was contained in practically all the main psychological trends of the 20th century.

M.G. Yaroshevsky

Associative experiment- a term that has become established in psychology to denote a special projective method for studying the motivation of a person. Proposed at the beginning of the twentieth century. K.G. Jung and almost simultaneously with him M. Wertheimer and D. Klein. The subject must respond to a certain set of stimulus words as quickly as possible with any word that comes to his mind. The type of associations that arise, the frequency of associations of the same type, latent periods (the time between the stimulus word and the subject's response), behavioral and physiological reactions, etc., are recorded. By the nature of these data, one can judge the latent drives and "affective complexes" of the subject, his attitudes, etc. n. In the 1920s. A.R. Luria proposed for the diagnosis of "hidden traces of affect" the so-called. coupled motor technique, which was a modified version.

HER. Sokolova

Association[lat. associatio - connection] - a natural connection arising in the experience of an individual between two contents of consciousness (sensations, representations, thoughts, feelings, etc.), which is expressed in the fact that the appearance in the mind of one of the contents entails the appearance of another. The phenomenon A. was described by Plato and Aristotle, but the term "A." suggested by J. Locke in the 17th century. In associative psychology, A. types were distinguished, differing in the ways of their formation: some authors (D. Hume, J.St. Mill) distinguished A. by similarity (blue-blue), by contrast (black-white), by contiguity in space and in time (an accidental fright of a child in a dark room then causes the fear of the dark), causal (Hume): a bright flash of light - a painful sensation; others (D. Gartley, J. Mill) reduced all A. to associations by contiguity in space and time, since they denied the activity of the subject in the process of A. , i.e., factors contributing to the emergence of a specific A. out of a multitude of possible at a given moment: the strength of the impressions combined in A., their novelty, the ability and / or pathological characteristics of the individual, etc. ... creative A., the formation of which is explained by "spontaneous activity of the mind," and not by a combination of ideas obtained in experience, which contradicts the initial principles of associative psychology. It is also possible to distinguish two opposite points of view on the "mechanisms" of A.: some authors considered A. only a "shadow" of brain processes combined according to certain physiological laws (T. Hobbes, Gartley, Mill, Ben), others attributed the emergence of A. exclusively to laws consciousness in itself (J. Mill). Some associationists (T. Brown) took an intermediate position. Subsequently, the physiological mechanisms of A. were studied at the school of I.P. Pavlov, who explained A. by the contiguity in time and space by education conditioned reflexes, A. by similarity - their generalization. Pavlov also used the concept of "reinforcement" to explain A.'s selective education. The points of view of psychologists on A.'s role in mental life also differed: some considered A. the only type of mental connections, others identified other types of connections along with A. Locke, apperceptive in W. Wundt and others). The concept of A. is still widely used in the psychological literature, although it is no longer given such a broad explanatory meaning.

HER. Sokolova

Affect[lat. affectus - emotional excitement, passion] - a strong, explosive, relatively short-term emotional reaction, accompanied by pronounced changes both in the physiological state of the body and in the behavior of the individual, and developing in critical conditions with the inability of the subject to find an adequate way out of dangerous, most often unexpected situations. Possessing dominant properties, A. inhibits unrelated mental processes and imposes one or another stereotyped way of "emergency" resolution of the situation (numbness, flight, aggression), which has developed in the process of biological evolution and therefore justifies itself only in typical biological conditions. Another important regulatory function of A. is the formation of a specific experience - affective complexes (traces), emotionally imprinting individual elements the situation that gave rise to A. and in the future warning of its possible repetition. In humans, A. can arise when both his biological needs are frustrated (for example, when life is threatened) and social values ​​(when insulted, faced with injustice). Sometimes A. occurs as a result of repeated repetition of traumatic events, which gives a person the impression of hopelessness in relation not to a specific situation, but to his whole life; in such cases, the so-called. accumulation of A., as a result of which it can arise and lead to uncontrollable behavior in one of the many collisions with injustice, that is, in a situation that is not exceptional. The state of A. is characterized by a narrowing of consciousness, in which the subject's attention is completely absorbed by the circumstances that gave rise to A. and the actions imposed by them. Disturbances of consciousness can lead to the inability to subsequently recall individual episodes of their behavior and the development of events, to a noticeable dulling of sensitivity to pain, and in the case of an extremely strong A., it can result in loss of consciousness and complete amnesia. Since A. ultimately limits the possibility of arbitrary regulation of behavior, recommendations for overcoming it, used in pedagogical and psychotherapeutic practice, emphasize the importance of avoiding situations that generate A., presenting undesirable consequences, performing distracting actions, etc. Resistance to being involved in A.'s state depends both from the natural constitution of a person, and from the level of personality development, its moral motivation. Diagnosis A. is typical task in the practice of forensic psychological examination; when solving it, in addition to the physiological state of the organism and disorders of consciousness, the character of a person's actions in state A. (impulsiveness, stereotypicity, lack of preparation) and the degree of their discrepancy with his usual behavior also serve as indicators.

PERSONAL DIRECTION

The term personality orientation goes back to the works of V. Stern (Richtungsdipositionen) and is translated as “dominant correct attitude”. The solution to the issue of direction always presupposes an indication of what the person is directed at, therefore, they talk about the direction of a person's interests, tastes, views, desires, which indicates the selectivity, individuality and uniqueness of the individual.

Orientation acts as the leading meaningful characteristic of the personality, its system-forming property, which determines its entire psychological makeup.

In different concepts, directionality is revealed in different ways: as a “dynamic tendency” (Rubinstein), “meaning-forming motive” (Leont'ev), “dominant attitude” (Myasishchev), “subjective personality relations” (Lomov), “dynamic organization of human essential forces” (Prangishvili), "main life orientation" (Ananiev).

In the study of the orientation of the personality in Russian psychology, there have been various scientific schools and directions:

1) understanding direction through needs and motives (S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev, L.I.Bozhovich, Yu.M. Orlov);

2) the theory of significance (N.F. Dobrynin);

3) the theory of personality relations (V.N. Myasishchev, B.F. Lomov);

4) installation theory (D.N. Uznadze).

A. V. Petrovsky and M. G. Yaroshevsky (dictionary)

In the psychological dictionary, edited by A.V. Petrovsky and M.G. Yaroshevsky, the following definition of the orientation of the personality is given: set of stable motives, orienting the activity of the individual and relatively independent of the available situations. The orientation of the personality is characterized by its interests, inclinations, convictions, ideals, in which a person's worldview is expressed "(Psychology. Dictionary. / Under the general editorship of AV Petrovsky, MG Yaroshevsky. - M., 1990. - p. 230).

In the same dictionary, the components that make up the orientation of the personality are revealed.

Interests- a form of manifestation of the cognitive need, which ensures the orientation of the individual towards the awareness of the goals of the activity and thereby contributes to orientation, acquaintance with new facts. Interest can turn into addiction.

Inclinations- the selective focus of the individual on a certain activity, prompting him to engage in it. The basis of the inclination is the deep, stable need of the individual for a particular activity, the desire to improve the skills and abilities associated with this activity.

Beliefs- the conscious need of the individual, prompting her to act in accordance with her value orientations. The content of needs, acting in the form of beliefs, reflects a certain understanding of nature and society. Forming an ordered system of views (political, philosophical, aesthetic, natural science, etc.), a set of beliefs acts as a person's worldview.