Analysis of the methodology. Methodology and research methodology Towards analysis and measurement methodology

In or among other factors, it is necessary to list research methods... Choosing suitable methods, applying them in the process of writing a work and correctly describing them in the introduction is not an easy task. It is further complicated by the fact that in each area of ​​research: psychology, medicine, finance, pedagogy and others, their own, narrowly focused methods are applied. Below we will reveal their essence and call their general and special types.

What are Research Methods?

This is the first question to be sorted out. So, research methods are the steps that we take on the way to our work. These are the ways that help us to solve the assigned tasks.

Due to their huge number, there are different classification of research methods, subdivision into types, grouping. First of all, they are usually divided into two categories: universal and private. The first category is applicable to all branches of knowledge, and the second has a narrower focus and covers those methods that are applied strictly in a particular area of ​​science.

Let us consider the following classification in more detail and highlight their types: empirical, theoretical, quantitative and qualitative. Next, we will consider the methods applicable in specific areas of knowledge: pedagogy, psychology, sociology, and others.

Empirical research methods

This view is based on empirical, that is, sensory perception, as well as measurement with instruments. It is an important component of scientific research in all fields of knowledge from biology to physics, from psychology to pedagogy. It helps to determine the objective laws in accordance with which the studied phenomena occur.

The empirical research methods given below in coursework and other student works can be called basic or universal, because they are relevant for absolutely all areas of knowledge.

• Study of a variety of sources of information. This is nothing more than an elementary collection of information, that is, the stage of preparation for or term paper... The information you will rely on can be taken from books, the press, regulations and, finally, from the Internet. When looking for information, it should be remembered that not all finds are reliable (especially on the Internet), therefore, when sampling information, you should take them critically and pay attention to the confirmation and similarity of materials from different sources.
• Analysis of the information received. This is the stage that follows the collection of information. It's not enough just to find required material, you also need to carefully analyze it, check for consistency, reliability, etc.
• Observation. This method is a purposeful and attentive perception of the studied phenomenon with the subsequent collection of information. In order for the observation to bear the desired results, it is necessary to prepare for it in advance: draw up a plan, outline the factors that require special attention, clearly define the timing and objects of observation, prepare a table that you will fill out in the process.
• Experiment. If observation is more of a passive method of research, then the experiment is characterized by your vigorous activity... To conduct an experiment or a series of experiments, you create certain conditions in which you place the subject of research. Next, you observe the reaction of the subject and record the results of the experiments in the form of a table, graph or diagram.
• Survey. This method helps to look deeper into the problem being studied by asking specific questions to the people involved. The survey is used in three variations: interview, conversation and questionnaire. The first two types are oral, and the last one is written. After completing the survey, you need to clearly articulate its results in the form of text, charts, tables or graphs.

Theoretical research methods

Research methods of this type are abstract and generalized. They help to organize the collected material for its successful study.

• Analysis. To better understand the material, it is necessary to decompose it into constituent units and study each in detail. This is what analysis does.
• Synthesis. The opposition to analysis necessary to bring disparate elements together into a coherent whole. We use this method to get a general idea of ​​the phenomenon under study.
• Modeling. To study the subject of research in detail, sometimes you need to place it in a specially created model.
• Classification. This method is similar to analysis, only it distributes information on the basis of comparison and divides into groups, based on common features.
• Deduction. In the best traditions of Sherlock Holmes, this method helps to move from the general to the particular. This transition is useful for a deeper insight into the essence of the phenomenon under study.
• Induction. This method is the opposition of deduction, it helps to move from a single case to the study of a whole phenomenon.
• Analogy. The principle of its operation lies in the fact that we find certain similarities between several phenomena, and then build logical conclusions that other features of these phenomena may coincide.
• Abstraction. If we ignore the striking properties of the phenomenon under study, we can identify those characteristics that we have not paid attention to until now.

Quantitative research methods

This group of methods helps to analyze phenomena and processes based on quantitative indicators.

• Statistical methods aim at initially collecting quantitative data and then measuring them in order to investigate large-scale phenomena. Received quantitative characteristics help to identify common patterns and eliminate occasional minor deviations.
• Bibliometric methods allow you to study the structure, interconnection and dynamics of the development of phenomena in the documentation and information areas... This includes counting the number of publications made, and content analysis, and quotation index, i.e. determination of the volume of citation of various sources. On their basis, it is possible to track the circulation of the studied documents, the degree of their use in various fields of knowledge. Content analysis deserves special mention, since it plays important role when studying a large volume of various documents. Its essence boils down to the calculation of semantic units, which can be certain authors, works, dates of publication of books. The result of research using this method is information about the information interest of the population and general level their information culture.

Qualitative research methods

The methods combined in this group are aimed at identifying the qualitative characteristics of the phenomena under study, so that, on their basis, we can reveal the deep mechanisms of various processes in society, including the influence of means mass media on the consciousness of an individual or certain features of the perception of information by various segments of the population. Main area of ​​application qualitative methods- marketing and sociological research.

Let's consider the most important methods of this group.

• In-depth interview. Unlike an ordinary interview, which belongs to an empirical type, here we are talking about a conversation where a short answer "yes" or "no" is not enough, but detailed, well-reasoned answers are required. Often, an in-depth interview is conducted in the form of a free conversation in an informal setting according to a predetermined plan, and its purpose is to explore the beliefs, values ​​and motivations of respondents.
• Expert interview. This conversation differs from a deep analogue in that the respondent is an expert competent in the area of ​​interest. With knowledge of the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study, he expresses a valuable opinion and significantly contributes to scientific research. Often, representatives of the authorities, university employees, leaders and employees of organizations participate in conversations of this kind.
• Focus group discussions. Here the conversation takes place not one-on-one, but with a focus group consisting of 10-15 respondents who are directly related to the phenomenon under study. During the discussion, its participants share their personal opinions, experiences and perceptions of the proposed topic, and on the basis of their statements, a "portrait" of the social group to which the focus group belongs is compiled.

Methods of pedagogical research

In pedagogy, research is carried out with the help of both universal and private methods necessary for the study of specific pedagogical phenomena, as well as the search for their relationship and patterns. Theoretical methods help identify problems and evaluate collected materials for research, including monographs on pedagogy, historical and pedagogical documents, teaching aids and other documents related to pedagogy. Studying the literature on a chosen topic, we find which problems have already been solved, and which have not yet been sufficiently covered.

In addition to theoretical, pedagogical research also welcomes empirical methods, complementing them with its own specifics. So, observation here becomes a purposeful and attentive perception of pedagogical phenomena (most often these are ordinary or open lessons in schools). Questioning and testing is often applied both to students and to the teaching staff to understand the essence of educational processes.

Among the private methods that relate exclusively to pedagogical research, one should name the study of the results of students' activities (control, independent, creative and graphic works) and analysis of pedagogical documentation (student progress journals, personal files and medical records).

Sociological research methods

Sociological research is based on theoretical and empirical methods, supplemented by the specification of the subject. Consider how they are transformed in sociology.

• Analysis of various sources to obtain the most accurate information. Books, manuscripts, videos, audio, and statistics are studied here. One of the types of this method is content analysis, which transforms the qualitative factors of the studied sources into their quantitative characteristics.
• Sociological observation. With the help of this method, sociological data are collected by direct study of the phenomenon in its normal, natural conditions. Depending on the purpose of observation, it can be controlled or uncontrolled, laboratory or field, included or not included.
• Questioning, which in this area turns into a sociological survey. The respondents are invited to fill out a questionnaire, on the basis of which the researcher subsequently receives an array of social information.
• Interview, that is, an oral sociological survey. In the course of a direct conversation between the researcher and the respondent, personal psychological relationships are established, which contribute not only to obtaining answers to the questions posed, but also to the study of the respondents' emotional reactions to them.
• Social experiment - the study of one or another social process in artificial conditions. It is carried out to test the hypothesis put forward and test ways to control associated processes.

Psychological research methods

Research methods in psychology- these are general scientific empirical and theoretical, as well as private, narrowly focused. Most of the research here is based on modified observation and experiment.

Observation in psychology consists in the study of mental activity by registering the physiological processes and behavioral acts of interest. This oldest method is most effective in the first steps to the study of the problem, since it helps to pre-determine the important factors of the studied processes. Peculiarities of human behavior, including verbal (content, duration, frequency of speech acts) and non-verbal (expression of the face and body, gestures), can become the subject of observation in psychology.

Observation is distinguished by a certain passivity of the researcher, and this is not always convenient. Therefore, for a more intensive and in-depth study of the mental processes of interest, an experiment is used, which in a psychological context is a joint activity of the researcher and the subject (or several subjects). The experimenter artificially creates the necessary conditions, against the background of which, in his opinion, the studied phenomena will manifest themselves as clearly as possible. If observation is a passive method of research, then experiment is an active one, because the researcher actively interferes in the course of the research, changes the conditions of its conduct.

So, we looked at various research methods worthy not only of mention in or, but also of active application in practice.

System analysis Is a methodology for solving innovative problems based on the concept of systems.

At the center of the system analysis methodology is the operation of quantitative comparison of alternatives to select one to be implemented. To achieve the final result, it is necessary to quantify the quality of the alternatives. This can be achieved if all the elements - alternatives are taken into account and the correct estimates are given to each element. Hence, it becomes necessary to combine all the elements associated with a given problem into a system that solves the problem.

The system has, along with the general properties listed above, a number of characteristic features, including:

• the unity of the system, the presence of a common goal, general purpose;
• the integration nature of the system, characterized by a large number of functions performed, inputs and outputs;
• the complexity of the system's behavior, i.e. in the presence of overlapping and overlapping relationships between variables, a change in one variable entails a change in others;
• inflow of external influences irregular in time;
• the presence in most cases of adversarial, competing parties.

The system is defined by specifying system objects. System objects are input, output, process, feedback, and constraint.

By the entrance is called an object that changes during the course of this process. The input can take such forms as: a) sequentially associated with data; b) the result of the previous process, randomly associated with the data; c) the result of the process of a given system, which is reintroduced into it.

Exit is called the object (result) or the final state of the process. In other words, output is the goal for which system objects, properties, and relationships are linked together.

The process is called transformation of input into output (property of this process). Between the input of one process and the output of another, there is connection... To select systems means to identify all the processes that form a given output.

Feedback Is a function of a subsystem that compares the output with a criterion (for the purpose of process control).

As noted above, any system consists of subsystems and, in turn, is a subsystem of some system. The system boundary is determined by a set of inputs from the external environment. External (environment) environment Is a set of natural and artificial systems for which this system is not a functional subsystem.

Problem Is a situation that requires resolution. Identifying problematic situations is the problem of decision making. The decision-making should end with specific results and is broken down into a series mandatory steps: definition of the research goal and the criterion for its achievement; formulation of specific tasks; the choice of methods, techniques, methods and means for solving the assigned tasks. So, the process of rational problem solving can be represented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 5.13).

Rice. 5.13.

At the same time, the stages of the system analysis shown in the diagram are of an abstract, general nature. A more in-depth sequence of work to find a rational solution to problems is presented in table. 5.1.

Table 5.1

Finding rational solutions to problems

Note. Informal methods: "scenarios" method, expert assessment method (Delphi method), diagnostic methods. Graphical methods: goal tree method, matrix methods, network methods. Quantitative methods: methods of economic analysis, morphological methods, statistical methods... Modeling methods: cybernetic models, descriptive models, normative operating models (optimization, simulation, game).

Let's note the following aspects.

1. Formulation and description problem situation- this is the starting point of the study. Identifying the problem, correctly and accurately describing it is the first stage of a systematic study.

To begin with, it is necessary to determine the external signs of the manifestation of the problem, its time parameters, the sources of the problem, determining its factors, the nature of the influence of the problem on the main elements of the research object, possible studies of the development of the problem situation.

As a research tool, you can use the analysis of the logical structure of the problem, study it in a retrospective aspect, assess possible ways of development in the future and in relation to other problems.

In the analysis of complex problems, methods of decomposition, matrices of system characteristics, models of the "black box" type, etc. are used.

2. At the stage of defining the system, the tasks are set to be solved to obtain the final results; the composition of the elements included in the system is established, thereby determining the object of research.

The position of the observer determines the criterion for solving the problem. The result of the second stage of solving the problem is the development of a scientific model for studying the object-system.

For this purpose, matrix, cybernetic, informational, synergetic simulation and other models can be used.

3. At the stage of analyzing the structure of the system, the levels of the hierarchy of the object-system are determined, all the elements (subsystems) are selected, their connections and relationships are established.

Then a structural and functional analysis of the object of research is carried out, a graphic description of the process of functioning of the system elements is given, their specificity and informational connections with the external environment are determined based on the development of the structure of goals, etc. The methods of logical constructions, diagnostics, synthesis are used as a tool for research. The analysis is carried out on the basis of constructing graphical, matrix, network, morphological, cybernetic and synergetic models.

The result of this stage of work is the construction of a structural and functional model of the system object.

4. Formulation of a common goal, determination of the criterion of the system, goals and limitations of the external environment, decomposition of goals and criteria of subsystems are a complex logical procedure within the framework of the concepts general theory systems.

At this stage of the research, methods are used: expert assessments, network structures of goals, optimization, game, simulation models, etc.

The result of the analysis at this stage is the description of the conditions for the study of the research object as a system, the establishment of the criterion for purposeful development and the composition of the resource provision of full life cycle, as well as the determination of the principles of decomposition of the goals of the system and the conditions for preserving its integrity.

5. Linking the goal with the means of its implementation is carried out by decomposing goals and formulating them, defining current processes, the efficiency of functioning of subsystems at each level, sustainable dynamic development, external conditions and constraints.

This stage is central to systems analysis. As a result of its implementation, it is necessary to link the goals with the means of achieving them both within the system and outside it.

For this, the methods "tree of goals", modeling of the state of the system, network, descriptive models, etc. are used.

• 6. The identification of resources and processes, the composition of goals are carried out in the traditional way, starting with the analysis of the current situation, the achieved level and a consistent forecast. In this case, the methods of expert assessments, "goal tree", forecast calculations, etc. are used.
• 7. Forecasting and analysis of the conditions for the development of an object-system begins with an assessment of the influence of various factors both within the system and external influence. Analyzed possible options changes in the goals and trends of the system's development, the state of resource provision for future development, forecast and analysis of future conditions are made. For this, the methods of "scenarios", expert assessments, "tree of goals", statistical, descriptive models, etc. are used.
• 8. Evaluation of goals and means of achieving them is one of the most time-consuming stages of system analysis, at which a mechanism for matching goals and their achievement is developed, evaluation criteria are determined, and evaluation methods are selected. After the criterion is formed, i.e. a method for comparing alternatives has been found, the tasks of selection and optimization are posed, a system for a comprehensive assessment of the conformity of goals and means is created, the parameters of the evaluation mechanism are determined.

Considering that system analysis, as a rule, deals with objects devoid of quantitative estimates, methods of export estimates, morphological method, etc. are used as methodological tools.

9. At the stage of selecting options, a comparison of goals and means is carried out, their optimization - cutting off those goals that are recognized as insignificant or have no means to achieve the final result. The goals are specified, adjusted, based on the conditions for the functioning of the object-system.

In order to be able to compare alternatives, it is necessary to develop a preference criterion.

In the process of analysis, modeling methods, "goal tree", matrix methods, etc. are used.

10. Diagnostic analysis of the existing system object is aimed at identifying adaptation conditions for the new system.

The calculation of the potential possibilities of resource provision is also made, and a change in the problem situation is predicted.

At the subsequent stages, a comprehensive program (action plan) is built for the implementation of the research results, the conditions for their application are designed.

Thus, the approach to solving problems involves the sequential implementation of the following works.

• 1. Analysis of the problem (formulation of the problem): definition of the essence of the problem, its precise formulation, analysis of the logical structure of the problem, analysis of the development of the problem (assessment of the past state and forecast), identification of external relations, assessment of the fundamental solvability of the problem.
• 2. Definition, design of the system: definition of goals and objectives, formulation of the position of the observer, definition of system objects, allocation of subsystems, definition of the external environment.
• 3. Analysis of the structure of the system: determination of the levels of hierarchy, aspects of consideration, processes, determination of the specification of subsystems, processes and functions.
• 4. Formulation of the general goal and criterion of the system: defining the goals of the systems higher order, goals and limitations of the external environment, formulation of a common goal, definition of criteria, decomposition of goals and criteria of subsystems.
• 5. Decomposition of the goal, identifying the need for resources and processes: the formulation of top-level goals, goals of current processes and development goals.
• 6. Resource assessment: assessment of existing technologies and capacities, the current state of resources, interaction with other systems, social factors.
• 7. Forecast and analysis of future conditions: analysis of stable trends in the development of the problem, forecast of development and changes in the environment, forecast of the emergence of new factors affecting the system; analysis of the resources of the future, analysis of possible shifts in goals and criteria.
• 8. Evaluation of goals and means: calculating evaluations by criterion, evaluating the interdependence of goals, evaluating the relativity of the importance of goals.
• 9. Formation of alternatives for solving the problem and selection of options: assessment of alternatives by criterion, comparison and selection of options.
• 10. Building a comprehensive solution program: formulating project and program activities, prioritizing goals and measures to achieve them, allocating areas of activity, allocating areas of competence, developing an action plan in conditions of resource and time constraints, allocating responsibilities among organizations, managers and executors.
• 11. Designing an organization to achieve a goal: assigning a goal to an organization, assigning functions to an organization, designing an organizational structure, information flows, operating modes, material and moral incentives.

The specified list of works is approximate. In each specific case of solving problems, a research plan is developed based on the content of the task.

• Problem- this is a kind of question (non-paradigmatic situation) that has a specific goal, but the ways to achieve the goal are still unknown. A task is a kind of question for the solution of which ways of achieving the goal are known.

The methodology and research methods represent the logical organization of human activity. It consists in defining the subject and purpose of the study, guidelines and approaches for its implementation, the choice of techniques and means that would show the best result. Next, we will consider in more detail what features the methodology and research methodology has in general and in relation to some areas of activity.

Target

Any human activity can be characterized by methodology. However, in the question of studying any phenomena or events, it is of decisive and decisive importance. Research methodology, regardless of the field of activity, begins with the choice, definition and formulation of the goal. It consists in the search for options for the formation of the management system, as well as the organization of its development and functioning, which would be most effective in the study process. However, this concept of purpose is considered very general. On practice research activities pursues a variety of goals. Examples include monitoring the quality of management, creating an atmosphere of innovation and creativity, early detection of problems that may worsen in the future, staff development, analysis of strategies, and so on.

An object

The control system acts as it. In a methodological sense, it is necessary to clearly understand and take into account the socio-economic class of this system. This means that a person is its fundamental component. His activity determines the specificity of all the processes of its formation and functioning. The interactions on the basis of which this system exists are distinguished by contradictory and complex relationships of people, which are based on attitudes and motives, values ​​and interests. No matter how perfect this or that modern technical means is, its value will depend on human needs, the reasons for its development and further application. The management system is based on the activities of people. It is possible to conduct research on technology, but they are impossible in isolation from a person, all the factors of its application in the conditions of his activity.

Item

It is the problem. It is a real contradiction that needs to be resolved. The activity of the control system is distinguished by the presence a large number various problems. They act as a contradiction to tactics and strategy, conditions and opportunities, employee qualifications, needs for innovation, and so on. Some of them are considered "eternal", others - ripening or transitory. Research is needed to solve these problems. The goal is the basis for recognizing certain contradictions.

An approach

It is the next component that includes the research methodology. The approach is the perspective of the study, in some way it is the starting point or starting point. The research process begins with it. The approach determines the orientation of the study in relation to its purpose. There are various types of it. In particular, conceptual, systemic and aspect approaches are distinguished. The latter is the choice of any facet of the problem based on the principle of relevance or taking into account the resources that are allocated for study. For example, the methodology of psychological pedagogical research suggests an educational aspect of the problem. The conceptual approach provides for the preliminary development of a set of basic (key) provisions - the concept. It determines the general direction, continuity, architectonics of the study. The systematic approach assumes a comparatively high level research methodology. In this case, to solve the problem, it is necessary to take into account all its aspects as much as possible, in integrity and their interrelation. This approach presupposes the allocation of the essential and the main. It also provides for the definition of the nature of interactions between the facets of the issue, its characteristics and properties. In addition, there is a scientific, pragmatic and empirical approach. The latter uses experience as a basis. If the approach is focused on obtaining the nearest result, then it is called pragmatic. However, the most effective is the scientific perspective of the study. It is characterized by appropriate goal setting. Research methodology involves the use of specific tools.

Methods and techniques

Research methodology assigns them a major role. Methods and techniques are divided into four groups:

• Specific. These methods are formed due to the specifics of control systems. They reflect the features of management activities.
• General scientific. They reflect the corresponding learning apparatus. Research methodology determines the effectiveness of any type.
• Formal logical. They represent the methods of human intellectual activity, which forms the basis of management study.
• Sociological. They occupy a special position in the toolkit for studying social processes and systems.

Sociological research methodology

In this case, the field of application of the tools is the value orientations of community members regarding various phenomena... Their study makes it possible to detect trends in social development, to determine the measures of the most effective influence on the members of associations. Socio methodology logical research assumes a more complete picture of the studied reality. It, together with the objective characteristics possessed by an external object, includes the prevailing stereotypes, interests and value orientations. Due to the methods used, accurate ideas about the dynamics and state of social structures are formed. The main purpose of the study is to predict and explain the behavior of subjects of society in certain conditions, the features of artificial modeling of the environment, analysis of the nature of interactions within society. Research of this type are intended to determine the adequacy social sphere set within the objectives.

Key areas

The main guidelines for the practical use of sociological methods in the study of processes are:

The solution of tasks should be ensured through the formation of three main sections:

• Development of a research program.
• Organizing tests and surveys.
• Interview and preparation of data processing and systematization schemes.

Knowledge structure

In the methodological system, Yudin distinguishes 4 levels:

• Technological.
• Specific scientific.
• General scientific.
• Philosophical.

The penultimate level involves the use of theoretical concepts. They apply to all or most of scientific directions... The second level involves a set of methods, procedures, techniques and principles of study. The methodology of a specific scientific research contains both problems specific to a certain field of study and questions that are posed at higher levels. These include, for example, implementation problems systems approach or modeling in the study of the educational process. The technological level involves a combination of technology and research method. In other words, a set of procedures is used, due to which it is ensured that reliable empirical information is obtained and their primary processing. Thereafter, the material can be incorporated into the body of scientific knowledge. At this level, one can see the normative, clearly expressed nature of the study. The content of the philosophical stage is made up of general cognitive principles and the categorical structure of the discipline as a whole.

All of these levels of methodology form a complex structure. Within its framework, there is some subordination between the steps. At the same time, the philosophical level is considered the substantive basis of any methodological knowledge. He defines the worldview approaches to the very knowledge and transformation of reality.

Methodology and methods of educational research

The highest level that characterizes the professional readiness of a teacher is the presence of a specific culture. Its main features are:

• Understanding of procedures corresponding to the categories of philosophy and basic concepts that form the conceptual framework of education.
• Awareness of different concepts of pedagogy as levels of ascent to the concrete from the abstract.
• Setting on the transformation of educational theory into a method of cognitive activity.
• Orientation of thinking towards the genesis of pedagogical configurations and the "holistic" properties of these forms.
• The desire to reproduce educational practice in the conceptual and terminological system.
• Understanding of humanistic and ideological tasks and so on.

Formation of culture

When a teacher learns the methodology and methods of pedagogical research, his thinking begins to rely on their principles. In this respect, he begins to think "in principle." The methodology of pedagogical research presupposes oversituational activity of thinking. At the private level, the development of the principles and integrity of education, public policy, a unified approach, the expansion of the general educational subject and the primacy of educational goals in the educational process are of particular importance.

2. Analysis of methodology

2.1 Concept and types

Analysis is the mental division of the phenomenon under study into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. By synthesis, economic theory recreates a single, holistic picture.

Widespread: induction and deduction. Through induction (guidance), a transition is provided from the study of isolated facts to general statements and conclusions. Deduction (derivation) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively specific ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are applied by economic theory in unity. Their combination provides a systemic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.

Historical and logical methods occupy an important place in the study of economic phenomena and processes. They do not oppose each other, but are applied in unity, since the starting point historical research coincides, in general, with the starting point of logical research. However, the logical (theoretical) study of economic phenomena and processes is not a mirror image historical process... In the specific conditions of a particular country, economic phenomena may arise that are not obligatory for the dominant economic system. If in fact (historically) they take place, then in theoretical analysis they can be ignored. We can distract ourselves from them. The historian, however, cannot ignore such phenomena. He must describe them.

Using the historical method, economics explores economic processes and phenomena in the sequence in which they arose, developed and were replaced by one another in life itself. This approach allows you to concretely and visually represent the features of various economic systems.

The historical method shows that in nature and society, development proceeds from the simple to the complex. With regard to the subject of economics, this means that in the entire totality of economic phenomena and processes, it is necessary to single out, first of all, the simplest ones that arise earlier than others and form the basis for the emergence of more complex ones. For example, in market analysis, such an economic phenomenon is the exchange of goods.

Economic processes and phenomena are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. Therefore, economic theory (political economy) makes extensive use of mathematical and statistical techniques and research tools, which make it possible to identify the quantitative side of the processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. In this case, computer technology is widely used. The method of economic and mathematical modeling plays a special role here. This method being one of system methods research, allows in a formalized form to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, opportunities and costs of influence, and also makes forecasting real economic processes... Economic models are created using this method.

An economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.

In connection with the construction of models, it is important to note the role of functional analysis v economic theory.

Functions are variables that depend on other variables.

Functions are found in our Everyday life and we often don't realize it. They take place in engineering, physics, geometry, chemistry, economics, etc. With regard to economics, for example, a functional relationship between price and demand can be noted. The demand depends on the price. If the price of a good rises, the amount of demand for it, other things being equal, decreases. In this case, price is an independent variable, or an argument, and demand is a dependent variable, or a function. Thus, we can briefly say that demand is a function of price. But demand and price can change places. The higher the demand, the higher, ceteris paribus, the price. Hence, price can be a function of demand.

Economic and mathematical modeling as a method of economic theory became widespread in the XX century. However, the element of subjectivity in the construction of economic models sometimes leads to errors. Laureate Nobel Prize French economist Maurice Allay wrote in 1989 that for 40 years economic science has been developing in the wrong direction: towards completely artificial and divorced from life mathematical models with a predominance of mathematical formalism, which is, in fact, a big step back.

Most of the models and principles of economic theory can be expressed graphically, in the form of mathematical equations, therefore, when studying economic theory, it is important to know mathematics and be able to compose and read graphs.

Graphs are a representation of the relationship between two or more variables.

The relationship can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).

If the graph line goes down from left to right, then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables (for example, as prices for a product decrease, its sales volume usually increases). If the graph line is ascending, then the connection is direct (for example, as the cost of production of a product grows, prices for it usually rise -). The dependence can be non-linear (i.e. changing), then the graph takes the shape of a curved line (so, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve,).

Within the framework of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - pictures showing the relationship between indicators. They can be circular, columnar, etc.

The diagrams clearly show the performance of the models and their relationship. When analyzing economic problems, positive and normative analysis is often used. Positive analysis gives us the opportunity to see economic phenomena and processes as they really are: what was or what could be. Positive statements do not have to be true, but any dispute about a positive statement can be resolved by fact checking. Normative analysis is based on the study of what should be and how it should be. A normative statement is most often derived from a positive one, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. In normative analysis, assessments are made - fair or unfair, bad or good, acceptable or unacceptable.

Others, the third wave - the "newest institutional approach" to the study of society and economy (90s) - D. North, J. M. Hodgson. Chapter 2. Using the institutional method in the study of economic processes 2.1. Institutional approach to pension reform Over the past ten years, the reform of the pension system has been declared as one of the top priorities ...

Perspective. The second task is to assess the use by organizations of their material, labor and financial resources. The most rational and efficient use resources - the most important economic task. On the basis of economic analysis, an assessment of the effectiveness of the use of material, labor and financial resources is given. In industry, for example, in this regard, efficiency is being investigated ...

Institutions do not always select the best options. Economic theory developed and divided into various directions along with the development of its object - the economic system. The place of economic theory in the system of social and humanitarian sciences The economic life of society is contradictory and complex, it is a multi-level structure that can only be cognized with the help of ...

In Political Economy "(1897) outlined the essence of the theory of Jevons - the greatest English economist-mathematician of the 19th century, who did a lot to make mathematics an objective method for studying economic processes and phenomena. economic science differs in a certain originality. You can name a number Russian traditions and features that ...

An information tool for characterizing the economy of a commercial enterprise is accounting and management accounting, and a tool for studying the life of an enterprise is analysis, which allows to correctly determine the state of the enterprise and its development and take the most rational decisions in the face of ever-changing events.

With the help of economic analysis, they study the real reality - facts and processes, i.e. primary material that is subject to research. However, facts by themselves sometimes explain little. Therefore, the task of economic research is not only to register them, but also to reveal the essence of phenomena, the connection between them, to know the reasons for their occurrence, development trends. Penetration into the essence of the studied economic phenomena is possible only through the use of scientific methods research.

Methodology- an important element of theory, generalization of research methods used in any science. Theory - a system of generalized reliable knowledge about a particular "fragment" of reality, which describes, explains and predicts the functioning of its constituent objects. Practice is a criterion for the correctness and reliability of a theory. Each science, in addition to a specific subject and object of study, has its own method as a general approach to research, a way of research, a way to achieve a goal, a set of methods for researching reality. The term "method" has received a double meaning in science: a method as a general approach in research and a method as a solution to any specific task... The method as a general approach is concretized in methodology as a set of techniques (methods) for solving problems.

Methodology(it can be called a philosophy of methodology) economic analysis consists of a method as a general approach to research and a specific methodology as a set of special techniques (methods) used to process and analyze economic information.

The method of economic analysis - as a general approach to research - is based on dialectics. The basic principles of the method of economic analysis reflect, for example, the following main features of dialectics:

• unity of analysis and synthesis. The studied economic phenomena have a set of features and properties. To understand this phenomenon correctly, it is necessary to divide it into the simplest constituent elements, to study each element in detail, to identify its role and meaning within a single whole, i.e. conduct analysis. After the nature of each of the constituent elements is known, their role and meaning within a given whole phenomenon are clarified, it is necessary to reconnect these elements in accordance with their role and purpose into a single whole, i.e. to execute synthesis, which allows you to formulate a diagnosis and evaluate the phenomenon as a whole. As already mentioned, analysis and synthesis are two sides of a single process of cognition of phenomena;
• study of economic phenomena in their relationship. All phenomena of economic life are not only closely related, but also influence each other in a certain way; there is a causal relationship between many of them: one is the cause of the other. For example, between the most important indicators of economic activity - the volume of production and the cost of production - there is a direct interaction: an increase in production leads to a decrease in production costs due to the so-called fixed costs, which do not increase with an increase in output; cost reduction, in turn, allows more products to be produced with available resources.

Interrelation and interdependence necessitate an integrated approach to the study of economic activity. The concept of complexity covers the complex study of both all indicators in their connection and interdependence, and all aspects of economic activity, i.e. economics, organization, engineering and technology, social conditions and nature management, because only a comprehensive study makes it possible to correctly assess the results of work, to reveal deep reserves in the economy of enterprises;

study of economic phenomena in development. The number of sales of products for the year at some enterprise in itself means little, especially if the sales volume is given in abstract value terms. If, however, next to this figure we put others showing the sale of products for previous years, as well as those provided for in the plan for future years, then the figure will “speak”. That is why it is necessary to study the indicators of the economy not only in statics, but also in dynamics, being able to judge the speed of economic development.

The development of an enterprise is not just a quantitative increase in production. Production grows and develops in an ascending order - from simple to complex, from the lowest level to the highest, from the old quality state to the new. Behind a number of increasing sales figures, one must see a radical change in production technology and technology, organizational and economic improvement of the enterprise.

The study of economic phenomena in development necessitates the use of such an analytical technique as comparison. It is possible to give a correct assessment of the activity of an enterprise only by comparing its indicators in time (months, years, etc.) and space (with the average industry level, with indicators of similar enterprises).

So, the method of economic analysis as a general approach to the study of economic processes is based on materialistic dialectics. The peculiarities of the method of economic analysis are the use of a system of indicators and factors of economic activity, the choice of indicators and assessments depending on the characteristics of the analyzed phenomena, the study of the reasons for the change in indicators and the identification of the influence of factors on the effective indicator using the techniques of mathematics, statistics and economic accounting.