Historical evolution of childhood. Socio-cultural aspect
As you can see, the study of F. Ariz is devoted to the emergence of the concept of childhood or, speaking otherwise, the problem awareness childhood as public phenomenon. But analyzing the concept of F. Aryes, it is necessary to remember the psychological laws of awareness.
1. First of all, as spoke Ji. S. Vygotsky, "To realize, you need to have what it should be conscious".
2. And then in detail studying the process of awareness, J. Piaget emphasized that there is an inevitable lag and principal difference between the formation real phenomenon and it reflectively reflection.
Childhood has its own laws and, naturally, does not depend on the fact that artists begin to pay attention to children and depict them on their canvases. Even to recognize the indisputable judgment of F. Aresa that art is a reflected painting of morals, works of art themselves can not give all the necessary data To analyze the concept of childhood, and not with all the conclusions of the author you can agree.
Research F. Ariz begins with the Middle Ages, because only at the time picturesque plots depicting children appear. But care for children, education ideaOf course, they appeared long before the Middle Ages. Already aristotle has thoughtsDedicated to children. In addition, the work of F. Aryes is limited to the study of childhood only european The child from the highest sections of society and describes the history of childhood out of connection with the socio-economic level of development of society.
On the the basis of documentary sources F. Aryes describes the content of childhood of noble people. (??? I: formal periodization ???)
So, children's classes Louis XIII. (start XVII century) can serve for this good illustration. For a year and a half, Louis XIII plays a violin and sings at the same time. (Music and dancing children of noble families were taught from the very early age). This Louis makes even before his attention attracts a wooden horse, a windmill, a top (toys that were given to children of that time). Louis XIII was three years old when he first participated in the celebration of Christmas 1604, and from this age he began to learn to read, and in four years he could write. Five - he played with dolls and cards, and at six years old in chess and tennis. Comrades for games in Louis X1i1 were a fiction and soldiers. With them Louis played hide and sweat and other games. At six years, Louis XIII exercises in guessing mysteries and Sharad. At seven years everything has changed. Children's clothes were left, and the upbringing acquired a male character. It begins to study the art of hunting, shooting, gambling and horseback riding. From this time, he read the literature of pedagogical and moralistic type. At the same time, he begins to visit the theater and participates in collective games together with adults.
But you can bring many other examples of childhood. One of them is taken from the XX century. This is a description of the travel of Douglas Lockwood deep into the desert of Gibson ( Western Australia) And his meeting with the natives of the Pintubei tribe ("Lizard dates"). Until 1957, most people of this tribe have never seen a white man, their contacts with neighboring tribes were insignificant, and thanks to this, the culture and lifestyle of the people of the Stone Age are preserved in a very large extent. The whole life of these people passing in the desert is concentrated on the search for food and water. Women tribe pintubei, strong and hardy, could go through the desert with heavy cargo Fuel on the head. They gave birth to children, lying on the sand, helping and sympathizing with each other. They did not have ideas about hygiene, did not even know the reasons for childbearing. They did not have any utensils except wooden water vessels. There were two or three-three spears in the camp, a few sticks for digging of Yams, the millstone to grind wild berries and from half a decrease in wild lizards - their only food supplies ... All went to the hunt with spears, which were made entirely of wood. In cold weather, Nagu did the life of these people unbearable ... It is not surprising that on their bodies there were so many traces of smoldering sticks from the campfire ... D. Lockvudal Aboriginal Mirrors and a comb, and women tried to comb her hair back side ridge. But after the ridge was invested in his hand in the right position, he still did not fit into her hair, as they had to be flushed first, but for this there was not enough water. The man managed to comb her beard, women disassembled sand gifts and forgot them soon. "Mirrors," writes D. Lokwood, "also did not have success; although before these people never saw their reflection. The head of the family knew, of course, what his wives and children look like, but never saw his own face. Looking in the mirror He was surprised and terrible inspected himself in him ... Women looked at the mirror only once. Perhaps they took the image for the spirits and therefore frightened. "
Aboriginal slept, lying on the sand, without blankets or other covers, pressing for heat to two cashed dogs Dingo. D. Lockwood writes that the girl of two or three years during the meal shoved her huge slices of cakes in her mouth, then pieces of meat of tiny guana, which she baked herself in hot
sand. Her younger Summer Sister was sitting nearby in the mud and painted with
the jar of stew (from the stock of the expedition), pulling the meat with fingers. On the
the next morning D. Lokwood examined the jar. She was licked to shine. Yet
one observation D. Lokwood: "Before the dawn of the aborigines, the fire was burned,
so that he defend them from the cold gusts of the southeast wind. With light
the fire I saw a little girl who is not more skilled as it should go,
arranged a separate bonfire. Tilting his head, she inflated coals,
so that the fire shifts on the branch and warmed it. She was without clothes and
surely suffered from the cold and still did not cry. In the camp was three
little children, but we never heard their crying. "
Such observations allow you to more deeply look at the story. In comparison with the analysis of works of art, with folk and linguistic studies, ethnographic material gives important data on the history of childhood development.
Based on the study of ethnographic materials D. B. Elkonin showed that in the earliest steps of human society, when the main method of producing food was gathering using primitive instruments for knocking down the fruits and digging edible roots, the child was very early to work Adults, practically absorbing the methods of mining and consuming primitive guns. "Under such conditions there was no need for the time for the preparation of children to future work.
As D. B. Elkonin emphasized, childhood occurs when the child cannot be directly included in the system of public reproduction, because the child cannot yet master the instruments of labor due to their complexity. As a result, the natural inclusion of children in productive labor is moved away. According to D. B. Elkonin, this time lengthening occurs not by extinguing the new period of development over the already existing (as F. Aryes), but by peculiar inclination of the new development period leading to " time Shift Up "Permitting Performance Tools. D. B. Elkonin brilliantly revealed these features of childhood when analyzing the emergence of a plot-role-playing game and a detailed consideration psychological features Junior school age.
As noted, the question of the historical origin of childhood periods, about the relationship of childhood history with the history of society, about childhood history as a whole, without which it is impossible to compile a meaningful concept of childhood, was delivered in children's psychology at the end of the 20s of the 20th century and continues Develop so far. According to the views of Soviet psychologists, studying children's development is historically meaning to study the transition of a child from one age step to another, to study the change in his personality within each age period, which is happening in specific historical conditions. And although the history of childhood has not yet been studied sufficiently, the formulation of this issue in psycho, the logical of the 20th century is important. I.Fesli, according to D. B. Elconin, for many questions of the theory of the psychic development of the child there is still no answer, then the path of solutions can already be submitted. And he sees in the light historical study childhood.
2. Childhood as a subject of science
The science of the psychic development of the child - children's psychology - originated as a branch of comparative psychology at the end of the XIX century. Point
the reference for systematic research of the psychology of the child is the book
german scientist-Darwinist Wilhelm Praier "Soul of the Child". In her V.
Prayer describes the results of daily observations of the development of his own son, paying attention to the development of the organs of feelings, motility, will, reason and language. Despite the fact that the development of the child's development was led by the appearance of the book by V. Praier, his undisputed priority is determined by appealing to the study of the most early years child's life and the introduction of an objective observation method into the pediatric psychology developed by analogy with methods natural Sciences. The views of V. Predier from a modern point of view are perceived as naive, limited to the level of development of the XIX century science. He, for example, considered the mental development of the child as a private variant of biological. (Although strictly speaking, and now there are hidden, and obvious supporters of this idea ...). However, V. Praier first carried out the transition from an introspective child's psyche study. Therefore, according to the unanimous recognition of psychologists, he is considered the founder of children's psychology.
The objective conditions for the formation of children's psychology, which have developed eND XIX. century, associated with the intensive development of industry, with a new level of public life, which created the need for occurrence modern school. Teachers were interested in the question: how to teach and educate children? Parents and teachers stopped considering physical punishments as effective method Education - more democratic families appeared. The task of an understanding of the child stood up for a day. On the other hand, the desire to understand himself as an adult prompted researchers to treat childhood more carefully - only through the study of the psychology of the child lies the path to understanding that the psychology of an adult is.
What place is children's psychology in the light of other psychological knowledge? I. M. Sechenov wrote that psychology could not be any other, as a science on the origin and development of mental processes. It is known that the psychology of the idea of \u200b\u200bgenetic (from the word - genesis) has penetrated a long time ago. Almost there is not a single outstanding psychologist who occupied the problems of general psychology, which simultaneously did not otherwise deal with children's psychology. In this area, such world-famous scientists, like J. Watson, V. Stern, K. Bühler, K. Kofka, K. Levin, A. Vallon, 3. Freud, E. Shprovger, J. Piaget, V. M. Bekhterev, D. M.Uznadz, S. L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, etc.
However, exploring the same object - mental development - genetic and children's psychology are two different psychological sciences. Genetic psychology is interested in the problems of emergence and development mental processes. She answers questions
"as There is something or other psychological movement manifested
feeling, feeling, representation, involuntary or arbitrary movement,
as There are those processes, the result of which is the thought "(I.M.
Sechenov). Genetic psychology or that the same, the psychology of development, analyzing the formation of mental processes, can rely on the results of research performed on children, but children themselves do not constitute the subject of study of genetic psychology. Genetic studies can be carried out on adults. A well-known example of a genetic study can be the study of the formation of sound hearing. In a specially organized experiment, in which the subjects had to adjust their voice to a given sound height, it was possible to observe the formation of the ability of sound differences.
Recreate, do, form a mental phenomenon - such is the main strategy of genetic psychology. The path of experimental formation of mental processes was first scheduled for L. S. Vygotsky. "The method we use," L. S. Vygotsky wrote, - can be called the experimental method in the sense that he artificially causes and creates a genetic process of mental development ... an attempt to such an experiment is to melt every frozen and petrified psychological form, turn it into a moving, current flow individual points replacing each other ... The task of such an analysis is reduced to experimentally present all the highest form of behavior not as a thing, but as a process, take it in motion, to go not from a thing to its parts, but from the process To its individual moments. "
Among many researchers in the development process, the most vivid representatives of genetic psychology - L. S. Vygotsky, J. Piaget, P. Ya. Halperin. Their theories, developed on the basis of experiments with children, are fully and fully related to the general genetic psychology. The famous book J. Piaget "Psychology of Intellect" is a book not about the child, this is a book about intelligence. P. Ya. Galperin created the theory of the systematic and phased formation of mental actions as the basis for the formation of mental processes. Genetic psychology includes experimental study of concepts carried out by L. S. Vygotsky.
Children's psychology is different from any other psychology that it deals with special analysis units is an age, or a period of development. It should be emphasized that age does not boil down to the sum of individual mental processes, this is not a calendar date. Age, by definition L.
S. Vygotsky, is a relatively closed cycle of children's development, which has its own structure and dynamics. The duration of age is determined by its internal content: there are periods of development and in some cases "era", equal to one year, three, five years. Chronological and psychological age do not coincide, chronological or passport age - only the coordinate of the reference, the external grid, against the background of which the process of mental development of the child occurs, the formation of his personality.
Unlike genetic, children's psychology is the doctrine of child development periods, their shift and transitions from one age to another. Therefore, after L. S. Vygotsky about this field of psychology it is more correct to say: children's, age psychology. Typically children's psychologists were
L. S. Vygotsky, A. Vallon, 3. Freud, D. B. Elkonin. How figuratively said D.
B. Elkonin, general psychology is the chemistry of psyche, and children's psychology is more likely to physics, as it deals with the larger and most definitely organized by the "bodies" of the psyche. When materials of children's psychology are used in general psychology, then they reveal the chemistry of the process and say nothing about the child.
The delimitation of genetic and child psychology indicates that the subject of child psychology itself has changed historically. Currently, the subject of children's psychology is the disclosure of general patterns of mental development in ontogenesis, the establishment of age periods of this development and the reasons for the transition from one period to another. Promotion in solution theoretical tasks Child psychology expands its practical implementation. In addition to the activation of learning and education processes, arose new sphere Practice. This is control over child development processes, which should be distinguished from the tasks of diagnosis and selection of children in special institutions. Just as a pediatrician monitors the physical health of children, a children's psychologist must say: the psychic of the child is developing and functioning and functions, and if it is incorrect, then the deviations consist of and how they should be compensated. All this can be done only on the basis of a deep and accurate theory that reveals the specific mechanisms and the dynamics of the development of the child's psyche.
3. The specifics of the psychic development of the child.
What is the development? What is it characterized? What is the fundamental difference in development from any other object changes? As you know, the object
it may vary, but not develop. Growth, for example, is quantitative
change this object, including the mental process. there is
the processes that ignore within "less-more". These are growth processes
in his own and true sense of the word. Growth occurs in time and
measured in time coordinates. Main characteristic Growth is
the process of quantitative change in the internal structure and composition of those included in
the object of individual elements, without significant changes in the structure of individual
processes. For example, measuring the physical growth of the child, we see
quantitative increment. L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that there are phenomena
growth and mental processes. For example, the growth of the state of words unchanged
speech functions.
But other phenomena and processes may occur behind these processes of quantitative growth. Then growth processes become only the symptoms behind which there are significant changes in the system and the structure of the processes. At such periods there are jumps in the growth line, which indicate significant changes in the body itself. For example, the gland internal secretion ripen, and deep changes occur in the physical development of the adolescent. In such cases, when significant changes occur in the structure and properties of the phenomenon, we are dealing with development.
The development is primarily characterized by qualitative changes, the emergence of neoplasms, new mechanisms, new processes, new structures. X. Werner, L. S. Vygotsky and other psychologists described the main
signs of development. The most important among them: differentiation, dismemberment
previously former single element; The emergence of new parties, new elements in
development itself; Rearrangement of connections between the parties of the object. As
psychological examples can be mentioned differentiating natural
conditional reflex to the position under the breast and the reciprocal complex; Appearance
sign function in infancy; Change over childhood
system and semantic structure of consciousness. Each of these processes
complies with the listed development criteria.
As L. S. Vygotsky showed, there are many different types of development. Therefore, it is important to correctly find the place that among them is occupied by the mental development of the child, that is, to determine the specifics of mental development among other development processes. L. S. Vygotsky distinguished: / ^ reformed and unformed development types. Preformed Type
This is such a type when at the very beginning is set, fixed, fixed as
those stages that the phenomenon (organism) will pass and the end result,
which reaches the phenomenon. Everything is given here from the beginning. Example -
embryonic development. Despite the fact that embryogenesis has its own story
(There is a tendency to reduce the underlying stages, the newest stage.
it affects the preceding stages), but this does not change the type of development.
In psychology there was an attempt to present mental development on the principle of embryonic development. This is the concept of Art. Hall. It is based on biogenetic law Geckel: Ontogenesis is a brief repetition of phylogenesis. Mental development was considered by Art. Hall as a short repetition of the stages of the mental development of animals and ancestors modern man.
An unformed development type is most common on our planet. It also includes the development of the Galaxy, the development of the Earth, the process of biological evolution, the development of society. The process of mental development of the child also applies to this type of processes. The unforced direction of development is not predetermined in advance. Children of different eras develop differently and reach different levels of development. From the very beginning, from the moment of birth, the child is not given the stage through which he must pass, nor the result that he must achieve. Child development is an unformed type of development, but this is a completely special process - a process that is determined not from below, and from above, the form of practical and theoretical activities that exists at this level of the Company's development (as the poet said: "Only born, already We are waiting for Shakespeare "). This is a feature of child development. Its finite forms are not given, but are asked. No development process, except ontogenetic, is not carried out by the already finished pattern. Human development occurs according to the sample that exists in society. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the process of mental development is
the process of interaction between real and ideal forms. The task of a child psychologist
Trace the logic of mastering ideal forms. The child does not immediately master
the spiritual and material wealth of humanity. But outside the development process
the ideal forms are generally impossible to develop. Therefore, inside
unformed type of development mental development of a child is a special
process. The process of ontogenetic development - the process is not similar to
the process is extremely peculiar, which passes in the form of assimilation.
4. Strategies for the study of the mental development of the child
The level of the development of the theory determines the study strategy in science. This fully applies to child psychology, where the level of the theory forms
the goals and objectives of this science. First, the task of child psychology was
accumulation of facts and arrange them in time sequence. This
the task corresponds to observation strategy. Of course, already then
researchers tried to understand driving forces development and every psychologist about
this dreamed. But to solve this problem there were no objective possibilities ...
The strategy of observing the real movement of children's development in the conditions in which it is spontaneously developing, led to the accumulation of various facts that it was necessary to lead to the system, to highlight the stages and stages of development, to then identify the main trends and the general patterns of the development process itself and in the end Understand his reason.
To solve these tasks, psychologists used strategy
naturally scientific stating experiment, which allows
establish the presence or absence of a studied phenomenon at certain
controlled conditions, measure it quantitative characteristics and give
quality Description Both strategy - observation and statement
experiment - widespread in child psychology. But they
limitability is becoming increasingly apparent as it turns out
that they do not lead to understanding the driving causes of mental development
man. This is because neither observation nor state
the experiment cannot actively influence the development process, and its
study is only passive.
Currently, a new research strategy is intensively developed - strategy for the formation of mental processes, Active
interventions, constructing a process with specified properties precisely because
the strategy for the formation of mental processes leads to the intended
the result can be judged by its reason. Thus, the criterion for
allocating causes of development can be the success of the formative
experiment.
Each of the named strategies has its own development history. As already mentioned, children's psychology began with simple observation. The enormous actual material about the development of the child at an early age was collected by parents, known psychologists as a result of long-term observations of the development of their own children (in Prime, V. Stern, J. Piaget, N. A. Rybnikov, N.
A. MENCHINSKAYA, A. N. Gvozdev, V. S. Mukhina, M. Kechki, etc.). ON THE. Rybnikov in the work "Children's diaries as a material for children's psychology" (1946) gave the historical essay of this basic method of studying the child. Analyzing the value of the first foreign diaries (I. TEN, 1876;
H Darwin, 1877; V. Predier, 1882), the appearance of which became a turning point in the development of children's psychology, N. A. Rybnikov noted that Russian psychologists can rightfully claim the championship because A.S. Simonovich already in 1861 led systematic observations of the speech development of a child from his birth to 17 years.
Long-term systematic monitoring of the same child, daily registration of behavior, thorough knowledge of the whole history of the child's development, proximity to the child, good emotional contact with him - all this is the positive aspects of the observations. However, observations of different authors were conducted with different purposes, so they are difficult to compare with each other. In addition, as a rule, in the first diaries there was no single observation technique, and their interpretation often wore a subjective character for example, often during registration, the fact was not described, but the attitude to it.
Soviet psychologist M. Ya Basov developed a system of objective observation - this is the main, from its point of view, the method of child psychology. Stressing the importance of the naturalness and normalization of the observation conditions, he described as a caricature such situation when an observer with paper and pencil comes to the children's team, rushes his eyes on the child and constantly writes something. "No matter how much the child has changed his position, no matter how he moved in the surrounding space, the eyes of the observer, and sometimes he follows him with all his person and everything looks out that all the time he is silent and something writes" M. Ya. Basov correctly believed that research work With children, the teacher himself must be conducted, raising and educational children in the team, in which the observed child is included.
Currently, the majority of psychologists to the observation method as the main way to study children relate to sobgically. But, as D. B. Elkonin said often, "a sharp psychological eye is more important than a stupid experiment." The experimental method of topics and is remarkable that he "thinks" for the experimenter. The facts obtained by the method of observation are very valuable. V. Stern as a result of observations on the development of his daughters prepared a two-volume study on the development of speech. A. N. Gvozdev also published a two-volume monograph on the development of children's speech on the basis of observations of the development of his sole son.
In 1925, a clinic of the normal development of children was created in Leningrad under the leadership of N. M. Slikovanova. There was watching a child 24 hours a day and it was there that all the main facts characterizing the first year of the child's life were opened. It is well known that the concept of developing sensor intelligence was built by J. Piaget based on observations in three children. Long-term (for three years) study of adolescents from one class allowed D. B. Elconin and T. V. Dragunova psychological characteristic adolescence. Hungarian psychologists of L. Garas and M. Kechki, watching the development of their own children, traced how the differentiation of the social position of the child in the family conditions occurs. V. S. Mukhin first described the development of the behavior of two twin sons. These examples can be continued, although it is clear from what is clear that the observation method as the initial stage of the study did not exist itself and it is impossible to treat it dismissively. It is important, however, at the same time remember that with the help of this method you can identify only phenomena, external symptoms of development.
At the beginning of the century, first attempts were made experimental research The mental development of children. France's Ministry of Education ordered famous psychologist A. Bina Development of the methodology for selecting children in special schools. And since 1908 begins test examination
the child appears measuring scales of mental development. A. Bina created
method of standardized tasks for each age. A little later
american psychologist L. Termen proposed a formula for measuring the coefficient
intellect.
It seemed that children's psychology came out on new way development - mental abilities with special tasks | (tests) can be reproduced and measured. But these hopes were not justified. Soon it became clear that in the survey situation it is unknown, which of the mental abilities is studied using tests. In the 30s, the Soviet psychologist V. I. Asin emphasized that the condition of the reliability of the psychological experiment is not the average level of solving the problem, but how the child takes the task, what kind of problem he decides. In addition, the intelligence coefficient has long been considered by psychologists as an indicator of hereditary giftedness, which remains unchanged throughout the human life. To date, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe constant intellect ratio is strongly shaken, and in scientific psychology they practically do not use it.
With the help of the test method in children's psychology, a lot of research was conducted, but they are constantly criticized for the fact that there is always averaged child as an abstract carrier of psychological properties characteristic of most of the population of relevant age identified by the method of "transverse" cuts. With this measurement, the development process looks like a uniformly increasing straight line, where all high-quality neoplasms are hidden.
Noticing the shortcomings of the section method to study the development process, the researchers completed it by the method longchtyutinal ("longitudinal")
studying the same children for a long time. It made it
some advantage - the opportunity to calculate the individual
the curve of development of each child and establish whether its development is true
age norm or it is higher or below average. Longitiudi ^ Alnya
the method made it possible to detect turning points on the curve, in which
there are sharp high-quality shifts. However, this method is not free from
shortcomings. Having received two points on the development curve, you can not answer anyway
to the question, what happens between them. This method also does not give
opportunities to penetrate the phenomena, to understand the mechanism of mental phenomena.
Facts mined by this method can be explained by various hypotheses. There is no necessary accuracy in their interpretation. Thus, with all the intricacies of the experimental technique, which ensure the reliability of the experiment, the statement of statement does not answer the main question: what happens between two points on the development curve? Only a strategy for experimental formation of mental phenomena can answer this question.
Introduction to the children's psychology of the formation strategy we owe L. S. Vygotsky. He applied his theory on the mediated structure of the highest mental functions to form its own memorization ability. According to eyewitness stories, L. S. Vygotsky could demonstrate to a large audience remembering about 400 randomly named words. For this purpose, he used aid aid - connected every word with one of the Volga cities. Then, following a mentally along the river, he could reproduce each word according to the city associated with him. This method was named L. S. Vygotsky experimentally genetic method, which allows you to identify the qualitative features of the development of higher mental functions.
The strategy for the formation of mental processes has become in the end the large distribution in Soviet psychology. Today there are several ideas for the implementation of this strategy, which in a compressed form can be represented as follows:
Cultural and historical concept L. S. Vygotsky, according to which the interpsychic becomes intrapsychic. Genesis of higher mental
functions associated with the use of a sign by two people in the process of their communication, without
performing this role a sign can not become a means of individual
mental activity.
Theory of activity A. N. Leontiev: any activity acts as a conscious action, then as an operation and as the formation becomes
function. The movement is carried out here from top to bottom - from the activities to
The theory of the formation of mental actions P. Ya. Galperin:
the formation of mental functions occurs on the basis of the subject action and comes from material performance, and then through its speech form goes into a mental plan. This is the most developed concept of formation. However, all that is obtained with its help acts as a laboratory experiment. As the laboratory experimental experiment with real ontogenesis, the problem of the ratio of experimental genesis with real genesis is one of the most serious and still unresolved. A. V. Zaporozhets and D. B. Elkonin indicated for its meaning for child psychology. A certain weakness of the formation strategy is that it has so far been applied only to the formation of a cognitive sector of personality, and emotional-based processes and needs remained outside of experimental research.
Concept of training activities - Research D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydova, in which the personality formation strategy was not in
laboratory conditions, and in real life - By creating
experimental schools.
The theory of "initial humanization" I. A. Sokolyansky and A. I. Meshcheryakova, which outlines the initial stages of the formation of the psyche
doluborukhonable children.
Strategy for the formation of mental processes - One of the achievements of Soviet children's psychology. This is the most adequate strategy for
modern understanding of the subject of child psychology. Thanks to the strategy
the formation of mental processes is able to penetrate the essence of the psychic
development of a child. But this does not mean that other research methods
you can neglected. Any science comes from phenomenon to the disclosure of its nature.
Topics for seminars
Childhood as a social student phenomenon
Causes of children's psychology as science
Historical changes in the subject of children's (age) psychology
The concept of "development" and its criteria in relation to the development of the child
Strategies, methods and methods of research development of the child.
Tasks for independent work
Pick up examples of childhood specifics in domestic culture.
Consider the "Convention on the Rights of the Child" from the standpoint historical approach to childhood analysis
Bring specific examples of using various strategies and methods in the study of the child
LITERATURE
Lenin in and on the terms of reliability of the psychological experiment of the Reader in age and pedagogical psychology. Ch. I, M., 1980.
Childhood as a historical category. Phenomenon of human childhood. Pro-detention of human childhood. Border of childhood. Paradoxes of childhood.
Childhood is one of the most complex phenomena age psychology. Speaking about him, we usually mean the phase of life when a person is not ready for an independent existence and needs a strengthened assimilation of the experience transmitted by the older generation. But how long does this phase depends on?
Arms even with surface analysis of the childhood phenomenon, difficulties and contradictions are primarily associated with the fact that childhood is a historical category. We can only talk about the childhood of this child living in this era, in the data social conditionsAlthough there are general features with other generations.
Historical experience shows that social and cultural traditions differently fix this segment of life: if in early XIX. in. A child of 13 years old from the noble family came to the university, it did not seem strange to anyone, now it's rather an exception than the norm. If at the same time 15-16-year-olds already went on the path of independent labor and creativity, then in our time only peculiar social conditions or individual identity settings can lead to full independence.
In modern social terms, life in economic, social and personal attitude begins in people aged about 25 years, and even later. Of course, biologically modern children are much earlier ready for independent lifebut a person lives not only a biological life, and the end of childhood is associated not so much with biological as socio-economic Independence. But this means that to oppose childhood as a special phase social Development Man can only maturity, adulthood. And therefore, in modern childhood, it is also necessary to include periods of school age, adolescence and adolescence.
When, how and why did childhood stand out in history in a separate phase of human life?
The problem of historiography historiography is complicated by the fact that in this area there is no observation or experiment and psychologists to make generalizations only on the basis of the study of cultural, ethnographic, archaeological and anthropological data. And the data, indirectly relating to childhood, very fragmentary and contradictory. Even in those rare cases when miniature copies of people, animals, wagons, fruits, etc. come across among archaeological finds, it is difficult to establish with reliability, whether they were toys, whether they were made specifically for children. Most often it is either the objects of the cult, which in antiquity put into the graves so that they serve the owner in the afterlife, or the affiliation of magic and witchcraft, or decorations.
Based on the study of ethnographic materials D. B. Elkonin concluded that on the earliest steps of human society, when the main way of producing food was gathering with the use of primitive guns to knock down the fruits and digging the edible roots, there was no childhood in their usual understanding.
In the conditions of primitive communities, with their relatively primitive instruments and equipment, even 3-4-year-old children lived with a common life with adults, taking part in simple forms of household work, in the gathering of edible plants, roots, larvae, snails, etc. , in primitive hunting and fisheries, in the simplest forms of agriculture. The child became very early to the work of adults, practically absorbing the methods of producing food and the use of primitive guns. And the more at an early stage of development stood society, the earlier the children were involved in the productive work of adults and became independent manufacturers. This led to the fact that in primitive societies did not exist a sharp face between adults and children.
Children from the Society The requirement of independence found natural shape Implementation in collaboration with adultery of labor. The immediate connection of the child with the whole society carried out in the overall labor process, excluding any other forms of communication, therefore there was no need to allocate a particular status of a child, childhood socialization institutions and a special period in children's life. This conclusion D. B. Elkonin has objective confirmation.
So, according to the testimony of V. Wolz, primitive stray gathers together (men, women, children) are moving from place to place in search of edible fruits and cursors. By 10 years, girls become mothers, and the boys are fathers and begin to conduct an independent lifestyle. Describing one of the most primitive groups of people on Earth - the nationality of Cuba, M. Zenn writes that from 10-12 years old children are considered independent and able to arrange their destiny. From now on, they begin to wear a bandage that hides the genitals. During the parking lot, they construct a separate hut next to the parent. But they are looking for food independently and eaten separately. The relationship between parents and children is gradually weakening, and soon children begin to live in the forest independently.
A. T. Bryant, who lived for almost half a century among Zulusov, describes the duties of 6-7-year-old children: they drove the calves and goats in the mog in the morning (and older children - cows), gathered wildly edible herbs, during the ripening of the erases were distilled off in the fields birds, performed homework etc.
Ethnographic data of Russian travelers indicate a very early collection of young children to the fulfillment of labor duties and inclusion in productive work adults. So, the city of Novitsky in 1715, in the description of the Ostsatsky people, wrote: "It is generally a single needlework, the shooting of the beast (kill), catching birds, fish, they can impregnate themselves. This time of tricks and Chad is studying their own and juggling to the shooting of the onion to kill the beast, to catch
birds, fish (teach them). "
S. P. Krasheninnikov, describing his journey through Kamchatka (1737-1741), writes about the koreas: "In total, it is worthy of the people who are their children although they are overly loved, but leaving the work to learn; What for the sake of the sake of and containing them is not better than the horses, send along the wood and on the water, order to wear gravity on themselves, the mouth of deer herds and the other way to do. "
N. N. Miklukho-Maklai, who has lived among Papuans, writes about their children: "I often had to see the comic scene, as a small boy of about four preserved the fire, I wore firewood, soap dishes, helped the father to clean the fruit, and then suddenly Dropped, fled to the mother, sitting squatting for any work, grabbed it for the chest and, despite the resistance, was taken to suck. "
Since the welfare of the community depended from the participation of all in productive work, there was a natural age-sex separation. So, according to N. N. Miklukho-Maclay, the children participated not only in a simple domestic work, but also in more complex forms of collective productive work adults.
For example, describing the soil treatment by the tribe on the banks of New Guinea, it writes: "The work is done in this way: two, three or more men become in a row, deeply stick to the pointed fishing dwy [strong long sticks, pointed from one end; They work men, since when working with this gun requires a lot of strength] to the ground and then with one squeaming larger the larger blocks of the Earth. If the soil is hard, then the place is stuck twice twice, and then raise the land. The men are followed by women who crawl on her knees and, keeping their fish-sabs tight in both hands [small narrow blades for women], grind up the earth raised by men. They are followed by children of different ages and rub the earth with their hands. In such a manner, men, women and children handle the entire plantation. "
That is why in early societies reign the equality of children and adults and the equation of all its members, even the smallest. According to the testimony of the Northern Peoples researcher, S. N. Stebnitsky, for the general conversation, the words of children are suspended as carefully as the speech of adults. The largest ethnographer L. Ya. Sternberg also emphasizes this equality of children and adults among the peoples of Northern Asia: "A civilized person is difficult to even imagine what a feeling of equality and respect reigns here in relation to young people. Teens 10-12 years feel completely equal members of society ... no one feels a difference of years or provisions. "
For a child, primitive tools and labor forms make it possible to develop early independence, generated by the requirements of society, direct participation in the work of adults. It is absolutely clear that it is not about the exploitation of child labor: it is the nature of the satisfaction of naturally emerging, the public in its nature. In the fulfillment of labor duties, children make specifically children's features, maybe even enjoying the labor process itself and, in any case, experiencing a sense of satisfaction and related pleasure from activities carried out with adults and as adults. According to the testimony of the majority of ethnographers, in primitive communities, children are not punishable, but, on the contrary, they strongly support their cheerful, cheerful, cheerful state.
Go to more high forms Production - agriculture and cattle breeding, the complication of fisheries and hunting methods, their transition from passive to more and more active accompanied by the displacement of gathering and primitive forms of labor.
Due to the complication of the tools, the need to allocate a separate process of mastering them, and children begin to work with reduced labor tools, although the methods of their use are not fundamentally different from the methods of consuming real guns.
It should be borne in mind that these guns are functionally different differ from toys in primitive societies: they are copies of adult tools, and they work, and do not imitate the process of adult labor, as happens in the game. Under these conditions, childhood begins to stand out as a stage of preparing the child to work, although it is short and children while playing very little in it.
Thus, the researchers of the North A. G. Bazanov and N. G. Kazansky write that only those who started walking, mansionic children are already drawn by adults to fisheries, and parents already take them into the boat, give small oars, teach to control the boat, teach to River life. In another work, A. G. Bazanov notes that 5-6-year-old Vogulsky child already near Yurt runs with onions and arrows, hunting birds, produces a fraction. From 7-8 years old, children in the forest are involved, how to find a squirrel, muffuhar, how to handle a dog where and how to put cappos. Children, even the youngest, are passionate hunters and, coming to school, have tens of protein and chipmunks on their account. S. N. Stbnitsky indicates that the children are also a billet of firewood - in any frost and bad weather, the boy must, harbish the remaining dogs of the dogs, sometimes kilometers for ten for firewood.
What are the reduced guns that children now enjoy depends on the prevailing industry in this society. So, for example, according to N. G. Bogoraz-Tana, who studied the peoples of the Far North, handling a knife (the main necessary instrument of a reindeer breeder) Chukchi begin to learn from early childhood: "Little boys, as soon as they begin to grasp things, give a knife, And from that time, they do not part with him. I saw one boy older cutting a tree with a knife; The knife was a little less than himself. "
A. N. Rinson-Pravdin notes that the children of the North are early learning to use small, but real, knife and ax, onions and arrows, prash and self-sewing, rod and arcane, master the ride on skis from the moment they start walking.
N. G. Bogoraz Tang draws attention that for girls a special role is played by the doll, together with which they master women's hand crafts: the release of deer skin, suede, bird and animal skins, fish skin, sewing clothes and shoes, weaving mats from grass , the release of birest utensils, weaving, and in many areas and weaving.
It is quite natural that the training of all these skills went in two ways: on the one hand, the early inclusion in the work of the mother (help in cooking, care for kids, participation in purely female fishery - billet, nuts, roots); On the other hand, the manufacture of puppet farms, mainly wardrobe. The dolls collected in the museums of the peoples of the Far North, are amazed by the perfection of sewing skills, use the needle and knife.
Children, of course, cannot independently open ways of drinking tools, and adults teach them to this, showing ways of action with them, indicating the nature of the exercises, controlling and evaluating the actions of children in mastering these implements. There is still no school with its system, organization and program, but there are already special training caused by the needs of society.
In contrast to the process of mastering the tools of labor, which is happening with the direct participation of the child in the productive work of adults, this process is highlighted in special activities carried out in conditions other than those in which productive work occurs. Little Nenets, Future Olenevod, learns to own Arkan not in the flock of deer, participating in his guard, as it was originally. Little Evenk, the future hunter, learns to own onions and arrows not in the forest, participating in the real hunt together with adults. They do it in the open space, throwing the Arcan (or shooting from the bow) first on fixed items, and then on moving goals. And only after that go to the hunt for small birds and animals or to drag dogs and calves. D. B. Elko Ning believes, at this stage, role-playing games, exercises and competition games are born. Gradually, children are trusted by increasingly complicated tools, and the exercise conditions are increasingly approaching the conditions of productive labor.
The age in which the children are now included in productive labor depends primarily on the degree of its complexity. In the process further development The tools are complicated so much that, if you decrease them, they, while maintaining the external similarity with adult implements, lose their productive function. So, for example, if the reduced onions did not lose its main function - from it it was possible to release an arrow and get into the target, then the reduced rifle becomes only an image of a gun, it is impossible to shoot from it and even more so killing, and you can only depict shooting. With a huge agriculture, a small hoe was still a hoe, which a child could break small lumps of the Earth, - it was similar to the hoe of father or mother not only form, but also a function. When moving to plow agriculture, a small plow, no matter how much he reminded on-standing with his details, loses the basic functions of the plow: it is impossible to hover the bull, nor plow them.
According to D. B. Elkonin, at the same stage, toys appear in their modern understanding - as objects depicting guns, household items. The mastery of children's instruments is dismembered for two periods: the first is associated with the mastery of household weapons, the second is shifted forward to older ages, and the gap is formed between them. This gap will turn out to be the longer than the harder the shape and tools of the activity that every child of this society has to be seized.
In a certain sense, children are provided by themselves, "children's communities" arise, and it is during this period that a game develops, where the relationship between people existing in this society is reproduced.
But if the instruments of adult labor is complicated, the masters of adult labor are complicated, then the mastery of small children directly during the productive activity becomes impossible. Of course, domestic work remains for children with its elementary tools, but it can no longer be considered socially productive work, and the labor of children is not so necessary to maintain the welfare of society. Children are gradually displaced from the complex and most responsible areas of adults. It becomes necessary for a long period of preparing children to future mastering complex forms and means of social production, therefore, a special social institution of childhood is allocated and, accordingly, a special period in children's life.
D. B. Elkonin noted that childhood occurs when the child cannot be directly included in the system of public reproduction, since he still cannot master the instruments of labor due to their complexity. As a result, the natural inclusion of children in productive labor is moved away. According to D. B. Elkonin, this time lengthening occurs not by taking the new period of development over the already existing (as considered, for example, F. Arjes), and by means of a peculiar inclusion of a new period of development, leading to a "time shift" Mastering production tools. The period of development becomes childhood when the basic elements are actively learned. social experience
until the subject to the subject of social and psychological maturity.
Considering the childhood phenomenon in a historical aspect, it is impossible not to recall the two main paradoxes described by D. B. Elkonin.
The first paradox of nature, the predetermining history of childhood, is in the next. Man, appearing on the light, endowed with only the most elementary furs for maintaining life. By physical structure, organizations nervous systemAccording to the type of activity and methods of its regulation, a person is the most co-verified creature in nature. However, as at the time of birth, the evolutionary series is noticeable to fall in perfection - the child does not have any ready-made forms of behavior. As a rule, the higher the living being in the evolutionary series, the longer his childhood lasts, the nozzles of the birth at birth.
In the process of human occurrence, biological evolution stops, and when moving from a monkey, almost all forms of behavior become acquired. The childhood of a person compared with the childhood of animals is qualitatively transformed and changes significantly in the process. historical Development man.
During the history, the material and spiritual culture of mankind is continuously enriched. For the millennium, human experience has increased many thousands of times. But, oddly enough, during this time the newborn child has not changed practically. Relying on the data of anthropologists about the anatomy-morphological similarity of therigonian and modern Europeans, it can be assumed that the newborn modern person does not differ from the newborn, who lived tens of thousands of years ago. And this is the second paradox of childhood.
The helplessness of the human being is the greatest acquisition of evolution: it is this "challenge" from natural environment, "Freedom", ductility, readiness for variability allows the person to "become all" in the future, to speak in any language, to master any cultural form of behavior and activities, to assign any form of experience (by the way, that is why children, for any reasons that fall into Animal Wednesday, so organically "merge" with it).
Unfortunately, practically nothing is known about how childhood has a childhood from Neanderthals, Peteitrontrops, Cryanonians. The course of human development, according to L. S. Vygotsky, does not obey the eternal laws of nature, the laws of the ripening of the body, and the course of the development of the child is of socio-historical character: there is not forever childish, and there is only historically childish.
At the same time, the duration of childhood in primitive society is not equal to the residence of the childhood of the Epoch of the Middle Ages or our days. Since childhood is a product of history, its duration and psychological content are directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual culture of society.
So, B. xIX literature in. Quite a lot of evidence that the proletarian children actually had no childhood. For example, in the study of the position of the working class in England, F. Engels referred to the report of the Commission of the English Parliament in 1883, examined the working conditions in the factories: Children sometimes began to work from a five-year-old age, often from a six-year-old, more often from a seven, but almost all children of the poor Parents worked with eight years, and their working day continued 14-16 hours.
It is believed that the status of the childhood of the proletarian child is formed only in the XIX-XX centuries, when the legislation on childhood protection began to prohibit child labor (by the way, the upper limit of modern childhood is established in exactly the same way - the criminal responsibility for the acts committed in 14 years). Of course, this does not mean that adopted legal laws are able to provide childhood for the lower layers of society. Children in this environment, and above all girls, and today perform the work necessary for public reproduction (care for kids, homework, agricultural work, female "crafts": duct, sewing, embroidery, etc.). Thus, although formally, in our time, there is a ban on child labor, it is impossible to talk about the status of childhood, without taking into account the provisions of parents in the social structure of society *.
Childhood, being long period In the development of a person, it is divided into sub-indent, which V. V. Zenkovsky offered to even call "the first (early) childhood" and "second" (referring to adolescence and youth).
Conclusions and conclusions
Childhood is called the period of development, when the basic elements of social experience are actively learned until the subject of social and psychological maturity.
Childhood - category historical. We can only speak about the child's child who lives in this era, in these social conditions, although there are general features with other generations.
Childhood occurs when the child cannot be directly included in the social reproduction system, since it cannot yet master the instruments of labor due to their complexity. Due to the complication of the tools of labor, the need to allocate a long process of mastering them becoming in independent activity.
D. B. Elkonin described two paradox of childhood. The first: man, appearing on the light, is endowed with the most elementary mechanisms To maintain life, he does not have almost no ready-made forms of penetration, although the physical structure, organization of the nervous system, by type of activity and methods of its regulation, the most perfect being in nature. The second paradox: For the millennium, human experience increased many thousands of times, during this time the newborn child has not changed.
* The "Convention on the Rights of the Child", adopted by UNESCO in 1989 and ratified by the majority of the countries of the world, aimed at ensuring the full development of the child's personality in every corner of the Earth.
Childhood - a period ongoing from newborn to full social and, therefore, psychological maturity; This is the period of becoming a child with a full-fledged member of the human society.
L. S. Vygotsky noted that it is impossible to talk about childhood "in general." The history of childhood as a cultural and historical phenomenon correlates with the history of society.
Childhood is a complex sociocultural phenomenon that has historical origins and nature. In classical studies of the French historian F. Arjes, it was shown how the concept of childhood was evolved throughout the historical development of humanity and what it was different in different epochs. F. Arjes analyzed the works of painting, literary works, letters of people of past times. He came to the conclusion that the development of social life, the emergence of new social institutions leads to a change in the periodization of human life. So, inside the family, an early childhood period is born, associated with the "balding" and the "tenderness" of the baby. In the future, the obligation of regular training for children to adulthood accepts another Social Institute - School. Thus, Arjes sought to show the historical tendency of childhood lengthening due to the extension of a new period over already existing.
F. Ajes, exploring the solution to the problem of childhood in the visual art, came to the conclusion that until the XIII century. Art did not apply to children, artists did not even try to portray them. Most likely, no one believed that the child concludes a human person. If the children appeared in the works of art and appeared, they were depicted as reduced adults.
F. Ajes writes that the initial concept of "childhood" was associated with the idea of \u200b\u200bdependence: "Childhood ended when it ended or a smaller dependence was becoming." Childhood was considered a period quickly passing and low-value. The indifference towards childhood, in his opinion, was a direct consequence of the demographic situation of that time distinguished by a high birth rate and great child mortality.
The image of real children was absent for a long time in painting. Overcoming indifference to children occurs, judging by painting, not earlier than the XVII century, when portrait images of real children begin to appear on the canvases of artists. As a rule, these were portraits of children of influential persons and regime in childhood. Thus, according to F. Arjes, the discovery of childhood began in the XIII century, its development can be traced in the history of painting of the XIV-XVI centuries, but the evidence of this discovery is most fully manifested at the end of the XVI and during the entire XVII century.
The differentiation of ages of human life, including childhood, according to F. Arjes, is formed under the influence of social institutions, i.e. New forms of social life generated by the development of society. So, early childhood for the first time appears inside the family, where it is associated with a specific communication - the "tender" and "balding" of a small child. A child for parents is just a pretty, funny kid with whom you can have fun, gladly play and learn it and raise it. Such is the primary, "family" concept of childhood.
Considering the subsequent concepts of childhood L. F. Obukhov notes that the development of society led to further change Relationships to children. There was a new concept of childhood. For teachers of the XVII century. Love for children was no longer in baltings and passionate them, but in psychological interest in education and learning, which was clearly reflected in the pedagogical works of Ya. A. Komensesky. In the XVIII century In Western Europe, a concept of rational education based on strict discipline appears and penetrates family life in the XVIII century. Parents' attention begins to attract all sides of children's life. But the function of organized training for children to adulthood is not a family, but a special public institution - a school designed to educate qualified workers and exemplary citizens. It is the school, according to Arjes, brought childhood beyond the first 2-4 years of maternal, parental education in the family, and the concept of childhood and adolescence is already beginning to communicate with the school as a social structure that was created by society to give it the necessary training for social Life and professional activity.
In the XIX century In the humanities, the tendency to consider childhood not only to prepare for adulthood, and a period in the life of a child who has self-relief for him, the period of its self-realization in society and culture.
A great contribution to the study of childhood as a cultural and historical phenomenon was submitted by D. B. Elkonin, which noted that the peculiarity of human childhood is that the baby is born a completely helpless creature, which, unlike animals, there is no instinctive ways to satisfy even innate Organic needs. All human behavior becomes acquired. Therefore, he needs a very long childhood, which is lengthened on the Merc of the development of society that puts forward an increasingly high demands on the knowledge and skills of its members. The higher the living being in a row of animals, the longer his childhood lasts, the nozzles of the birth at birth.
After analyzing the research of Elkonin on the problems of childhood, noted the historical nature and historical origin of its individual periods, I. V. Shapovalenko in generalized form summed up that the pattern of development of childhood as a sociocultural phenomenon is not a simple elongation, but a qualitative change but structure and content. With the complication of the life of society, the position of the child in it (i.e. social status, the range of rights and duties inherent in this period of life, the set of types of types and forms of activity) is significantly changed. In the early stages of social development, there was a direct inclusion of a child in production processes (gathering, digging) and the practical development of methods of producing food, functions of labor instruments, goals and objectives of general activities. At a certain historical period, such a complication of labor instruments occurred, in which children could no longer be directly involved in adult labor, therefore special items are created specifically for the younger generation - toys, reduced and modified tools of labor. When the reduced copies of the guns do not allow realistic reproductive activity, the game appears. Acting with toys, children, on the one hand, reproduced the general meaning of adults, on the other hand, they developed some general abilities necessary for them to master in subsequent various real implements (visual-motor coordination, dexterity, etc.).
The top of the evolution of gaming activity is the story or role-playing game, which arises in the course of the historical development of society as a result of changing the place of the child in the system of public relations. It, therefore, is socially in its origin, by its nature. Its occurrence is due not to the action of any Internal, congenital instinctive forces, and with well-defined social conditions for the child's life in society. Together with the emergence of the role-playing game, there is a new period in the development of a child, which can be called a period of role-playing games and which in modern children's psychology and pedagogy is called the name of preschool Development period.
The period of the game "shifts" the period of mastering the instruments of labor up, on the later chronological age.
When a new period arises, the stage of age development, located below, also do not remain unchanged. The emergence of school learning fills the preceding preschool period. In turn, the school period is, on the one hand, the preparation for work, and on the other, has intrinsicness in human life.
Based on the scheme planned by Elkonin, a modern psychologist V. T. Kudryavtsev shows the further historical development of ideas about childhood and allocate three historical types Childhood:
- 1. QuasseyTech - In the early stages of human history, when the children's community is not allocated, and directly incorporated into collaborative work and ritual practices (primitive childhood).
- 2. Undeveloped childhood - The world of childhood is highlighted, and before children there is a new social task - integration into the adult community. The function of overcoming the inter-flow break takes over the role-playing game, speaking as a way of modeling semantic bases of adults. Socialization occurs as the child develops already existing models of adults at the reproduction level. An example is childhood in the Middle Ages and in the New Time.
- 3. Genuine or developed childhood (according to the terminology of V. V. Davydov) develops when the child is trying to comprehend the motives of adult activity, believing critically to the world (modern childhood). The image of the adult, which is offered to the teenager, does not suit him. The ideal, created in the presentation of the child, is often different from the samples existing in society, which the child rejects. And he must freely and creatively "self-sharing in culture." Modern developed childhood involves creative development of culture as an open multidimensional system. The productive, creative nature of the mental development of a modern child is already being implemented in the early stages in the form of phenomena of a children's subculture, which becomes one of the mechanisms of the socialization of the child.
Indicated historical formations of childhood can be correlated with the relevant types of children's and adult relations: a) children's adult communities; b) joint activities of the child and adult; c) the dominant genetic prospects of the child, as well as models (methods) of cultural in ontogenesis.
In this context, the formation of quassetrics corresponds to a simple, undifferentiated, self-identical children's and adult community. In the depths of the latter, the reproductive type of joint activity of the child and an adult is. This type The compatibility is built on the approach of the actions of the child by the outer-subject form of an adult cultural sample. The cultural model is a limited choice of cash socially fixed methods (activity schemes).
The formation of undeveloped childhood is inherent in a complex, organic, developing type of children's and adult community. Under these conditions, the type of compatibility is based on the imitation modeling of the adult and the child's creative search for the inner form of the sample. The cultural model is a symbolic substitution of cash alternatives (subjects and methods of action with them), which are set in a wide social choice space.
The formation of a developed childhood relationship with a harmonious, self-suspended type of children-adult community, which is a specific embodiment of which is a developing type of assistance - an equal joint search for a child and adult inner form of the sample, its problematization and reconstruction in the act of cooperation. The cultural model is an initiative overcoming of cash situations, decorated in the structure of those tasks that the adult community directly puts in front of children, an additional problemation of these tasks, a significant reconstruction of socially developed solutions. The presence of cultural activities acts as the leading criterion of modern developed childhood.
Culture acts for a child not as a combination of socially displayed zunov (knowledge, skills, skills), and as an open multidimensional system of problematic creative tasks. The development of the child's psyche is an increasingly deep immersion in the historically developing problem of culture. According to the logic of such a "dive" can be modeled (theoretically, experimentally and practically) any form of child activity. Therefore, the process of cultural severity, but, it became, and the process of mental development with the historical necessity acquires the traits of the creative process.
S. Hall, revealing the general cultural meaning of the essence of human childhood, specifically emphasizes that "children are not small adults with all developing abilities, but only in a reduced scale, but one of its kind and very different creatures."
The duration of childhood in primitive society is not equal to the duration of childhood in the Epoch of the Middle Ages or these days. The stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are as subject to change, like thousands of years ago. Therefore, it is impossible to study the childhood childhood and the laws of its formation outside the development of human society and the laws defining its development. The duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual culture of society.
In the textbook "Pedology" π. P. Blonsky writes: "Childhood - age of development. What is the development of the animal, the longest time in the total time of its development and the time is faster than the pace of this development. Have a short childhood, it means to have little time for development, but to have more and slow pace of development, it means to develop slowly and short time. A person develops longer and faster than any animal. A modern man with favorable social development conditions develops longer and faster than man of previous historical eras ... Childhood is not an eternal constant phenomenon. : It is different at a different stage of development of the animal world, it is different and at every stage of the historical development of humanity. "
In the study of A. V. Tolstoy, a change in the duration of the childhood period in our country throughout the 20th century, due to changes in socially historical situations in the country and enshrined institutionalization:
- - from birth to 12 - the duration of childhood is associated with the introduction of compulsory primary education For all children - 1930;
- - from birth to 15 - the duration of childhood increased due to the adoption of a new law on incomplete high School - 1959;
- - from birth to 17 - the duration of childhood is currently, which is characterized by the representation of all children's ages and their clear differentiation.
In the "Convention on the Rights of the Child", adopted by UNESCO in 1989 and aimed at ensuring the full development of the identity of the child in all countries of the world, it is said that the child is every human being until the age of 18 is 18.
There are several periodizations of the psychic development of the child (Erikson, J. Piaget, L. S. Vygotsky, etc.). Below are the periodization proposed by D. B. Elkonin, which shares the age of children to the following stages and periods:
- 1. The stage of early childhood, which includes: a) infancy (up to year); b) Early age (1-3 years).
- 2. Stage of childhood, including: a) before school age (3-7 years); b) Junior school age (7-11 years).
- 3. Stage of adolescence, where include: a) adolescent age (11-15 years old); b) Early youth (15-17 years).
An important contribution to the study of the problem of childhood at the present stage was introduced by D. I. Feldstein, who wrote: "as a special phenomenon social world Childhood has its own specific characteristics. Functionally - childhood will have as an objectively necessary condition in the dynamic system of society, the state of the process of aging the younger generation and therefore preparations for the reproduction of the future society. In its meaningful definition, this is the process of constant physical growth, the accumulation of mental neoplasms, the development of social space, reflection on all relations in this space, determining itself, its own self-organization, which occurs in constantly expanding and complicating contacts of the child with adults and other children ( Younger, peers, senior), adult community as a whole. Essential childhood is the form of manifestation, a special state of social development, when biological patterns associated with the age-related changes of the child largely show their effects, "obeying", however, in all more than regulating and defining social action. "
IN modern conditions high-quality complication of the entire system of multifaceted human relations The problem of the relationship of adults and children has gained special acute and significance. We are talking about a broad sociocultural approach, which involves the transition of the relations of the world of adults by childhood not as a combination of children of different ages, which it is necessary to raise, educate, teach, but as a subject of interaction. At the same time, the position that adults occupy in relation to children as a whole is extremely important. This is the position of responsibility, which includes a wide range of components - from concern about the offspring to the desire to ensure the normal future of humanity. But in all cases, this is the position of the mediator in mastering the child of the social world, an intermediary, without which the transition of children into the world of adults is unthinkable, who speaks towards growing people and the goal, and the medium, and at the same time a mediator introducing the most complex relationships.
IN modern world It does not happen simple active process Self-development of a child, his self-determination, but this process actually affects the installation of an adult world, its development, which should be considered adults when building relationships with children.
Childhood is a term denoting initial periods of ontogenesis from birth to a teenager age.
Ontogenesis is the process of developing an individual organism.
Childhood - The period of becoming a child with a full-fledged member of society, which is ongoing from newborn to full social and psychological maturity, the period of its strengthened development, change, training.
In the course of history, the enrichment of the material and spiritual culture of mankind continuously increased. But during this time the newborn child has not changed. Relying on the data of anthropologists, it can be assumed that the newborn modern person does not differ from the newborn, who lived dozen years ago. However, with similar natural premises, the level of mental development achieved by the child at each historical stage of the development of society, unequal.
The stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are just as prosed to changes, like thousands of years ago. The duration of childhood in primitive society is not equal to the duration of childhood in the Epoch of the Middle Ages. Therefore, it is impossible to study childhood and the laws of its formation outside the development of human society and laws that determine this development. Since the duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual culture of society, it should be distinguished by the history of the child's development and from the development of a child in ontogenesis, and from uneven development of children in various modern cultures.
The problem of childhood history is one of the most difficult in modern psychologySince in this area it is impossible to carry out observation nor the experiment. Ethnographers are well known that cultural monuments relating to children are poor. Therefore, the theory was preceded by experimental facts.
The question of the historical origin of childhood periods was theoretically developed in the works of L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonina, F. Aryes.
According to L.S. Vygotsky, the course of the psychic development of the child does not obey the eternal laws of nature, the laws of ripening the body. He emphasized that there is not forever children, and there is only historically childish. So, in the literature of the XIX century, evidence of the lack of childhood in the proletarian children is numerous. For example, F. Engels in his research referred to the Commission's report created by the British Parliament in 1833: Children sometimes began to work at factories from the five-year-old age, often from a six-year-old, more often from a seven-year-old, but almost all children of poor parents worked from an eight-year-old age; Working hours they continued 14-16 hours.
Historically, the concept of childhood is associated with a certain social status, with the range of rights and obligations inherent in this period of life, with a set of types available to it and forms.
D.B. Elconin based on the study of ethnographic materials showed that in the earliest steps of human society, when the main method of producing food was gathering with primitive tools to knock down the fruits and digging edible roots, the child became very early to the work of adults, practically absorbing food production methods and Use primitive guns.
Under such conditions there was no need, nor the time for the preparation of children to future employment. Childhood occurs then, emphasized D.B. Elkonin, when a child cannot be directly included in the public reproduction system, since the child cannot yet master the instruments of labor due to their complexity. As a result, the natural inclusion of children in productive labor is moved away.
Lot interesting facts It was collected by the French demographer and historian Philipp Aryes, who was interested in how in the course of history in the minds of artists, writers and scientists there was a concept of childhood and what was different in different historical epochs. Thanks to his work, interest in the history of childhood in foreign psychology has increased significantly, and the studies of F. Arias themselves are recognized as classical. Based on research visual arts, literary and documentary sources F. Arise believes that the discovery of childhood began in the XIII century.
Research F. Arises in the field of visual art led him to the conclusion that until the XIII century. Art did not apply to children, artists did not even try to portray them. Children's images in painting XIII century. There are only in religious and allegoric plots.
This angels, baby Jesus and Naked Child as a symbol of the soul of the deceased. The image of real children was long absent in painting. If the children appeared in the works of art and appeared, they were depicted as reduced adults. In those days there were no knowledge of the peculiarities and nature of childhood. The word "child" has not had the exact meaning that gives him now. So, for example, in medieval Germany, the word "child" was synonymous for the concept of "fool".
The indifference in relation to childhood, according to F. Arias, was a direct consequence of the demographic situation of that time distinguished by a high birth rate and great child mortality. A sign of overcoming indifference by childhood, as the French demographer believes, served in the XVI century portraits of deceased children. Their death, he writes, was worried as really wrong with the loss, and not as a completely ordinary event.
Overcoming the indifference to children, if judged by painting, is not previously the XVII century, when portrait images of real children begin to appear on the canvases of artists. These were, as a rule, portraits of children of influential persons and royal people in childhood. Thus, according to F. Ariza, the discovery of childhood began in the XIII century, its development can be traced in the history of painting of the XIV-XVI centuries., But the evidence of this discovery is most fully manifested at the end of the XVI and during the entire XVII century.
An important symbol change in attitudes towards childhood is the thought of the researcher, clothes. In the Middle Ages, as soon as the child grown out of the diaper, he was immediately dressed in a suit, no different from the appropriate social status clothing. Only in
XVI-XVII centuries. Special children's clothing, distinguishing a child from an adult appear. Interestingly, for boys and girls aged 2-4 years old clothes were the same and consisted of a children's dress. In other words, in order to distinguish the boy from a man, put it in a woman's costume, and this costume existed before the start of our century, despite the change in society and the elongation of the childhood period. It should be noted that in peasant families to the Revo-Lucia, children and adults dressed the same. By the way, this feature is still preserved where there are no big differences between the work of adults and the child's game. As F. Aryes emphasized, the formation of a children's costume has become an external manifestation of deep internal changes to the attitude towards children in society: they begin to occupy an important place in the life of adults.
The discovery of childhood allowed to describe the full cycle of human life. To characterize age periods of life in scientific essays of the XVI-XVII centuries. Terminology has already been used, still used in scientific and colloquial speech: childhood, adolescence, youth, youth, maturity, old age. The differentiation of the ages of human life and including childhood, according to F. Aryes, is formed under the influence of special institutions, that is, new forms of social life generated by the development of society.
So, early childhood for the first time appears inside the family, where it is associated with a specific communication - the "tender" and "balding" of a small child. For teachers of the XVII century, love for children was no longer in baltings and passionate them, but in psychological interest in education and training, and the scientific texts of the end of the XVI and XVII centuries are full of comments regarding children's psychology. In the XVIII century The concept of rational education is penetrated into family life, and the function of organized preparation of children to adulthood is no longer the family, but a special public institution is a school.
School, thanks to its regular, ordered structure, the further differentiation of the period of life, which is denoted common word "childhood". The universal measure defining the new marking of childhood, became the "class". The child enters the new age every year as soon as the class changes. The class has become a determining factor in the process of differentiation of ages within the childhood itself and adolescence.
According to the concept of F. Aryes, the concepts of childhood and adolescence are associated with the school and school class organization as special structures created by society in order to prepare children to social life and professional activities.
Along with the analysis of works of art, with folk and linguistic studies, important data on the history of childhood development gives ethnographic material.
So, childhood is a historical phenomenon (its content and duration changed over the centuries). Childhood in primitive society was short, in the Middle Ages lasted longer; The childhood of the modern child was even more stretched in time and filled complex species Activities - children copy in their games the relationship of adults, family and professional, master the foundations of science. The specificity of childhood is determined by the level of socio-economic and cultural development of society in which the child lives, and the child is educated.
Thus, the question of the historical origin of childhood periods, about the relationship of childhood history with the history of society, about the history of childhood as a whole, without which it is impossible to compile a meaningful concept of childhood, was delivered in children's psychology in the late 20s. Xx in. And continues to be developed so far. According to the views of domestic psychologists, studying children's development is historically meaning to study the transition of a child from one age step to another, to study the change in his personality within each age period, which is happening in specific historical conditions. And although the history of childhood has not yet been studied sufficiently, the formulation of this issue in the psychology of the twentieth century is important.
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Today, any educated person on the question of what childhood will answer that childhood is a period of reinforced development, change and training. But only scientists understand that this period of paradoxes and contradictions, without which it is impossible to imagine the development process. The Paradoxes of Children's Development wrote V. Stern, J. Piaget, I.A. Skolgyansky and many others. D.B. Elkonin said that paradoxes in children's psychology are the mysteries of the development that scientists still have to solve. He invariably began with the characteristics of the two main paradoxes of children's development, which make the need for a historical approach to the understanding of childhood. Consider them.
Man appearing on the light, endowed with only the most elementary mechanisms for maintaining life. According to the physical structure, the organization of the nervous system, by type of activity and methods of its regulation, the most perfect being in nature. However, as of birth in the evolutionary series, the fall of perfection is noticeable - the child has any ready-made forms of behavior. As a rule, the higher the living being in a number of animals is, the longer his childhood lasts, the nozzles of the birth at birth. This is one of the paradoxes of nature, which predetermines the history of childhood.
In the course of history, the enrichment of the material and spiritual culture of mankind continuously increased. For the millennium, human experience has increased many thousands of times. But during the same time, the newborn baby practically has not changed. Relying on the data of anthropologists about the anatomy-morphological similarity of therigonian and modern Europeans, it can be assumed that the newborn modern person does not differ from the newborn, who lived tens of thousands of years ago.
How it turns out that with similar natural premises, the level of mental development, which reaches a child at every historical stage of the development of society, is not the same?
Childhood is a period ongoing from newborn to a full social and, therefore, psychological maturity; This is the period of becoming a child with a full-fledged member of human experience. At the same time, childhood duration in primitive society is not equal to the duration of childhood in the Epoch of the Middle Ages or these days. The stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are as subject to change, like thousands of years ago. Therefore, it is impossible to study the childhood childhood and the laws of its formation outside the development of human society and the laws defining its development. The duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual culture of society.
The problem of childhood history is one of the most difficult in modern children's psychologybecause In this area it is impossible to carry out observation nor the experiment. Ethnographers are well known that cultural monuments relating to children are poor. Even in those not very frequent cases when toys are found in archaeological excavations, these are usually the objects of cult, which in antiquity put into the graves so that they serve the owner in the afterlime world. Miniature images of people and animals were also used for witchcraft purposes.
Theoretically, the question of historical origin of childhood periods was developed in the works of P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin. The course of the psychic development of the child, according to L.S. Vygotsky, does not obey the eternal laws of nature, the laws of the ripening of the body. That is why he emphasized that there is no eternal children, but there is only historically childish.
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