The biological resources of the Atlantic Ocean briefly. Course work Natural wealth of the Atlantic Ocean
ATLANTIC OCEAN (Lat. Name. Mare Atlanticum, Greek. 'ατλαντίς - indicated the space between the Gibraltar Prol. And the Canarian about you, the whole ocean was called Oceanus Occidentalis - West Ok.), The second largest ocean on Earth (after a quiet OK.), Part World ok. Sovr. name For the first time appeared in 1507 on the map of Larring Cartograph M. Waldzeryuller.
Physico-geographical essay
General
In the north border A. about. With the North Ice OK pool. Passed by the east. The entrance of the Hudsonian Prol., then through the devisians of Prol. And along the coast about. Greenland to Cape Bruster, through the Danish Prol. Before Cape Ryudinupur on about. Iceland, according to His coast before Cape Herpir (Towering), then to Faroese about you, further to Shetland about you and 61 ° C. sh. to the coast of Scandinavian P-Ova. In the east of A. about. limited to the banks of Europe and Africa, in the west - shores. America and south. America. Border A. about. with indian approx. They are carried out along the line passing from the cape of the needle according to the Meridian of 20 ° C. D. To the coast of Antarctica. Border with quiet ok. Conduct from Cape Horn according to Meridian 68 ° 04 'z. or by the shortest distance from the south. America to Antarctic P-Ova via Prol. Drake, from about. Oste to Cape Sternequer. South. Part A. about. Sometimes they are called the atlantic sector of southern approx., Conducting the border along the Sub Nontarctic zone. convergence (approximately 40 ° sh. sh.). Some works are invited to divide A. about. on sowing and south. Atlantic oceans, but more accepted to consider it as a single ocean. A. about. - The most biologically productive from the oceans. It is located the most extended underwater ocean. Range - Mid-Atlantic Range; The only sea that does not have solid coast, limited to currents - Sargasso Sea; Hall. Fandy with the highest tidal wave; To the pool A. about. belong Black Sea with a unique hydrogen sulfide layer.
A. about. It stretches from north to south by almost 15 thousand km, the smallest width is OK. 2830 km in the Equatorial Part, the largest - 6700 km (by parallel 30 ° C. sh.). Square A. about. With seas, bays and straits 91.66 million km 2, without them - 76.97 million km 2. Water amount of 329.66 million km 3, without seas, bays and straits - 300.19 million km 3. Cf. Depth of 3597 m, the greatest - 8742 m (f Puerto Rico). The most easily accessible to the development of the Ocean's shelf zone (with depths up to 200 m) occupies approx. 5% of its area (or 8.6%, if taken into the attention of the sea, bays and straits), its area is greater than in the Indian and the Pacific Oceans, and much less than in the Arctic Ocean. Areas with depths from 200 m to 3000 m (the mainland zone) occupy 16.3% of the ocean area, or 20.7% taking into account the seas and bays, more than 70% of the ocean bed (the abyssal zone). See card.
Seas
In the pool A. about. - Numerous. The sea, which are divided into the inner - Baltic, Azov, Black, Marble and Mediterranean (in the latter, in turn, highlights seas: Adriatic, Albão, Balearic, Ionian, Cyprus, Ligurian, Tyrrhen, Aegean); Inter-Stream - Irish and Internal. Sea Zap. Scotland coast; Painted - Labrador, North, Sargassovo, Caribbean, Skolov (Cocration), Weddell, Lazarev, Zap. Part of Risser-Larsen (see Off. Articles about the seas). The largest ocean bays: Biscay, Bristol, Guinean, Mexican, Maine, St. Lawrence. The most important sheds of the ocean: Big Lot, Bosphorus, Gibraltar, Dardanelles, Danish, Devisov, Drake, Eresund (Zund), Cabota, Kattegat, Kerch, La Mans (including Pa de Calais), Small Belf, Messinsky, Skagerrak , Florida, Yucatanian.
Islands
Unlike other oceans, in A. about. Little underwater mountains, wickers and coral reefs, there are no coastal reefs. The total area of \u200b\u200bthe islands of A. about. OK. 1070 thousand km 2. OSN. Groups of islands are located on the outskirts of the mainland: British (United Kingdom, Ireland, etc.) - the largest areas, large antilles (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, etc.), Newfoundland, Iceland, Archipelago Fire Earth (Fire Earth, Ost, Navarino) , Maramery, Sicily, Sardinia, Small Antilles, Falkland (Malvinsky), Bahamas, and others. In the open ocean there are small islands: Azores, São Paulo, Ascension, Tristan da Cunya, Buva (on the Mid-Atlantic Range) and DR .
Shores
Coastline in North. Parts A. about. strongly cut (see also Shore ), Almost all major inland seas and bays are located here, south. Parts A. about. The shores are slightly cut. Shores of Greenland, Iceland and Norway coast. Tectonic-glacial dismemberment of fjord and fihard types. South, in Belgium, they are replaced by sandy shallow shores. The coast of Flanders Gl. arr. Arts. Origin (coastal dams, Polders, Channels, etc.). Shore about. United Kingdom and about. Ireland Abrasion Covers, high limestone cliffs alternate with sandy beaches and or iri dryers. Cotanen - Rocky shores, sandy and gravel beaches. Sowing. The coast of the Pyrenean P-Oov is folded by rocky rocks, south, off the coast of Portugal, sandy beaches predominate, often harbing lagoons. Sandy beaches also begged the shores of Zap. Sahara and Mauritania. South of Cape Green - aligned abrasion-bay shores with mangroves. Zap. The section of Côte d'Ivoire has a battery coast with scaling capes. Southeast, to an extensive delta r. Niger, - accumulating coast so. The number of braids, lagoon. In South-Zap. Africa - accumulative, less often abrasion coast with extensive sandy beaches. The shores of the south of Africa abrasion-bangs are composed of solid crystalline. Breeds. Coast Arctic. Canada abrasion, with high cliffs, glacial sediments and limestone. In vet Canada and North. parts hall. St. Lawrence is intensely blurred cliffs from limestone and sandstones. In the west and south room. St. Lawrence - wide beaches. On the banks of the Canadian provinces, Nova Scotia, Quebec, Newfoundland - Outputs of solid crystal. breed. From about 40 ° C. sh. Cape Canaveral in the United States (Florida) is an alternation of aligned accumulative and abrasion types of shores folded with loose rocks. The coast of the Mexican Hall. Lowlined by mangrove thickets in Florida, sand barriers in Texas and delta shores in Louisiana. On P-Oves Yucatan - crafted beach precipitation, west of the peninsula - alluvial-marine plain with coastal shafts. On the coast of the Caribbean m. Abrasion and accumulative areas with mangrove swamps are alternate, alongside the barriers and sandy beaches. South of 10 ° C. sh. The accumulative shores are common, composed of material, submitted from the mouth of the p. Amazon and other rivers. In the northeast of Brazil - the sandy coast with mangroves, interrupted by the estuaries of the rivers. From Cape Kalkanyar up to 30 ° sh. - high grinding abrasion type shore. South (off the coast of Uruguay) - the shore of an abrasion type, folded by clays, lassism and sandy-gravel sediments. In the Patagonia, the coast are represented by high (up to 200 m) cliffs with loose deposits. Antarctica shores are 90% complicated with ice and belong to the ice and thermal-band type.
Relief DNA
At the bottom of A. about. The following large geomorphologies are distinguished. Provinces: underwater outlook of the continents (shelf and mainland slope), ocean bed (deep-sea basins, abissual plains, areas of abissual hills, raising, mountains, deep-water gutters), Mid-Ocean. ridges.
The border of the mainland shallow (shelf) A. about. Passes in Wed. At depths of 100-200 m, its position may vary from 40-70 m (in the area of \u200b\u200bCape Hatteras and P-Oov Florida) to 300-350 m (m. Weddell). Shelf width from 15-30 km (Northeast Brazil, Pyrenean Pn) up to several hundred km (North M., Mexican Hall, Newfoundland Bank). In high latitudes, the relief of the shelf is complex, wears the marks of the ice effect. Numerous Raising (banks) are separated by longitudinal and transverse valleys or gutters. The coast of Antarctica on the shelf is located offshore glaciers. In low latitudes, the surface of the shelf is more aligned, especially in the removal zones by the rivers of the terrigenous material. It cross the transverse valleys, often turning into the canyons of the mainland slope.
The slope of the mainland ocean slope is in Wed. 1-2 ° and varies from 1 ° (Gibraltar regions, Shetland OG, part of the coast of Africa, etc.) to 15-20 ° off the coast of France and Bahamas O-Great. The height of the mainland slope varies from 0.9-1.7 km from Shetland O-Gossi and Ireland to 7-8 km in the Bahamas area of \u200b\u200bPuerto Rico. For active, the outskirts are characterized by high seismicity. The surface of the slope is dissected by steps, ledge and terraces of tectonic and accumulative origin and longitudinal canyons. The foot of the mainland slope is often located german hills. Up to 300 m and shallow underwater valleys.
In the middle part of the bottom A. about. There is the largest mountain system of the mid-Atlantic ridge. He extends from about. Iceland to about. Buva is 18,000 km. The width of the ridge from several hundred to 1000 km. The ridge crest passes close to the middle line of the ocean, sharing it to the east. and zap. Parts. On both sides of the ridge there are deep-water basins separated by the bottom raising. In zap. Parts A. about. From the north to south, the basins are distinguished: Labradorsky (with depths of 3000-4000 m); Newfoundland (4200-5000 m); North American brand (5000-7000 m), as part of which Assual Plains of Som, Hatteras and Naked; Gwiankaya (4500-5000 m) with the plains of Demrar and Seara; Brazilian brand (5000-5500 m) with an abissal plain pernambuka; Argentinean (5000-6000 m). In vet Parts A. about. Located basins: Western European (up to 5000 m), Iberian (5200-5800 m), Canary (St. 6000 m), green cape (up to 6000 m), Sierra Leone (approx. 5000 m), Guinea (SV. 5000 m), Angolan (up to 6000 m), Kapskaya (St. 5000 m) with the same as-plated plains. In the south there is a African Antarctic Bowl with Assual Plain Weddell. The bottoms of the deep-sea boilers at the foot of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge occupies the area of \u200b\u200bthe Abissal Hills. The basins are divided by raising Bermuda, Rio Grandi, Rockall, Sierra Leone, and others, whale ridges, Newfoundland, etc.
Underwater mountains (isolated hills of conical shape summits 1000 m or more) at the bottom of A. about. Focus exponentially. in the zone of the middle-atlantic ridge. In the deep sea part, large groups of underwater mountains are found to the northern Bermuda O-Great Patriotic War, in the Gibraltar sector, in Sev.-Vost. South. America, in the Guinean Hall. and west of southern. Africa.
Puerto Rico deepwater gutter, Caiman (7090 m), Yuzhno-Sandvichev Zhlok (8264 m) are located at island arcs. GOLOD Romanese (7856 m) is a large spill. The steepness of the slopes of deep-water gutters from 11 ° to 20 °. The bottom of the gutters flat, aligned accumulation processes.
Geological structure
A. about. originated as a result of the decay of the Late Paleozoic Supportant Pangea in jurassic time. It is characterized by a sharp predominance of passive outskirts. A. about. borders with adjacent continents by transform faults south of about. Newfoundland, along the north. The coast of the Guinean Hall, along the Falkland submarine plateau and Plateau Agullas in the south. Parts of the ocean. Active outskirts are observed on dep. plots (in the area of \u200b\u200bthe small antiller arc and arc of the southern sandwich oago), where dive occurs ( subduction) Lithosphere A. about. Limited by the length of the Gibraltar zone of subduction was revealed in the Cadiz bay.
In the mid-Atlantic ridge, the bottom is lifted ( spreading) And the formation of the ocean. Core at a speed of up to 2 cm per year. Characterized high seismic. and volcoloch. activity. In the north of the Mid-Atlantic Range, Paleosporting Rats in m. Labrador and Biscay Hall are bought. In the axial part of the ridge, the rift valley is pronounced, which is absent in the extreme south and on b. h. Reykjanes Range. Within its limits - volcoloch. Raise, frozen lava lakes, Basalt Lava streams in the form of pipes (Pillow-basalts). To the center. Atlantic found fields of metal hydrothermalMany of which at the exit form hydrothermal buildings (composed by sulfides, sulfates and metal oxides); Installed metal precipitation. At the foot of the slopes of the valley - screaming and collapsing, consisting of blocks and rubble breeds oceanic. Core (basalt, gabbro, peridotite). The age of the bark within the ridge of oligocene is modern. The mid-Atlantic Ridge shares the Zone Zap. and east. Assual Plains, where Oceanich. The foundation is blocked by a sedimentary case, the capacity of which increases in the direction of continental foot up to 10-13 km due to the appearance of more ancient horizons and the receipt of debrid material from sushi. In the same direction the age of ocean increases. Corn, reaching early chalk (north of Florida Central Yura). Assual plains are practically assemic. The mid-Atlantic ridge crosses the polynomial. Transforme faults leaving for adjacent abissual plains. The thickening of such faults is observed in the one-digitatorial zone (up to 12 per 1700 km). The largest transform faults (Vima, Sao Paulo, Romanez, etc.) are accompanied by deep colors (gutters) at the bottom of the ocean. They open the whole incision oceanic. bark and partially upper mantle; Protrusions (cold implements) of serpentinized perides, forming ridges, stretched along the stretch strike. MN. Transforme faults are transoxanese, or trunk (demarcation). In A. about. There are t. n. Intraright raising represented by submarine plateau, asseymic ridges and islands. They possess the oceanic. Core of high power and have ch. arr. Vulcanic. origin. Many of them were formed as a result of mantle Plums; Some arose at the intersection of a spreading range with large transform faults. To volulcanic. raising belongs: about. Iceland, oh. Buva, oh. Madeira, Canary, Green Cape, Azores, Paired Raising Sierra and Sierra Leone, Rio Grande and Whale Range, Bermuda Raising, Cameroon Group of Volcanoes, and others. In A. about. There are intraple raising Nevucklich. Nature, among which belongs to the Rockall underwater plateau, separated from the British O-War MOSI. Through. Plateau is microcontinentwho has learned from Greenland in Paleocene. Another microcontinent, also separated from Greenland, is the Hebrid array in the north of Scotland. Underwater edge plateau off the coast of Newfoundland (Big Newfoundlandland, Flemish-Cap) and from the coast of Portugal (Iberian) launched from continents as a result of rifting at the end of Yura - the beginning of the chalk.
A. about. It is divided into transferencing transform faults to segments that have different disclosure time. From the north to south, Labradorsky-British, Newfoundland-Iberian, Central, Equatorial, South and Penartarctic segments are distinguished. The disclosure of the Atlantic began in the early Yura (approx. 200 million years ago) from the central segment. In Triassa - Early Yura Spumping Oceanic. The bottom was preceded by continental riftogenesis, whose traces are fixed in the form of semi-industrialists filled with debrid sediments on the amer. and Sev.- AFR. Ocean's outskirts. At the end of Yura - the beginning of the chalk began to disclose the pointerctic segment. In early chalk, Spreading experienced south. Segment in the south. Atlantic and Newfoundland-Iberian segment in North. Atlantic. The disclosure of the Labrador-British segment began at the end of the early chalk. At the end of the late chalk, the Labrador of the Labrador's sea arose here as a result of spreading on the side axis, which lasted before the late Eocenta. Sowing. and south. The Atlantic was united in the middle of the chalk - Eocene in the formation of the equatorial segment.
Bottom sediments
Power of the Tolesis Sovr. The bottom sediments range from several m in the ridge area of \u200b\u200bthe middle-atlantic ridge to 5-10 km in the cross-fled areas (eg, in the romanesha) and at the foot of the mainland slope. In deep-water basins, their power is from several tens to 1000 m. St. 67% of the area of \u200b\u200bthe bottom of the ocean (from Iceland in the north to 57-58 ° YU. W.) is covered with lime deposits formed by the remnants of planktonic shells (ch. Foraminife, Kokkolitoforid). Their composition changes from large sands (at depths of up to 200 m) to the alley. At depths more than 4500-4700 m, lime iles are replaced by polygenic and silicon planktonogenic precipitation. The first occupy approx. 28.5% of the area of \u200b\u200bthe bottom of the ocean, the loss bottom of Kotlovin, and are presented red deep-sea ocean clay (deep-sea clay sludge). These precipitations also contain. The amount of manganese (0.2-5%) and iron (5-10%) and a very small amount of carbonate material and silicon (up to 10%). Silicon planktonogenic precipitates occupy approx. 6.7% of the area of \u200b\u200bthe bottom of the ocean, of which diatoms are most common (formed by the skeletons of diatoms). They are common off the coast of Antarctica and the shelf South-Zap. Africa. Radiolar zlyas (formed by skeletons of radilation) are found ch. arr. In the Angolan hollow. Along the banks of the ocean, on the shelf and partly on the mainland slopes, terrigenous precipitation of various composition (gravel-pebble, sandy, clay, etc.) are developed. The composition and power of terrigenous precipitation are determined by the derivation of the bottom, the activity of the flow of solid material with land and the mechanism of their transfer. Glacial precipitation, endured by icebergs, are common along the coast of Antarctica, about. Greenland, oh. Newfoundland, P-ov Labrador; Folded with a weakported chipboard with the inclusion of boulders, in more than In the south of A. about. In the equatorial part, precipitation is often found (from large sand to the sludge), formed from the shells of Pteropod. Coral precipitation (coral brackets, pebbles, sands and yers) are localized in the Mexican Hall., Caribbean m. And in Sev.-Vost. the coast of Brazil; Their limiting depth of which is 3500 m. Volcanogenic precipitations are developed near Vulcanic. Islands (Iceland, Azores, Canary, Green Cape, etc.) and are represented by fragments of Vulcanic. breeds, slag, pembassal, volcoloch. ash. Sovr. Chemogenic precipitations are found at the Big Bahamas Bank, in Florido-Bahamas, Antillese (chemogenic and chemogenic-biogenic carbonates). In the North American, Brazilian, Green Cape, are found razorganzanian concretion; Their composition in A. o.: Manganese (12.0-21.5%), iron (9.1-25.9%), titanium (up to 2.5%), nickel, cobalt and copper (tenth percent ). Phosphorite specs appear at depths of 200-400 m in the vehicle. Coast of the United States and Sev.-Zap. Coast of Africa. Phosphorites are distributed along the vest. The coast of A. about. - from the Pyrenean P-ov to the cape needle.
Climate
Because of the high length of A. about. Its water is located in almost all natural climates. Zones - from subarctic in the north to Antarctic in the south. From the north and south, the ocean is widely opened with the impact of the Arctic. And Antarctic. Waters and ice. The lowest temperature of the air is observed in the supremor. Above the coast of Greenland Temp-RA can descend to -50 ° C, and south. Parts m. Weddell was registered Temp-RA -32.3 ° C. In the Equatorial area of \u200b\u200bthe temperature of air 24-29 ° C. The pressure field over the ocean is characterized by a sequential change of stable large barical formations. Over the ice domes of Greenland and Antarctica - anticyclones, in moderate latitudes. and south. Hemispheres (40-60 °) - cyclones, in lower latitudes - anticyclones separated by the zone of reduced pressure from the equator. This baric structure supports in tropic. and equatorial latitudes Sustainable winds Vost. Directions (Passats), in moderate latitudes - strong winds Zap. Directions that have received navigators from navigators. "Roaring forties." Strong winds are also characteristic of the Biscay hall. In the Equatorial area, the interaction of North. and south. Baric systems leads to frequent tropic. Cyclones (tropic. Hurricanes), the greatest activity of which is observed from July to November. Horizontal tropic size. Cyclones up to several hundred km. Wind speed in them is 30-100 m / s. Moves, as a rule, from the east to west at a speed of 15-20 km / h and reach the greatest force over the Caribbean. And the Mexican Hall. In areas of low pressure in moderate and equatorial latitudes, precipitation often falls out and severe clouds are observed. So, in the equator falls sv. 2000 mm of precipitation per year, in moderate latitudes - 1000-1500 mm. In the areas of high pressure (subtropics and tropics) the amount of precipitation decreases to 500-250 mm per year, and in areas adjacent to the deserted banks of Africa and in the South Atlantic maximum - up to 100 mm and less per year. In the areas of the meeting of warm and cold flows, fog, for example. in the Newfoundland Bank district and in the hall. La fee.
Hydrological mode
River and Water Balanfrom. To the pool A. about. It is made annually by rivers 19,860 km 3 of water, it is more than in any other ocean (approx. 45% of all runoff in the world ocean). The largest rivers (with annual consumption of St. 200 km 3): Amazon, Mississippi (flows into the Mexican Hall.), St. Lawrence River, Congo, Niger, Danube (flows into the black m.), Parana, Orinoco, Uruguay, Magdalena (flows into the Caribbean m.). However, the balance of fresh water A. about. Negative: evaporation from its surface (100-125 thousand km 3 / year) significantly exceeds atmospheric precipitation (74-93 thousand km 3 / year), river and underground stock (21 thousand km 3 / year) and melting ice and Arctic and Antarctic icebergs (approx. 3 thousand km 3 / year). The lack of water balance is filled with the influx of water, ch. arr. Of the quiet OK, through the Strait of Drake with the course of Western winds, there are 3470 thousand km 3 / year, and from A. about. in quiet ok. There is only 210 thousand km 3 / year. From the northern ice o approx. through numerous. Straits in A. about. There are 260 thousand km 3 / year and 225 thousand km 3 / year Atlantic. Waters flow back to the North Arctic OK. Water balance with Indian OK. Negative, in Indian OK. With the course of Western winds, 4976 thousand km 3 / year is made, and back comes with coastal Antarctic. The flow, depth and bottom waters only 1692 thousand km 3 / year.
Temperature\u003em. Wed The temperature of the ocean water as a whole 4.04 ° C, and surface water 15,45 ° C. Distribution of the temperature of water on the surface asymmetrical relative to the equator. Strong effect Antarctic. Waters leads to the fact that surface water is south. Hemisphere is almost 6 ° C colder than the northern, the most warm water of the open part of the ocean (thermal. Equator) are between 5 and 10 ° C. sh., i.e. shifted north of geographic. Equator. Features of large-scale water circulation lead to the fact that the pace of water on the surface of Zap. The coast of the ocean is above approximately 5 ° C than the eastern. The very warm pace of water (28-29 ° C) on the surface in the Caribbean. And the Mexican Hall. In August, the lowest - on the shores about. Greenland, oh. Baphinova Earth, P-ov Labrador and Antarctica, south of 60 °, where even the summer of the pace of water does not rise above 0 ° C. The temperature of the waters in the china layer. Thermocline (600-900 m) is approx. 8-9 ° C, deeper, in intermediate waters, lowered in Wed. up to 5.5 ° C (1.5-2 ° C to Antarctic. Intermediate waters). In the deep waters of the pace of water in Wed. 2.3 ° C, in the bottoms 1.6 ° C. The bottom of the pace of water increases somewhat due to geothermich. Heat flow.
Salted b. In the waters of A. about. Contains approx. 1.1 × 10 16 T salts. Cf. The salinity of the water of the entire ocean 34.6, surface waters of 35.3 ‰. The greatest saline (St. 37.5) is observed on the surface in subtropical. areas where water evaporation from the surface exceeds it with atmospheric precipitates, the smallest (6-20) in the mouths of large rivers flowing into the ocean. From the subtropics to high latitudes, the saline on the surface decreases to 32-33 under the action of atmospheric precipitation, ice, river and surface runoff. In temperate and tropic. Areas of Max. The values \u200b\u200bof saline - on the surface, the intermediate minimum of saline is observed at the depths of 600-800 m. Water North. Parts A. about. Characterized by the deep maximum saline (more than 34.9), which is formed by highly fatty Mediterranean waters. Depths A. about. Salting 34.7-35.1 ‰ and Temp-Ru 2-4 ° C, the bottom, occupying the deepest depressions of the ocean, respectively, 34.7-34.8 ‰ and 1.6 ° C.
Density The water density depends on the tempo and salting, and for A. about. Temp-RA has a greater value in the formation of the field of water density. Waters with the smallest density are located in Equatorial and tropic. zones with a high temperature of water and the strong effect of the flow of such rivers such as Amazon, Niger, Congo, etc. (1021.0-1022.5 kg / m 3). South. Parts of the ocean The density of surface water increases to 1025.0-1027.7 kg / m 3, in Northern - to 1027.0-1027.8 kg / m 3. The density of the deep water A. o. 1027.8-1027.9 kg / m 3.
Ice regime m. In North. Parts A. about. Annual ice formed ch. arr. in inside The seas of moderate latitudes, perennial ice are taken out of the Northern Ice OK. The border of the spread of ice cover in North. Parts A. about. Significantly changing, in the winter period, Packing Loda can achieve in Split. Years 50-55 ° C. sh. In the summer there is no ice. Border Antarctic. Perennial ice ice in the winter takes place at a distance of 1600-1800 km from the coast (approximately 55 ° S.), in the summer (in February - March), ice are found only in the coastal strip of Antarctica and in the m. Weddell. OSN. Iceberg suppliers - ice shields And the shelf glaciers of Greenland and Antarctica. The total mass of the icebergs coming with Antarctic. Glaciers are estimated at 1.6 × 10 12 tons per year, ASN. Their source is a Filter Shelf Glacier in m. Weddell. From the Arctic glaciers in A. about. Icebergs are received by a total weight of 0.2-0.3 × 10 12 t per year, in the OSN. From the glacier Jacobshavn (in the area about. Disco Zap. The coast of Greenland). Cf. The life expectancy of the Arctic. icebergs approx. 4 years old, Antarctic is somewhat more. The border of the distribution of icebergs in North. Parts of the ocean 40 ° C. sh., but in dep. Cases were observed up to 31 ° C. sh. South. Parts The border passes from 40 ° sh., to the center. Parts of the ocean and in 35 ° sh. on zap. and east. periphery.
I am. Circulation of water A. about. It is divided into 8 quasistationary ocean. Crupions located almost symmetrically relative to the equator. From low to high latitudes in north. and south. Hemispheres are tropical. Anticyclonich., Tropic. Cyclonich., Subtropical. Anticyclonich., Subolar cyclonich. Oceanic. Crooked. Their boundaries, as a rule, make up ch. Oceanic. flows. P-ov Florida originates warm flow Golfstream. Picking into the waters of warm Antillest flow and Floridal flow, Gulf Stream is sent to the northeast and in high latitudes is divided into several branches; most significant of them - Irminerger Currentwhich transfers warm water in the devisians of the Prol., North Atlantic flow, Norwegian current, going to the Norwegian m. And then north-east, along the coast of Scandinavian P-Ova. Towards them from Devisov Prol. It turns out cold Labrador Currentwhose waters are traced from the coast of America almost up to 30 ° C. sh. From the Danish Prol. Going to the ocean Cold East Greenland Current. In low latitudes A. about. From the east to the Wood warm Northern trade houses and Southern trademarks, between them, about 10 ° C. sh., from the west to the East there is an interpassate counterchange that is actively ch. arr. In the summer in North. Hemisphere. From the southern trade in the flows separated Brazilian flowwhich passes from the equator and up to 40 °. sh. Along the shores of America. Sowing. The branch of the southern trade in the flows forms Gwiangwhich is directed from the south to the north-west to the compound with the waters of the Northern Passatures. At the shores of Africa from 20 ° C. sh. A warm Guinean current is held to the equator, in the summer, interpassate countercourse is connected to it. South. Parts A. about. crosses cold Western winds flow (Antarctic circumpolar flow), which is included in A. about. via prol. Drake descends to 40 ° sh. And goes to Indian OK. South Africa. From him is separated by the Falkland flow, reaching along the shores of America almost to the mouth of the r. Parana, the Bengelege flow walking along the shores of Africa almost to the equator. Cold Canary Current It takes place from the north to south - from the shores of the Pyrenean P-ov to the O-Great Bimine of the Green Cape, where it goes to the Northern Passatock.
Deep circulation ind. Deep Circulation and Structure of Water A. about. They are formed as a result of changes in their density when waters getting driving or in water mixing zones. Origin where the density increases as a result of mixing waters with Split. Saltness and tempo. Subsurface waters are formed in subtropical. latitudes and occupy a layer of depth of 100-150 m to 400-500 m, with a tempo from 10 to 22 ° C and a saline of 34.8-36.0 ‰. Intermediate waters are formed in subogenous areas and are located at depths from 400-500 m to 1000-1500 m, with a tempo of from 3 to 7 ° C and a saline of 34.0-34.9. The circulation of subsurface and intermediate waters is in general anticyclonic. character. The depths of water are formed in high latitudes. and south. Parts of the ocean. Waters formed in Antarctic. The area has the greatest density and distributed from the south to the north in the bottom layer, their Temp RA varies from negative (in high south. latitudes) to 2.5 ° C, saline 34.64-34.89. Water formed in high north. Latitude, move from north to south in a layer of 1500 to 3500 m, the pace of these water from 2.5 to 3 ° C, saline 34.71-34.99 ‰. In the 1970s. V.N. Stepanov and, later, V. S. Broker was justified by the scheme of the planetary interconnection transfer of energy and the substance that received the name. "Global Conveyor" or "Global Thermohalin Circulation of the World Ocean". According to this theory, relatively salted North Atlantic. Water reaches the coast of Antarctica, mix with supercooled shelf water and, passing through the Indian OK., End your way to North. Parts Pacific Ocean.
Tides and Volati.e. Flips in A. about. Preim. semi-sufficient. The height of the tidal wave: 0.2-0.6 m in the open part of the ocean, several cm in the black m., 18 m in the hall. Fandy (Sev. Part of the hall. Maine in North. America) is the highest in the world. The height of the wind waves depends on the speed, the time of exposure and overclocking the wind, during strong storms can reach 17-18 m. Rarely (once every 15-20 years) waves were observed. 22-26 m.
Flora and fauna
Big length of A. about., Variety of climat. Conditions, it means. Flush of freshwater and large apuvelling Provide a variety of vital conditions. In total in the ocean dwell ok. 200 thousand species of plants and animals (of which fish are approx. 15,000 species, challenges of mollusks OK. 600 species, whales and lastonods OK. 100 species). Life is very uneven life in the ocean. Mix three OSN. The types of zonality distribution of life in the ocean: latitudinal, or climatic., Vertical and circuscircular. The density of life and its species diversity decreases when the open ocean is removed from the shores and from the surface to deep waters. The species diversity decreases from tropic. lard to high.
Planktonic organisms (phytoplankton and zooplankton) is the basis of the food chain in the ocean, the main. The mass of them lives in the upper area of \u200b\u200bthe ocean, where the light penetrates. The greatest biomass of plankton is in high and moderate latitudes during spring-summer flowering (1-4 g / m 3). During the year, biomass can change 10-100 times. OSN. Types of phytoplankton - diatoms of algae, zooplankton - contourodes and eufaugisides (up to 90%), as well as bristle-shit, hydromeuzuz, swords (in the north) and salmps (in the south). In low latitudes, the Plankton biomass varies from 0.001 g / m 3 in anticyclonic centers. Crooked up to 0.3-0.5 g / m 3 in Mexican and Guinean bays. Phytoplankton presented ch. arr. Coccolitins and Peridinees, the latter can develop in huge quantities in coastal waters, causing catastrophic. The phenomenon of "red tide". Low latitudes zooplankton are represented by self-grain, hyperidamis, hydraulication, siffephors, and other types. There are no pronounced dominant species of zooplankton in low latitudes.
Bentos is represented by large algae (macrophytes), which b. h. Grow on the bottom of the shelf zone to a depth of 100 m and covered approx. 2% of the total area of \u200b\u200bthe bottom of the ocean. The development of phytobenthos is observed in those places where there are suitable conditions - soils suitable for attachment to the bottom, the absence or moderate speed of the bottom currents and others. In high latitudes A. about. OSN. Part of the phytobentos make up laminaries and red algae. IN moderate zone sowing. Parts A. about., along the American and European coasts, - Brown Algae (Fukusi and Askophilulum), Laminaria, Design and Red Algae (Formceration, Angel Settlement, etc.). Soft soils are widespread from the zoster. In moderate and cold zones of the south. Parts A. about. Brown algae predominate. In tropic. The zone on the littorals due to severe heating and intensive insolation vegetation on the ground is practically absent. Sargassov ecosystem occupies a special place, where floating macrophytes (in Osn. Three species of algae Sargassum) form on the surface of the cluster in the form of a ribbon length from 100 m to several. kilometers.
B. Part. Necton biomass (actively floating animals - fish, cephalopod mollusks and mammals) make up fish. The largest number of species (75%) lives in the shelf area, with depth and when removing from the shores, the number of species decreases. For cold and moderate belts characteristic: from fish - Split. Types of cods, pikes, sides, herring, cambals, ingestion, marine eel, etc., sickling and polar sharks; From mammals - lastonodi (Greenland seal, Khokhlach, etc.), Split. Types of cetaceans (whales, coushlots, tales, grindids, bottles, etc.).
Between the fauna of moderate and high latitudes of both hemispheres is a great similarity. At least 100 species of animals refers to bipolar, i.e. are characteristic of both moderate and high belts. For tropic. zones A. about. Characteristic: from fish - Split. Sharks, volatile fish, sailboats, Split. types of tunts and luminous anchovs; from animals - sea turtles, coushlots, river dolphin investment; Numerous and cephalopod mollusks - Split. Types of squid, octopus, etc.
Deep-sea fauna (Zoobentos) A. about. represented by sponges, corals, hazardous, crustaceans, molluscs, spoken. worms.
Story study
There are three stages of research A. about. The first is characterized by the establishment of the ocean boundaries and the discoveries of its individual objects. AT 12- 5 centuries. BC e. Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks and Romans left the descriptions of marine wanders and the first marine cards. Their swimming reached the Pyrenean P-Ova, England and the mouth of the Elbe. In 4 c. BC e.Pitas (Pill) during swimming in North. Atlantic determined the coordinates of a number of items and described tidal and taming phenomena in A. about. To 1 c. n. e. refers to the mention of the Canary O-Wah. In 9-10 centuries. Normans (Rauda Eik and his son Leif Eirikson) crossed the ocean, visited Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland and examined the shores. America to 40.° С. sh. In the epochGreat geographic discoveries (Ser. 15 - Ser. 17th centuries) Seaflores (ch. arr. Portuguese and Spaniards) are mastering the way to India and China along the shores of Africa. The most outstanding swimming in this period was made by Portuguese B.Diam (1487), Genoese H.Columbus (1492-1503), Englishman J.Cabotom (1497) and Portuguese Vasco yesGama (1498); For the first time they are trying to measure the depths of open parts of the ocean and the speed of surface flows. First Batymetric. Map (depth map) A. about. It was drawn up in Spain in 1523. In 1520 F.Mageldlan For the first time passed from A. about. in quiet ok. Strait, later called him name. In 16-17 centuries. Intensively studied atlantic. Coast sowing. America (the British of J.Davis, 1576-78, G. Hudson, 1610, W. Buffin, 1616, and others. Seaflores whose names can be found on the map of the ocean). In 1591-92, Falkland O-Wa is open. South. shore A. about. - Mainland Antarctica - were open and first described Rus. Antarctic. F. F. expeditionBellinshausen and M. P. Lazarev In 1819-21. This concluded the study of the borders of the ocean.
The second stage is characterized by the study of physical. properties of ocean water, temperature, saline, flows and so on. In 1749, the G. Ellis was held the first dimensions of the tempo at various depths, repeated by the Englishman J. Cook (1772), Swiss O. Sausure (1780), Rus. I. F. Kruzenshtern (1803) and others. At 19 in. A. about. It becomes a landmark for working out new methods of research of depths, new techniques and new approaches to the organization of work. Batometers, deep-water thermometers, thermal muffubers, deep-water trawls and drags are used for the first time. From the most significant expeditions can be noted Rus. Swimming on the ships "Rurik" (1815-18) and "Enterprise" (1823–26) Under the leadership of O. E.Kotsebu (1815-18); English On "Erebus" and "Terror" under the leadership of J. K.Ross (1840-43); Amer. At the "Arctic" under the direction of M. F.Mori. (1856). Real complex oceanographic. Ocean research began with an expedition to English. Corway.« Challenger "led by W. Thomson (1872-76). The following significant expeditions were held on the courts of "Gazelle" (1874-76), "Vityaz" (1886-89), Valdivia (1898-99), "Gauss" (1901-03). From 1885 to 1922 a great contribution to the study of A. about. Prince of Monaco Albert I, who organized and led forwarding studies on the yachts "IRRENDDER", "Princess Alice", "IRREDDER II", "Princess Alice II" in North. Parts of the ocean. In the same years, they were organized in Monaco Oceanographic Museum. Since 1903, work began on "standard" cuts in the North Atlantic under the leadership of the International Sea Study Council (ICES) - the first international oceanographic. A scientific organization that existed to the 1st World War.
The most significant expeditions in the period between world wars were performed on the courts "Meteor", "Discovery II", "Atlantis". In 1931, the International Council of Scientific Alliances (ICSU) was formed, which is currently operating, carrying out the organization and coordination of the research of the ocean.
After the 2nd World War, a echo sounder began to study for the bottom of the ocean. This made it possible to get a real picture of the face of the ocean bottom. In 1950-70s. Conducted complex geophysic. and geological. Research A. about. and installed features of the relief of its bottom and tectonics, the structure of the sedimentary thickness. Many large form of relief of the bottom (underwater ridges, mountains, gutters, fault zones, extensive basins and raising) are composed of geomorphology. and tectonich. cards. Unique results were obtained according to the international program of deep-water drilling of the ocean IODP (1961-2015, continue).
The third stage of the studies of the ocean is aimed mainly to study its role in global substance and energy transfer processes, influence on climate formation. The complexity and vast spectrum of research work demanded broad international cooperation. In coordination and organization of international research, the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Studies (SCOR), formed in 1957, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC), operating since 1960, and other international organizations are played. In 1957-58, great works are held in the first international geophysical year (MGG). Subsequently, major international projects are aimed at studying individual parts of A. about., For example, Ecalanta I-III (1963-64), polygon-70 (1970), Sicar (1970-75), polyom (1977-78 ) and A. about. As part of the World Ocean, for example Toga (1985-89), Geosecs (1973-74), WOCE (1990-96), etc. During these projects, the peculiarities of the water circulation of various scales, distribution and composition of the suspension were studied; The role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle and MN. Dr. Questions. In con. 1980s. owls. deep-sea vehicles"Peace» Unique ecosystems of geothermal regions of the ocean rift zone were studied. If in start. 80s. It was ok. 20 International Ocean Research Projects, then to 21 V. sv. 100. The largest programs:« International Geospheric Biospheric Program» (from 1986, 77 countries participate), it includes projects« Dynamics of global ocean ecosystems» (Globes, 1995-2010), "Global streams of substance in the ocean» (Jgofs, 1988-2003), " The interaction of the land-ocean in the coastal zone» (LOICZ), combined studies of sea biogeochemistry and ecosystems (IMBER), the interaction of land - the ocean in the coastal zone (Loicz, 1993-2015), the study of the surface interaction of the ocean with the lower atmosphere (Solas, 2004-15 continues)« World Climate Study Program» (WCRP, from 1980, 50 countries participate), the international study of biogeochemical cycles and large-scale distribution of trace elements and their isotopes in the marine environment (Geotraces, 2006-15 continue) and MN. Dr. The global ocean state surveillance system is developing (GOOS). One of the main WCRP projects was the Climate and Ocean program: instability, predictability and variability (CLIVAR, since 1995), the basis for which the results of Toga and Woce served. Ros. For many years, expeditionary studies of exchange processes at the border of A. about are held scientists. and the Northern Icetic OK., Circulation in the Strait of Drake, the propagation of cold antarctic waters for deepwater faults. From 2005 there is an international program "Argo", in which observations are carried out by autonomous sensing devices throughout the world Ocean (including A. about.), And the results are transmitted through artificial satellites Earth in data centers.
In November 2015, from Kronstadt to the shores of Antarctica, for the first time in the last 30 years, sailing has merged. Research vessel of the Baltic Fleet "Admiral Vladimirsky". It made a transition of over 34 thousand MIRs. miles The route carried out hydrographic, hydrological, hydrometeorological and radionavigation studies, collecting information for the proof of marine navigation maps, guides and allowances for swimming. Having reopening the southern tip of the African mainland, the ship entered the outskirts of Antarctica. He was wounded near Ros. Progress stations, scientists exchanged with stations staff on observing ice environment, melting of the Arctic ice, weather. Expedition ended in 15.4.2016. In addition to the crew, specialists of hydrographs of the 6th Atlantic Oceanographic took part in the expedition. Expeditions hydrographic. Baltic Fleet Services, Employees Ros. State Hydrometeorological. University, Institute of Arctic and Antarctic, etc. The work on the creation of the third part of the Oceanographic Atlas Woce (The World Ocean Circulation Experiment) dedicated to the Atlantic Ocean, the presentation of which took place in February 2015 in IU RAS. P. P. Shirshova.
Economic use
A. about. It takes the most important place in the global economy among other oceans of our planet. Using a person A. about., Like other seas and oceans, goes on several land. Directions: Transport and Communication, Fisheries, Mining Miner. resources, energy, recreation.
Transport
Already for 5 centuries A. about. It takes a leading role in maritime transportation. With the opening of Suez (1869) and Panamsky (1914) channels appeared short sea Paths Between the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. To the share of A. about. There is approx. 3/5 cargo turnover of world shipping, in con. 20 V. At its water area was transported to 3.5 billion tons per year (according to IOC). OK. 1/2 Volume of transportation is oil, gas and petroleum products, followed by general cargo, then iron ore, grain, coal, bauxite and alumina. GL The direction of transportation is the North Atlantic, which takes place between 35-40 ° C. sh. and 55-60 ° C. sh. OSN. Shipping paths connect the port cities of Europe, USA (New York, Philadelphia) and Canada (Montreal). The norwegian, northern and extras are adjacent to this direction. Seas of Europe (Baltic, Mediterranean and Black). Transported to the OSN. Raw materials (coal, ore, cotton, forest, etc.) and general cargo. Dr. Important areas of transportation - South. Atlantic: Europe - Central (Panama, etc.) and South America (Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires); Vost.-Atlantic: Europe - South Africa (Cape Town); Zap.-Atlantic: Sev. America, southern. America - South Africa. Before the reconstruction of the Suez Canal (1981) b. h. oil tankers from the indian pool approx. It was forced to go around Africa.
Transportation of passengers occupies an important place in A. about. From the 19th century, when mass emigration began from old light to America. The first sailing and steam vessel "Savannah" crossed A. about. For 29 days in 1819. In the beginning 19th century The prize "Blue ribbon" is established for passenger ships, which will cross the ocean faster. This prize was awarded, for example, such famous liners like "Luisania" (4 days and 11 h), "Normandy" (4 days and 3 hours), Queen Mary (4 days without 3 min). Last time "Blue Ribbon" was assigned Amer. Lainee "United Stats" in 1952 (3 days and 10 h). In the beginning. 21 c. The duration of the passenger liner flight between London and New York is 5-6 days. Max. Passenger traffic through A. about. I fell at 1956-57, when more than 1 million people were transported per year, in 1958 the volume of transportation of passengers by air transportation was equalized with marine transport, and then everything would be. h. Passengers gives preference to air transport (record time of the flight of the Supervian liner "Concord" on the route New York - London - 2 h 54 min). The first non-winning flight through A. about. Made 14-15.6.1919 English. The pilots of J. Alkok and A. U. Brown (about. Newfoundland - about. Ireland), the first non-winning flight through A. about. Alone (from the continent to the continent) 20-21.5.1927 - Amer. Lentchik Ch. Lindberg (New York - Paris). In the beginning. 21 c. Almost the entire flow of passengers through A. about. serviced by aviation.
Communication
In 1858, when there was no radio communications between continents, through A. about. The first telegraph cable was laid. To con. 19th century 14 telegraph cables associated Europe with America and 1 with Cuba. In 1956, the first telephone cable was laid between the continents, by the mid-1990s. At the bottom of the ocean operated St. 10 telephone lines. In 1988, the first transatlantic line of optical fiber communications was laid, at the beginning of the 21st century. There are 8 lines.
Fisheries
A. about. It is considered the most productive ocean, its biological. Resources are operated by a person most intensively. In A. about. Fishing and seafood mining make up 40-45% of the total world catch (pl. Ok. 25% of world OK.). B. Part. Calves (up to 70%) make up herring fish (herring, sardines, etc.), Cod (Cod, Piksha, Merlusa, Mlow, Side, Navaga, etc.), Kambala, Falus, Marine Okun. Mining of mollusks (oysters, mussels, squid, etc.) and crustaceans (lobsters, crabs) OK. eight%. According to FAO estimates, the annual catch of fish products according to A. about. It is 85-90 million tons, but for most fishing areas of fishing fishing, fish reached in Ser. 1990s. His maximum and an increase in it is undesirable. The traditional and most productive area of \u200b\u200bfisheries - Sev.-Vost. Part A. about., including the Northern and Baltic Sea (in Osn. Herring, Crack, Fambal, Sprots, Mackerel). In Sev.-Zap. Ocean district, in Newfoundland banks, cod, herring, flounder, squid, etc. have been mined for many centuries. Parts A. about. Sardine, stavavids, mackerel, tuna, and others are going on in the south, on the breadth of the Patagoni-Falkland shelf in the breadth, fishing like warm-water species (tuna, marlinen, sword fish, sardines, etc.) and cold weather (Putassu, Merlusa , not flow, klyukachi, etc.). Off the coast of Zap. and South-Zap. Africa catch Sardine, Anchovy and Merluca. In Penartarctic. Ocean area fishing They have plankton crustaceans (krill), marine mammals, from fish - not flow, klyukachi, silver, etc. to gray. 20 V. in high-grade sowing. and south. The areas of the ocean went on active fishery. species of lastonodii and cetaceans, but in recent decades, he dramatically decreased due to the depletion of biological. resources and data from environmental protection, including and intergovernmental. agreements on the limitation of their production.
Mineral resources
Mainer is more actively being developed. The riches of the bottom of the ocean. The oil and combustible gas fields have been studied more fully, the first mention of their operation in the pool A. about. Refer to 1917 when oil production began in Prom. Scales in the east. Parts of Maracaibo Lagoon (Venezuela). The largest centers Sea mining: Venezuelan Hall., Laguna Maracaibo ( Maracaybsk oil and gas pool), Mexican Hall. ( Mexican Bay Oil and Gas Pool), Hall. Faria ( Orinoksky oil and gas pool), Brazilian shelf (Sergi-Alagoas oil and gas pool), Guinean. ( Guinean Bay Oil and Gas Pool), North m. ( North Sea oil and gas region) And others. Many coasts are common, marvelous deposits of heavy minerals. The largest developments of paint deposits of Ilmenite, Monocyte, Zircon, Rutila are conducted off the coast of Florida. Such deposits are located in the Mexican Hall., Vost. Coast of the United States, as well as Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina and on Falkland O-Wah. On the shelf South-Zap. Africa is maintained by the development of coastal marine places of diamonds. The coast of New Scotland at the depths of 25-45 meters found gold-bearing placers. In A. about. One of the world's largest iron ore deposits - Vaban (in the hall is concerned off the coast of Newfoundland), the mining of iron ore is also conducted off the coast of Finland, Norway and France. In the coastal waters of Great Britain and Canada, coal deposits are developed, mined it in mines located on land, horizontal productions of which go under the bottom of the sea. On the shelf of the Mexican Hall. Large sulfur deposits are being developed Mexican Gulf of Seronica Province. In the coastal zone of the ocean, sand is mined for construction and glass, gravel. On the shelf Vost. Coast of the United States and Zap. The coast of Africa is explored phosphoritone precipitation, however, the development is still unprofitable. The total mass of phosphorites on the continental shelf is estimated at 300 billion tons. At the bottom of the North American brand and on the Plateau Blake found major fields of iron orders, their total reserves in A. about. estimated at 45 billion tons.
Recreational resources
From the 2nd floor. 20 V. great importance For the economies of coastal countries has the use recreational Resources Ocean. Older and new resorts are developing. Since the 1970s. Ocean liners are laid, intended only for cruises, they are distinguished by large dimensions (displacement of 70 thousand tons or more), elevated level of comfort and relative slowness. OSN. Routes of cruise liners A. about. - Mediterranean and Caribbean Sea and Mexican Hall. With con. 20 - NCH. 21 centuries. Scientific and tourist and extreme cruise routes are developing, mainly in high latitudes. and south. Hemisphere. In addition to the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, the main resort centers are located on the Canary, Azores, Bermuda O-Wah, in the Caribbean. And the Mexican Hall.
Energy
Energy of marine tides A. about. It is estimated at about 250 million kW. In the Middle Ages in England and France, mills and sawmills were built using a tidal wave. In the mouth of the r. Rans (France) acts a tidal power station. The use of hydrothermal ocean energy is considered promising (the temperature difference in surface and deep waters), the hydrothermal station acts on the coast of Côte d'Ivoire.
Portalities
On the shores of A. about. Most large ports of the world are located: in Western Europe - Rotterdam, Marseille, Antwerp, London, Liverpool, Genoa, Havre, Hamburg, Auguston, Southampton, Wilhelmshafen, Trieste, Dunkirk, Bremen, Venice, Gothenburg, Amsterdam, Naples, Nantes Nazer, Copenhagen; all in. America - New York, Houston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk- Newport, Montreal, Boston, New Orleans; South. America - Marakaybo, Rio de Janeiro, Santus, Buenos Aires; In Africa - Dakar, Abidjan, Cape Town. Ros. Port cities do not have a direct exit to A. about. and arranged on the shores internal. Seas, belonging to his pool: St. Petersburg, Kaliningrad, Baltiysk (Baltic m.), Novorossiysk, Tuapse (black m.).
Atlantic Ocean
Geographical position. The Atlantic Ocean stretches from north to south by 16 thousand km from Subarctic to Antarctic latitudes. The ocean is wide in the northern and southern parts, narrows in equatorial latitudes up to 2900 km. In the north, communicated with the Northern Arctic Ocean, and in the south is widely connected to the quiet and Indian Oceans. Limited to the shores of North and South America - in the West, Europe and Africa - in the East and Antarctica - in the south.
The Atlantic Ocean - the second largest among the oceans of the planet. The coastline of the ocean in the northern hemisphere is strongly dissected by numerous peninsulas and bays. About the continents a lot of islands, internal and outdoor seas. The Atlantic includes 13 seas that occupy 11% of its area.
Relief bottom.Through the entire ocean (approximately equal distance from the coordinary continents) passes Mid-Atlantic Range. The relative ridge height is about 2 km. Cross faults dismember it into separate segments. A giant rift valley from 6 to 30 km and a depth of 2 km is located in OS. The rhythm and faults of the mid-Atlantic ridge are confined both underwater existing volcanoes and volcanoes of Iceland and the Azores. On both sides of the ridge lie with a relatively smooth bottom, separated by sublime raising. Shelf area in the Atlantic Ocean is greater than in quiet.
Minural resources.Oil and gas reserves are found on the shelf of the North Sea, in Mexican, Guine and Biscay Bay. The deposit of phosphorites is open in the area of \u200b\u200braising deep waters off the coast of North Africa in tropical latitudes. Outstanding fields of tin near the coast of Great Britain and Florida, as well as diamonds - off the coast of Southwestern Africa were revealed on the shelf in the nanos of ancient and modern rivers. Zavozomarganian concretions were found in the bottom of the bottom of the coast Florida and Newfoundland.
Climate. The Atlantic Ocean is located in the air climatic belts of the Earth. The main part of the ocean water area is between 40 ° C.Sh. and 42 ° Yu.Sh. - Located in subtropical, tropical, subevatorial and equatorial climatic belts. Here all year round high positive air temperatures. The most severe climate has subnutrctic and antarctic latitudes, to a lesser extent - amateur, northern latitudes.
Flows. In the Atlantic, as in the Pacific, two rings of surface currents are formed. In the northern hemisphere, the Northern Passatom, Golf Stream, the north-Atlantic and Canary currents form the movement of water clockwise. In the southern hemisphere, the southern trade house, Brazilian, the flow of Western winds and Bengelskoe form the movement of water counterclockwise. Due to the considerable length of the Atlantic Ocean from the north to the south, meridional flows of water are more developed than latitudinal.
Waters.The zonality of the aquatic masses in the ocean is complicated by the influence of sushi and sea currents. This is manifested before all in the distribution of surface water temperatures. In many areas of the ocean, the isotherms off the coast will be drastically deviated from the latitudinal direction.
Northern half of the ocean is warmer South, The temperature difference comes to 6 ° C. The average temperature of surface waters (16.5 ° C) is slightly lower than in the Pacific Ocean. The cooling effect is the water and ice of the Arctic and Antarctic ice. Saltness of surface waters in the Atlantic Ocean high. One of the reasons for increased salinity is that a significant part of the moisture evaporating from the water area is not refunded again into the ocean, but is transferred to the SOSE of the continent (due to the relative narrowness of the ocean).
A lot of big rivers fall into the Atlantic Ocean and his sea, Congo, Mississippi, Nile, Danube, La Plata, etc.
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ʜᴎʜᴎ put in the ocean huge masses of freshwater, suspended material and pollutants. In the desalinated bays and seas of subogenous and moderate latitudes in the winter of the western coast of the ocean, ice is formed. Numerous icebergs and floating sea ice hinder shipping in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean.
Organic world. The Atlantic Ocean has poor views of the flora and fauna than quiet. One of the reasons for this is its relative geological youth and noticeable cooling in the quaternary period during the remediation of the northern hemisphere. At the same time, in quantitatively, the ocean is rich in organisms - it is the most productive per unit area. This is connected before all over the wide development of shelves and shallow cans, which lives a lot of bottom and bottom fish (cod, flabble, perch, etc.). The biological resources of the Atlantic Ocean in many areas are exhausted. The ocean share in world fisheries in recent years has decreased significantly.
Natural complexes. In the Atlantic Ocean, all the zonal complexes are distinguished - natural belts, except for the northern polar. Water northern subpolar beltrich in life. It is especially developed on shelves at the coasts of Iceland, Greenland and Labrador Peninsula.
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Temperate zone It is characterized by intensive interaction of cold and warm waters, its water is the most productive areas of the Atlantic. Extensive Warm Waters Two subtropical, two tropical and equatorial belts Less productive than the water of the northern moderate belt.
In the northern subtropical belt stands out special Natural Scale Complex of Sargassov Sea. It is worth saying that it is characterized by an increased salinity of water (up to 37.5 ppm) and low bioproductivity. In transparent water, pure blue-eyed color grow brown algae - Sargassa, giving the name of the water area.
In a moderate belt of southern hemisphere, as in Northern, natural complexes are rich in life in areas where water is mixed with different temperature and water density. In the subanrtarctic and antarctic belts Characterized by the manifestation of seasonal and constant ice phenomena, reflected on the composition of the fauna (krill, cetacean, not standard fish).
Economic use.In the Atlantic Ocean presented in all types of human activities in marine waters. Among them are marine transport, then the underwater mining of oil and gas, only then - the catch and the use of biological resources.
At the shores of the Atlantic places more than 70 seaside countries with a population over 1.3 billion people. Many transoxanic routes with large volumes of cargo and passenger traffic pass through the ocean. On the coasts of the ocean and its seas are the most significant ports of the ports of the world.
Already explored MINECULAR OCEAN resources are significant (examples are above). At the same time, oil and gas fields on the shelf of the Northern and Caribbean seas are intensively developed, in the Biscay bay. Many countries that have not previously had significant reserves of these species of minural raw materials are now experiencing an economic rise at the expense of their production (England, Norway, the Netherlands, Mexico, etc.).
Biological resources The ocean has long been and intensively used. At the same time, due to the transfer of a number of valuable fishing species, in recent years, Atlantic is inferior to the Pacific Ocean for the extraction of fish and seafood.
Intensive economic activities A man on the water area of \u200b\u200bthe Atlantic Ocean and his seas causes a noticeable deterioration natural environment - both in the ocean (water pollution, air, reducing stock of fishing species of fish) and on the coasts. In particular, the recreational conditions on the ocean shores deteriorate. In order to prevent further and reduce the existing pollution of the Natural Environment of the Atlantic Ocean, scientific recommendations are developed and international agreements on the rational use of ocean resources are concluded.
The Atlantic Ocean is a concept and species. Classification and features of the category "Atlantic Ocean" 2017, 2018.
Oil and natural gas
The most important mineral resources of the Atlantic Ocean include oil and natural gas. The oil and gas shelves off the coast of North America include the shelves of the Labrador Sea, as well as the Bay of Georges-Bank, New Scotia and St. Lawrence.
On the eastern shelf of Canada, oil reserves make up 2.5 billion tons, natural gas - 3.3 trillion. cube m; On the mainland slope and the east shelf of the United States - up to 0.54 billion tons of oil and gas - 0.39 trillion. cube M. On the southern shelf of the United States, more than 280 deposits were revealed, and at the coast of Mexico - more than 20 deposits. In the lagoon, Marakaybo mining more than 60% of the entire oil of Venezuela. The deposits near the island of Trinidad in the Parium Bay are actively exploited.
Oil and gas areas found on the shelves of San Jorge Bay (Argentina) and Tokuz-Us Santus Bay (Brazil). General stocks of shelves Caribbean equal to 13 billion tons of oil and 8.5 trillion. cube m. Natural gas. The oil field was found in Irish and Northern (114 fields) by the seas, the Gulf of Guinea (on the shelf Nigeria - 50, at Gabon - 37, in the Congo - 3, etc.). On the shelf of the Mediterranean Sea, the forecast oil reserves make up 110-120 billion tons. There are deposits in the Adriatic, Aegean, Ionian seas, in the coasts of Egypt, Tunisia, Spain, etc.
Oil and gas pools
The largest oil and gas pools of the Atlantic Ocean belongs:
- Mexican Bay Oil and Gas Pool;
- Maracaybsk oil and gas pool.
The oil and gas pool of the Mexican Gulf is located in the water area of \u200b\u200bthe Bay and the adjacent territories of Mexico, USA, Cuba, Belize, Guatemala. The total area of \u200b\u200bthe oil and gas pool is about 2.5 million square meters. km. The initial industrial reserves of oil and condensate (data for 1985) is 18.3 billion tons and natural gas - 14.6 trillion. cube m.
In the mainland of the basin, the first deposits were opened in 1896 (USA), and on the shelf - in 1938 (USA). In the American part of the pool, the largest deposits were found in the 30s. (Agua-Dals Stratton, East-Texas, Kartag, Kayyu Island, Old-Oshchen), and in the Mexican part - in the 70s. (Iris-Hiraldas, Bermudes, Cartelel).
Note 1.
In total, more than 5 thousand oil and 4 thousand gas and gas condensate deposits were found in the oil and gas pool of the Gulf of Mexico Bay. 95% of deposits fall on the United States.
Mexican Bay Oil and Gas Pool It is timed to the southern regions of the Adhesive Epigerzin Platform, represented by the Bay of Mexico Bay and Gulf Costa. The pool is formed by sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic period with the highest capacity of 15 km. The entire section of the sedimentary case is associated with oil and gas.
The most remote on the shore deposit was revealed at a distance of 240 km from the coast of Louisiana. Separate exploration wells are located at a distance of 260 km at a depth of 600 m. Oil of the outer zone - a small and lightweight. The content of sulfur increases in the deposits that are associated with the cerpets of salt domes. In the inner areas of the oil basin middle density, methane-naphthenic composition and high-ground.
Natural gases contain a small amount of heavy methane homologues and a lot of gas condensate. The main centers of natural gas production Texas, Louisiana, Campeche Bay, reform area.
On the territory of the Mexican oil and gas pool there is an extensive network of oil pipelines, gas pipelines, 75 oil refinery and 400 gas processing plants.
Maracaybsk oil and gas pool It is located in the north-east of Colombia, the North-West of Venezuela, occupies the Venezuelan bay and the adjacent part of the land area, Lake Maracaibo. Pool area 86 thousand square meters. km, including about 30 thousand square meters. km. Waters. The pool is surrounded by separate Sgs of the Andes Mountain System. The development of oil fields began since 1917. In total, 79 oil and 4 gas fields were opened.
The initial oil reserves were 6.6 billion tons, natural gas - 1.7 trillion. cube m., on the shelf of 5 billion tons and 1.2 trillion. cube m. respectively.
Separately, the coastal zone of the oil and gas conservation of Bolivar, stretching for 3.5 thousand square meters. km. Bolivar combines 8 deposits. Large deposit of oil - Lama, containing 584 million tons. Potential oil resources are estimated at 9.3 billion tons, natural gas - 1.9 trillion. cube m.
The Maracaybsk oil and gas pool is mainly formed by the territorial deposits of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The greatest power is 11 km. Collectors are sandstones and fractured limestone. Characteristic feature The pool is preferential oil. Gas reserves are 90% dissolved gas of oil fields. Oil is mainly viscous and heavy. Lighter oil belongs to chalk sediments. Dissolved gas Zone Bolivar contains heavy methane homologs and fat.
The main centers for refining oil and gas are in Punta Cardon and Amuai.
Minerals
At mainstream shelves are mining of minerals:
- sulfur (Mexican bay);
- iron ore (near the island of Newfoundland);
- diamonds (mainland shelf of South America);
- phosphate sands and phosphorite formations (in Liberia, Morocco, Plateau Blake);
- stone coal (Canada, United Kingdom).
Coastal areas are rich in zirconium, titanium, monazith, phosphorites, amber. The largest deposits are located off the coast of the Florida Peninsula and near Brazil. In smaller quantities, these minerals were found off the coast of Uruguay, Argentina, Spain, Denmark, Portugal.
The ferrunts and tin sands are common in the Atlantic Coast of Europe and North America, and the gold deposits, platinum and diamonds - off the coast of Southwestern Africa (Namibia, Angola, South Africa).
Note 2.
The production of phosphorites and phosphate sand is unprofitable due to lower quality of their quality compared to the fossil sushi.
In the North-Western Ocean, Plateau Blake and in the North American Both are extensive fields of iron orders. Their total reserves are estimated at 45 billion tons. They are high in the concentration of non-ferrous metals.
Barite, pebbles, sand, limestone are mined from the seabed. Initlantic countries from seawater produce magnesium, cooking salt, bromine, magnesium (United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Argentina, Canada).
Southern part of the Atlantic Ocean.These include areas adjacent to the east coast of South America and the southwestern coast of Africa, as well as the Narctic districts, has a total area
more than 40 million km 2 , of which only about 3 million km 2 (7, 5%)
it is occupied by depths of less than 1000 m, and the largest material of the fine water plateau (about 1, 4 million km 2) called the Patagonian-Falkland Shelf, adjacent to the Atlantic coast of Uruguay and Argentina. A large latitudinal length, which includes both warm subtropical and cold Antarctic zones, postpones its imprint on the fishing fauna, presented here as heat water (tuna, marlin, sword-fish, science, sardines, etc.), and cold water (Putassu, Merluea, Notota, Silver, Klykachi, etc.) inhabitants. The intensity of fisheries here is quite high only in the southwestern and southern coasts of Africa, where in large quantities (1968-1970) was caught in large quantities (up to 1, 7 million tons), Anchokus (0, 4-0, 6 mln.t) and Merlude (0, 5-0, 7 million tons), while on the Patagonian shelf, the raw material resources of which make it possible to produce at least 5-6 million tons of fish, the fishery is extremely weak (only about 1, 0 million tons). The total catch within South Atlantic only in recent years has reached 4 million tons, while possible exceeds 10 million tons.
Significant importance for fisheries have pooltarctic areas, where whales, seals, some fish, squid, and especially large potential commercial importance have a resource of a mass plankton crustacean - Arctic krill in fishing quantities.
Summarizing the modern assessment of the bioresources used in the Atlantic Ocean and the possible prospects for further development of fisheries should be considered that in this basin of traditional fishery facilities by all countries can be increased from 23 - 25 to 35 million tons.
The Soviet Union mined in the Atlantic Ocean pool 3, 5 million tons, i.e. A significant part (39%) of his catch-up of marine fish, and in recent years Russia is considering this extensive region
as the most important for the implementation of marine and oceanic fishery,
Lecture number 9 Topic: "Pacific Raw Resources".
Pacific Ocean.Pacific pool is half
(176, 7 million km 2 - 49, 8%) of the entire Water area of \u200b\u200bthe World Ocean. The predominant part of its surface (80, 8%) is on depths from
3000 to 6000 m and only 8, 7% (15, 5 million km 2) are occupied by relatively small depths (less than 1000 m) and in this respect it is significantly inferior to the Atlantic, where about 15% falls on shallow water areas.
The biggest rugness coastline And the largest sections of the shelf are characteristic of the northern and western parts of the ocean (4.5 million km 2), where Bering, Okhotsk, Japanese, Yellow, East and South China, etc. are located, as well as areas adjacent to the Indonesian archipelago. In addition, pretty extensive shelf zones of Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania (more than 2 million km 2). Along the Pacific coast of Northern and especially. But South America shelf is poorly developed. On the oceanic regime of the Pacific Ocean, a system of currents that create several large-scale front zones and cyphans in the northern and southern parts of the ocean has a significant impact.
Unlike the Atlantic, northern part Pacifics are connected to the Northern Ocean Basin with a narrow and shallow riding strait, and the Pacific Waters cannot pepulate the sea of \u200b\u200bthe appropriate sector of the Arctic (East Siberian, Chukotka, etc.), which are characterized as low-productive. Here, only the skike (polar cod) can be considered as relatively numerical fishing fish.
Pacific swimming pool provides more than 53 million tons (6%) world production of marine water bodies. However, relatively weak development of shallow towns leads to the fact that pelagic (89 ^) are sharply dominated here, and not the bottom objects, while in the Atlantic Ocean basin, the latter's share is significantly higher. Its modern fish productivity (300 kg / km) exceeded this Atlantic Ocean (250 kg / km) and repeatedly
above Indian (60 kg / km), and the possibility of further development of the fishery of traditional objects in it, there are still existing.
Coastal marine placer with rich content of Ilmenite, rutile, zircon and monocytes are represented by large deposits on the coasts of Brazil and Peninsula Florida (USA). On a smaller scale, the minerals of this type are focused on the coast of Argentina, Uruguay, Denmark, Spain, Portugal. Tiny and ferruginous sands are found at the Atlantic Coast of North America and Europe, and the coastal marine places of diamonds, gold, platinum - off the coast of South-West Africa (Angola, Namibia, South Africa). On the shelf of the Atlantic coast of Northern and South America and Africa (Plateau Blake, Morocco, Liberia, etc.) found phosphate formations and phosphate sands (which is still unprofitable due to lower quality compared to sushi phosphorites). Extensive fields of iron orders are located in the northwestern part of the ocean, in the north-American hollow and Plateau Blake. The total reserves of iron orders are estimated in the Atlantic Ocean in 45 billion tons. The level of concentrations in them of non-ferrous metals (with a low manganese content) is close to the rudonal rocks of the sushi. In the Atlantic Ocean and its seas, a large number of naval deposits of oil and gas are opened, which are intensively developed. The richest marine oil and gas regions of the world include the Mexican Bay, Lagoon Maracaibo, the North Sea, the Guinean Bay, which are intensively being developed. Three large oil and gas provinces have been identified in Western Atlantic: 1) from Devisov Strait to the latitude of New York (industrial reserves of Labrador and south of Newfoundland); 2) on the shelf of Brazil from Cape Kalkanyar to Rio de Janeiro (openly more than 25 deposits); 3) in the coastal waters of Argentina from San Jorge Bay to Magellanov Strait. According to estimates, promising oil and gas areas are about 1/4 of the ocean water area, and the total potential recoverable oil and gas resources are rated by more than 80 billion tons. Some areas of the Atlantic shelf are rich in stone coal (United Kingdom, Canada), iron ore (Canada, Finland) .
24. Transport system and ports of the Atlantic Ocean.
Leading place among other marine pools in the world. The world's largest cargo traffic from the Persian Gulf countries on the way to the Atlantic is divided into two branches: one envelopes Africa from the south and heads to Western Europe, North and South AmericaAnd the other - through Suez. Oil from North African countries in Europe and, partly, in North America, from the countries of the Guinean Bay in the United States and Brazil. From Mexico and Venezuela in the United States through the Caribbean Sea, as well as from Alaska through the Panaman Canal in the ports of the Atlantic coast. Liquefied gas from North Africa (Algeria, Libya) to Western Europe and the United States. In the transport of dry mass - iron ore (from Brazilian and Venezuelan ports to Europe), grain (from the USA, Canada, Argentina - to European ports), phosphorites (from the USA (Florida), Morocco - Western Europe), bauxites and alumina (from Jamaica, Suriname and Guyana in the USA), manganese (from Brazil, Western and South Africa), chrome ore (from South Africa and Mediterranean), zinc and nickel ores (from Canada), forest loads (from Canada, Scandinavian countries and northern ports of Russia to Western Europe). General cargoes that are transported by 2/3 by the ships of linear voyage. Universal ports S. high levels Mechanization. Western Europe-1/2 cargo turnover. La Mansha to the Kiel Canal, the East Coast of Great Britain, the Mediterranean port complexes along the coast of the Lyon Gulf and the Ligurian Sea. USA from Maine Bay to Chesapeake Gulf: New York - New Jersey, Amerport and Hampton Rhodes. The Mexican Gulf, where the three main porto-industrial complexes are allocated (New Orleans and Baton Rouge; Galveston Bay and Houston Canal; Ports Beaumont, Port Arthur, Ordz connected with the Mexican Channels through Lake Sabin). Oil (Amouai, Cartagena, Tobruk) and Chem (Arziev, Alexandria, Abidjan) factories, Al (Belen, San Luis, Puerto Madrin), Metallur (Tubaran, Maracaibo, Warrier), Cemen (Freeport) industries. The southeastern coast of Brazil (Santos, Rio de Janeiro, Victoria) and in the Gulf of La Plata (Buenos Aires, Rosario, Santa Fe). (Port Harcourt, Lagos, Delta R. Niger). North African ports are widely open towards the sea, and their universal nature requires considerable costs of modernizing the port farm (Algeria, Tripoli, Casablanca, Alexandria and Tunisia). On a number of the islands of the Caribbean (Bahamas, Caymans, Virginsky), the most deep-water overload terminals for large tankers (400 - 600 thousand Deadweight T) are constructed.
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