Currently, the Cenozoic Era continues on Earth. This stage of development of our planet is relatively short, if you compare it with previous, for example, a variety or archeem. While it is only 65.5 million years.

The geological processes that took place throughout the Cenozoa, formed the modern appearance of the oceans and the mainland. Gradually changed the climate and, as a result, the plant world in a particular part of the planet. Previous era - Mesoza - ended with the so-called chalk catastrophe, which caused the extinction of many species of animals. The beginning of the new era was marked by the fact that the empty ecological niches began to fill out again. The development of life in the Cenozoic Era occurred rapidly both on land and in water and in the air. The dominant situation took mammals. Finally, the ancestors of man appeared. People turned out to be very "promising" creatures: despite the multiple climate change, they did not just survive, but also evolved, spreading throughout the planet. Over time, human activity has become another factor in the conversion of land.

Cenozoic Era: Periods

Previously, Cenozoa ("Era of the New Life") was made to divide into two main periods: tertiary and quaternary. Now in the course another classification. The very first stage of the Cenozoic is Paleogen ("Ancient Education"). It began approximately 65.5 million years ago and lasted 42 million years. Paleogen is divided into three subpoles (Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene).

The next stage is Neogen ("New Education"). The said era began 23 million years ago, and its duration was approximately 21 million years. The neogenic period is divided into Miocene and Pliocene. It is important to note that the end of Pliocene is given the emergence of human ancestors (however, at that time, they did not even reminde the moment). Somewhere 2-1.8 million years ago, anthropogenic, or a quaternary period began. It continues and today. Throughout the anthropogen, the development of a person took place (and occurs). Subsets of this stage are Pleistocene (the era of glaciation) and Golotocean (post declaration of the Epoch).

Paleogen climatic conditions

A long period of Paleogen opens a Cenozoic Era. Climathaleocene and Eocenta was soft. In the area of \u200b\u200bthe equator, the average temperature reached 28 ° C. In the area of \u200b\u200bthe North Sea, the temperature was not much lower (22-26 ° C).

On the territory of Spirberena and Greenland, evidence was found that plants characteristic of modern subtropics felt there quite comfortably. Traces of subtropical vegetation were found in Antarctica. Neither glaciers nor icebergs in Eocene have not yet been. There were areas on Earth who did not have a disadvantage of moisture, regions with variable-humid climates and arid areas.

During the period of oligocene, sharply got cold. On the poles, the average temperature fell to 5 ° C. The formation of glaciers began, which later formed an Antarctic Ice Shield.

Flora Paleogen

The Cenozoic Era is the time of the ubiquitous domination of the coated and voted (coniferous). The latter grew only in high latitudes. Rainforests prevailed at the equator, the basis of palm trees, ficuses and various representatives of sandalwood. The farther from the sea, the land became climate: savanna and gentlemen were spread in the depths of the mainland.

In medium latitudes, the moisture-boring tropical and temperate plants were distributed (ferns tree, bread trees, sandals, banana trees). Closer to high latitudes, the species composition became completely different. For these places, a typical flora of subtropics is characterized: Mirt, Kashtan, Laurel, Cypress, Oak, Thuja, Sequoia, Araucaria. Plant life in the Cenozoic Era (in particular, in the Paleogen era) flourished even for the polar circle: in the Arctic, Northern Europe and America, the predominance of coniferous-wide deciduous deciduous forests was noted. But the subtropical plants listed above were found here. Polar night was not an obstacle to their growth and development.

Fauna Paleogen

A unique chance provided the Fauna Cenozoic Era. The animal world has changed dramatically: the replacement of dinosaurs came primitive small mammals, dwelling mainly in the forests and in the swamps. Reptiles and amphibians have become less. Various proboscis animals prevailed, indicticity (similar to rhinos), tapiro- and guy.

As a rule, many of them were adapted to carry out part of the time in water. During the Paleogen period, horses ancestors also appear, various rodents, later - predators (Creodontimes). On the tops of the trees nest toothless birds nest, painting diatriams live in Savannes - birds who do not know how to fly.

Great variety of insects. As for the sea fauna, the flourishing of charts and bivalve mollusks, corals comes; Primitive cancers appear, cetacean. The ocean at this time belongs to the bonefish.

Climate Neogen

Cenozoic era continues. The climate in the neogene era remains relatively warm and rather humid. But the cooling started in oligocene contributes its own adjustments: the glaciers are no longer melted, the humidity falls, the continentality of the climate is increasing. By the end of Neogene, the zonality approached modern (the same can be said about the outlines of the oceans and the mainland, as well as about the relief ground surface). Pliocene marked the beginning of the next cooling.

Neogen, Cenozoic Era: Plants

At the equator and in tropical belts, either savannahs or wet forests are still dominated. Moderate and high latitudes could boast the greatest variety of plant worlds: broad forest forests were common here, mostly evergreen. Since the air began land, new species appeared, of which the modern flora of the Mediterranean (Olives, Platanes, Walnut, Sugisht, South Pine and Cedar) was gradually developed. In the north, evergreen plants no longer survived. But the coniferous-wide forests demonstrated the wealth of species - from Sequoia to Chestnut. At the end of Neogene, such forms of the landscape, like taiga, tundra and forest-steppe appeared. This again was associated with cooling. North America and Northern Eurasia became taped regions. In moderate latitudes with a dry climate, steppes were formed. Where there were savannah before, semi-deserts and deserts arose.

Fauna Neogene

It would seem, not so long (in comparison with other) Cenozoic Era: Flora and Fauna, however, managed to change a lot from the beginning of Paleogen. The dominant mammals became placental. Initially, the development received an anchiteria, and then - hipparionic fauna. Both are named after characteristic representatives. Anchiteria is a horse ancestor, a small animal, having three fingers on each limb. Hipparion is, in fact, a horse, but also threepalae. It is not necessary to think that only relatives of horses and simply unfortunate (deer, giraffes, camels, pigs, and pigs) belonged to the specified faunas. In fact, among their representatives there were predators (hyenas, lions), and rodents, and even ostriches: life in the Cenozoic era was distinguished by a fantastic diversity.

The spread of the animals mentioned contributed to the increase in Savannan and Steppes.

At the end of Neogen, human ancestors appeared in the forests.

Anthropogen climate

For this period, the alternation of glaciation and warming is characterized. When the glaciers occurred, their lower boundaries reached 40 degrees of northern latitude. The largest glaciers of that time were concentrated in Scandinavia, Alps, North America, Eastern Siberia, on the Supolar and Northern Urals.

In parallel with glaciation, the offensive took place on the land, although not so powerful as in Paleogene. Four periods were distinguished by a mild climate and regression (by the drainage of the seas). Now just follows the next interledstial period, which should end no later than 1000 years. After it, another glaciation will happen, which will last about 20 thousand years. But it is not known whether it really will happen, since human intervention in natural processes provoked climate warming. To think about it, will the Cenozoic eraglobal ecological catastrophe be completed?

Anthropogen Flora and Fauna

The onset of glaciers forced the thermal-loving plants shifted to the south. True, the mountain ranges were hampered. As a result, many species did not live to the present day. During gladuction, there were three main types of landscapes: Taiga, Tundra and a forest-steppe with plants characteristic of them. Tropical and subtropical belts were very frightened and shifted, but still persisted. In the interglacial periods on Earth prevailed broad-sized forests.

As for the fauna, the primacy still belonged to the mammal. Massive, coated animals (mammoths, wool rhinoes, megalotseros) steel business card Ice eras. Along with them there were bears, wolves, deer, lynx. All animals as a result of cooling and warming were forced to migrate. Primitive and unsuitable died.

Primates continued. Improving hunting skills of human ancestors can be explained by the extinction of a number of commercial animals: giant sloths, horses North AmericaMammoths.

RESULTS

It is not known when the Cenozoic Era is over, whose periods we have considered above. Sixty-five million years by the standards of the Universe are quite a bit. However, during this time, they managed to form the continents, oceans and mountain chains. Many types of plants and animals were extinct or evolved under pressure from circumstances. Mammals took the place of dinosaurs. And the most promising from mammals was a person, and the last period of Cenozoic - Anthropogen - is mainly connected with the activities of people. It is possible that it is precisely from us how and when the Cenozoic Era is completed is the most dynamic and short of the earth's era.

The very name of the Cenozoic means " new life" Yes, really the Cenozoic Era is a new life, with its beginning more similar to modernity. In the previous geological era - Mesozoic - differences were more.

The Cenozoic Era began more than 60 million years ago and is divided into two periods: earlier - the tertiary and later - quaternary, in which we are with you and live.

The Cenozoic Era goes immediately after the mesozoic. Specifically, she originates on the border of the chalk and Paleogen when the second largest catastrophic extinction of species happened on Earth. There is a significant development of mammals that have come to replace dinosales and other reptiles, almost one hundred percently extinct at the turn of these eras. In the process of the development of mammals, the genus of primates, of which a person occurred in the future.

Periods of the Cenozoic Era

• Paleogen (ancient). Duration - 42 million years. Epochs - Paleocene (66lnt - 56 million years ago), Eocene (56mln - 34 million years ago), oligocene (34 million - 23 million years ago)
• Neogen (new). Duration - 21 million years. Epochs - Miocene (23 million - 5 million years ago), Pliocene (5 million - 2,6 million years ago)
• Quaternary (anthropogen). Lasts now. Epochs - Pleistocene (2,6 million - 12 thousand years ago), Holocene (12 thousand years ago and until today).

During cenozoic era The geographical outlines of the continents acquired the appearance that there is now. The North American continent was increasingly distinguished from the remaining Laurersky, and now the Eurasian part of the global northern mainland, and the South American segment was increasingly distinguished from the African segment of South Gondwana. Australia was more and more left, the Indian segment more and more "squeezed" to the north, until finally he joined the South Asian part of the future Eurasia, while causing the rise of the Caucasian mainland, as well as in many ways, contributing to the water lifting and The rest of the current part of the European continent.

Climate of the Cenozoic Era constantly severely. The cooling was not absolutely sharp, but still not all groups of animals and plant species managed to get used to him. It was during the Cenozoic that the upper and southern ice hats were formed in the area of \u200b\u200bthe poles, and the climate map of the Earth acquired that renovation we have to date. It is a pronounced equatorial belt on the earth's equator, and further in order of removal to poles - subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, moderate, and for the polar circles, respectively, arctic and antarctic climatic belts.

Consider more details of the Cenozoic Era.

It originates from the Great Cretaceous Machine, dated 66 million liters. n. and lasted 43 million years to 23 million liters. n. It is for this period that the formation and dawn of mammals, as the main ground type. Throughout the entire period, the mainland continued to disperse on the parties, a young Atlantic Ocean was formed, and Paleogen completed the first serious cooling.

In accordance with the decision of the International Union of Geological Sciences Paleogen, it is customary to divide on three departments - Paleocene (Danish, Zealand and Tannet, Yarusov), Eocene (IPR, Litetsky, Barton and Priabonskiy) and oligocene (Rupel and Hatt tiers).

In the process of the Paleogenic period, Gondwan and the Lavraisia \u200b\u200bcontinued to decay into the components and if the Paleogen in some places could still migrate from one future global continents to others, then by the end of Paleogen, it was completely impossible. South America Fully separated from the African continent, North America moved away from the European part of the future Eurasia, and in the north of Gondwan finally broke up into Australia, Antarctica and Pershes of Hindustan, rapidly sent to the South Asian part of Eurasia. For 40 million years overcoming the distance of more than 8 thousand km, he safely reached the upper mainland and reunited with him. Severo-and South American and continents diverged with Europe and Africa at a speed of 2 to 6 cm per year, and by the end of the paleogene, the width of the Atlantic Ocean has already been from 1 thousand to 2.5 thousand km.

For almost everything paleogenic period The Cenozoic era of the climate was kept warm and wet, although the constant trend towards coldness was traced at all its length. The average temperatures in the area of \u200b\u200bthe North Sea kept in the range of 22-26 ° C. But by the end of Paleogen began to get colder everything sharp, and at the turn with Neogen, the northern and southern ice hats were already formed. And if in the case of the North Sea, these were separate areas of alternately formed and melting wandering ice, then in the case of Antarctic, the resistant glacial shield, existing and so-in, began to form. The average annual temperature in the area of \u200b\u200bthe current polar circles has dropped to 5 ° C.

Paleogen animals

From the beginning of Paleogen animal world (Fig. 1), in which the main dominant types of challenge disappeared, began to spread with new species. To replace extinct ammonites, whitenites, Rudists, Instrumen, ichthyosaur, Plesiosaurs, dinosales and other groups of Mesozoic reptiles, mammals came, who received a huge impetus with the beginning of Paleogene.

In the seas, new varieties of buchetic and bivalve mollusks developed, advanced in their development and bony fish. Numulites were especially common. It is from the limestones of these unicellular foraminifera who were folded ancient pyramids of Egypt. Along with them were widespread and such lime unicellular algae.like kokkolitoforids. Also, a significant role was assigned to radioles, diatomic of algae and microscopic silicon flames.

The bottom of the oceans and the seas were covered with new sponges. Their spls in some places accumulated and form a rather large-scale area over the area, subsequently evolved in peculiar breeds - spongolites. Corals were numerous, mainly related to shorerity. We took place both shallow and deep-water varieties. Almost all the reef coral arrays of the current tropical belt originated in the middle of Paleogen - Eocene.

Along with such bony fish, like rods and sharks, in the ocean depths of the Paleogenic period there were also the first types of whale, sirens and dolphin-like. They became the first mammals who decide to master the oceanic and marine water medium.

From amphibians, only frogs, toads and a few giant salamandres remained from the amphibians after the chalk cataclysm. Survived the chalk shock and some species of reptiles, such as turtles, snakes, crocodiles and lizards.

Fig. 1 - Paleogen animals

Basic diversity mammals Paleogen There were minor sizes, and it was closely connected with lake-marsh and forest vegetation. A vividly pronounced separation of the main mass of mammalian varieties of mammals on such systematized groups, like predatory, probitive, hoofs, insectivinal, primitive, hoofed, insectivinal, primitive, rodents, etc., are beginning to occur. Pretty primitive, many of them will be rejected in the future neogene.

The discrepancy between the mainland led to the formation on the continents of its specific fauna. So, for example, in Australia, to this day, the types of ancient silent mammals are preserved, which were extinct on other continents at the time of the end of the Paleogen began. For quite a long time, throughout the entire Paleogen, the premium, as well as the incomplete and first primates existed on the South American continent.

In the rainforest closer to Miocene, gigantic mammals of indrofoteria rhinos were developed, and the fauna indrikoterious fauna came to replace the brutteric fauna. The brutteric fauna was called due to the fact that it was mainly representatives of various herbivorous non-parunning armored armor, widespread in the middle of Paleogen in all the continents and geographical zones. Basically, they fed on a juicy swamp vegetation and could remain in water for a long time.

Also, the brutteric ecological group consisted of ancient rhins of aminodonts, large pig-powered eppelodonts, primitive wooden antrakes, tapiro-shaped, etc. Animal data area were wet swampy places, river slaughtered floats, shallow shallow lakes and wet shorts. The indrikoterious environmental group, which received its name from the ancient giant horn part of Indrikoteria, had more species and varieties. It includes all the inhabitants of savannah, wetlands and other swamp landscapes.

Savannas at that time were settled already mentioned 8-meter indricoteries and all sorts of small rodents. Along with them, red-water turtles were survived with the parel. More wet and wetlands were full of representatives of the bronthhoterial fauna - eppelodonts, aminodontics and entras - pig-shaped animals remotely reminding hippos. The ancient marsh robs amamoponte matured in the raised and wetlands of rivers, and the ancient pig-like eppelodonts felt nicely in various coastal chains.

Fig. 1 - Animals and plants are neogen

The predominant in the hypharion fauna were varieties living in the territories of steppe, forest-steppe and other open landscapes. By the end of the neogene, the hyparion fauna almost everywhere replaced Anchitheria. The composition of it even more expanded due to an increase in the number of the number of such types of savanno-tall-headed ancient animals, such as antelopes, various ostrich, camel-like, giraffes, sobbing horses.

Since even in Paleogen, the relationship between various continents was broken, and therefore, representatives of the fauna could no longer migrate from the continent to the continent. This caused the manifestation of heterogeneous provincial differences. For example, the South American continent was abundantly populated by various hoofs, rodents and flat-type flat-like primates. This endemic fauna was also characteristic of the Australian continent.

Vegetation

In connection with the cooling and the fact that the climate began to acquire increasingly continental color, the sections of ancient steppes, Savannan and a steady, where in large quantities, the ancestors of modern bison, giraffe-like, oneene-like, pigs and other mammals, on which the ancient Cenozoic were incessable hunting Predators. It was at the end of Neogen in the forests began to appear the first ancestors of human-like primates.

Despite the winters of the polar latitudes, in the Equatorial belt of the Earth, tropical vegetation still touched. The greatest variety of watery wood plants were distinguished. Consisting of them, as a rule, evergreen forests were interspersed and bordered with savannah and shrubs of other edded, they were subsequently they gave a variety of modern Mediterranean flora, namely Olive, plane fees, walnuts, south pine and cedar.

The northern forests were diverse. There were no evergreen plants here, but in most the brown, sequoores and other coniferous-wide and deciduous and leaf falls were rushing. Later in connection with the second sharp grinding in the north, extensive areas of the tundra and forest-steppes were formed. The tundra flooded all zones with a current temperate climate, and the places where the rainforests have recently grow, turned into deserts and semi-deserts.

Anthropogen (Ch eaffolding)

Quaternary period (anthropogen) Takes its beginning to 2.6 million liters. n. And lasts to this day. During the time that lasts this time segment, three main things happened:

• the planet joined the new glacial era, during which sharp cooling alternated with warming;
• the mainland accepted its final current outlines, a modern relief was formed;
• there was a reasonable man on the planet.

Subsections Anthropogen, geological changes, climate

Almost all the length of Anthropogen is occupied by the Department of Pleistocene, which, according to international standards of stratigraphy, it is customary to sharing on Gelazian, Calabrian, middle and upper tiers, and Golotocene, originating a little more than 11 thousand liters. n. And lasting to this day.

At the heart of its mainland, in the current appearance, there are already long before the start of the Quaternary period, but it was at this time that many young mountain chains found the current appearance. The coastline of the mainland accepted the current outlines, and at the expense of the alternately coming and retreating glaciers, extreme northern continental archipelagoes were formed, such as Canadian, Outzbard, Iceland, New Earth And so on. In the course of alternate glaciations in some periods of time, the World Ocean levels dropped to 100 meters.

Departing, the giant admins of Anthropogen left behind a trace of deep moraine. In periods of the most maximum glaciation, the total area of \u200b\u200bglaciers exceeded the current more than three times. Thus, it can be said that large parts of North America, Europe and the current Russia were buried under the ice strata.

It is worth saying that the current glacier era in the history of the Earth is not the first. For several billion years, the first historical glacier era lasted, the beginning of 1.5 billion liters. n. In the early protein. After prolonged heat on the planet, a 270 million-member cooling was again collapsed. It happened 900 million liters. n. in late protein. Next there was another significant icing, which lasted for 230 million liters. n. In Paleozoic (460 - 230 million l.). And now the planet is experiencing another cooling, whose origin is made to 65 million liters. It gradually gained strength and is not yet known whether the Cenozoic Global Glacial Epoch has survived its apogee low temperatures.

Fig. 1 - Anthropogen (Quaternary period)

During the current glacial era, a great set of warming and cooling happened, and according to scientists, at a given period of time, the Earth is experiencing warming step. According to their calculations, the latter cooling changed with warming from 15 to 10 thousand l. During the time of the strongest glaciation of Pleistocene, the Iceller line fell from 1500 to 1,700 km south of the current feature.

Anthropogen climate It was subject to multiple fluctuations. In those times, when the glaciers were attacked, the climatic zones were narrowed and retreated closer to the equator, and, on the contrary, during periods of warming and mass melting of glaciers, a moderate belt was spread to the very northern continental outlets and, as a result, the remaining climatic belts were also collapsed.

Climate

IN anthropogenic period Unexpected warming alternated with just as sharp cooling. The boundaries of the anthropogen glacial zone sometimes reached 40 ° of northern latitudes. North America, Europe, North America, the Scandinavian Peninsula, Northern Urals, East Siberia were located near the northern glacier hat. Also, in connection with the glaciation and melting of ice caps, the decline happened, then the newly afternoon on the land. Periods between glaciation were accompanied by a maritime regression and a mild climate. At the moment, one of such intervals takes place, which should be changed no later than the next 1000 years as the next stage of icing. It will last about 20 thousand years until the next warming period is replaced. It is worth noting that the intervals of the gaps can occur and much faster, and maybe at all betented due to the intervention in the earth's natural processes. It is likely that the Cenozoic Era can complete the global ecological catastrophy Akin to the one that caused the death of many species in Perm and chalome periods.

Animals quaternary period

Among the invertebrates in the Pleistocene of the Quaternary period, all sorts of snails and other land clams were extremely developed. The underwater world was largely similar to the previous neogen. He began to acquire similarity with the present and the world of insects, but the most interesting metamorphosis was susceptible to the world of mammals.

Since the beginning of anthropogen, widespread varieties of ilon-like were widespread. At the beginning of Pleistocene, they settled the huge territories of the Eurasian continent. Some of their heights reached 4 m in the withers. More and more nordic parts Continents began to appear types of elephants covered with long wool. By the middle of Pleistocene, the mammoth were already the most common and most common representatives of northern tundra latitudes. By migrating on the ice of the Bering Strait into one of the next segments of the cooling on Alaska, the Mammoths were broken throughout the North American continent. As it is believed, the mammoths occurred from the trimmer elephants, on the border of neogen and Pleistocene, widespread in steppe latitudes.

Neugenic period, neogene second from the beginning of the Cenozoic era geological period duration 23 million years. It is divided into 2 departments: bottom. (Miocene) and the top. (Pliocene). In the USSR from 1960 N. n. Began to be treated as independent. In Neogen, the Alpine Folded System was finally formed, the orogenous stage of the earth's surface development stage was completed: the highest ridges of Crimea, M. Asia, Alps, Apennine, Balkans, Himalayas, Caucasus, Carpathians, and other mountain systems. Simultane. Folded areas were created and along coastline Pacific Ocean: in Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Philippines, in Japan and N. Guinea, in the coastal part of Cordiller and Andes. Gorical formation was accompanied by intense volcoloch. Children and frequent vertical oscillations. The movements of the earth's crust, determined the change in the size and outlines of the MIR. Bass. and gradual isolation of them from the ocean. At the end of Neogen, a cooling occurred, which led in the mountainous areas to the glaciation. During this period means. The ground fauna and flora changed; MN appeared. Generics and family of mammals (some of them exist and today) - bulls, giant tigers, hyenas, hipparones, rodents, mastodonts, bears, rhinos, monkeys (including human-shaped), deer, dogs. In Late Miocene, due to the established links between Eurasia and North. America has occurred migration of fauna from some provinces in others. South. America fauna mammals was represented by incomplete and hoofs, which are extinct at the end of Neogen. In Pliocene, Fauna migrated from North. South. America. In Australia, Isois. In N. p., the focus of the development of lower mammals (samp, single-pass) has been preserved. In mor. Bass. Neogene continued to exist the same groups of fauna as in Paleogen. The vegetation of N. p. Escaped the composition close to the Sovr.; Preserved also off. Representatives of Flora Paleogen. There were steppe and forest-steppe spaces. In temperate tropic belts. and subtrocomic. The vegetation was changed with deciduous, K-paradium continued to promote on Yu. parts of the continents were covered with coniferous forests; At the end of Neogene, the vegetation of tundra and taiga appeared. South. Ural N. p. Proceeded to the continent. mode close to the Sovr. During this period, the formation of sedimentary strata, the irregularities of the donoogenic relief, both on the watersheds and in the lowering, where obsolete erosion depression and karst valleys were filled. Based on the cut of non -ogenic sediments, rather powerful (up to 15-20 m) thickness of substantially kaolinite, often refractory light and white-colored clays with packs of rickety quartz sands, the aspects of the gravel-pebble mat-la, which are often connected with gold minerals. These strata were formed in early Miocene With the destruction of granitoid breeds. Sands of such a thickness are used as a stack., Molding and builds. raw. Cf. Part of the section is represented by powerful thickness of light, greenish-gray and pesting lumpy clays, often bentonite, containing the inclusions of gypsum, carbonate bias with iron-manganese beans; Often there are lenses and relaxes of rigged sands and rubble. These are lake-marsh deposits. Power them up to 100-120 m. At the top. Parts of the deposit are usually represented by brown, kr.-brown, less often in greenish-gray clay with carbonate specs, iron-manganese beans, lenses and sands of sands with gravel. The power of deposits is 20-50 m. Clays are used in cement and brick prom battles, sands are in st. At the top, non -ogenic deposits are gradually replaced by the composition of non-quaternary and quaternary age products, testifying to the close connection of N. and the Quaternary period (ongoing so-in).

Unit of the non -ogenic system

The neogenic period is the time of the maximum manifestation of the Alpine era of folds. Along with the formation of the greatest mountain folded structures at this time, the general raising of platforms continues. Sea transgression in neogene no longer have a big sweep, and the sea acquire the nature of the closed, often desalinated pools, often gradually turning into lakes and lagunas. Fauna in each of them acquires peculiar features, which highly complicates the comparison of precipitation and explains the absence of a single stratigraphic scheme of neogen.

Currently for the south of the USSR and Western Europe The following units are accepted ().

Unit of the non -ogenic system

Department Subsidation Tier Note

Upper Polecene N2 Absheron N2AP Akchagyl N2AK

Pliocene

N2 Middle Pliocene 1 \\ | Kuyalnitsky N2KL Kimmerysky N2K

Lower Pliocene N2 Pontic N2PN often use local subsracy

Upper-stage NJ Merchastic NJM Sarmatian NTS fission. (Sweets, layers, less often)

Miocene

MG Medium-stage NJ Torton NJT

Nizhny Miocene N J Gölvetsky NJH Burdigal NJB

Paleogeography, sedimentation and structure of the earth's crust

Tectonic movements, which manifested during the Paleogenic period, complicated the structure of the earth's crust, especially within geosyncline areas, but at the beginning of the neogenic period, the same geosynclinal areas and platforms continue to exist as before. As a result of significant general lifts and related regressions that occurred by the end of the Paleogenic period, the beginning of the new, non -ogenic period platform arrays - Eurasian and North-American in the northern hemisphere, and "wreckage" once extensive Gondwana - South American, African, Australian and other continents have become almost ubiquitous. At this time, the area of \u200b\u200bthe Sunda archipelago was a solid land connected to the Eurasian platform array.

It is believed that in the neogenic period there was a land connection between the North American and Eurasian platforms in the area of \u200b\u200bthe British Islands and Greenland, as well as the interd / Europe and Africa in the Mediterranean area. The Mediterranean geosynclinal area at the beginning of the neogenic period was occupied by the sea of \u200b\u200ban island nature: the mountains arising in the paleogenic period among it were elevated among it. On both sides of the Pacific, narrow geosynclinal areas were pulled out - East-Pacific and West Pacific.

Throughout the non -ogenic period in geosynclinal areas with a new force, the Alpine folds and the mining, attached to the Alpine Mountain structures, mainly modern appearance; These are the high and most young mountains on the earth's surface, and in these young folded areas, always mountain ranges correspond to positive structures - anticlinories, and depressions and depression - negative structures, synclinearities.

Folding has reached the greatest strength at the end of Miocene and the beginning of the Pliocene era. At the end of the Pliocene Epoch, it has noticeably weakened, but they began to manifest themselves with greater force of disjunctitive (discontinuous) dislocations, engulfed both the areas of recent, alpine folds and sections of Paleozoic and Mesozoic folded structures, by this time already significantly or completely dense.

As a result, such sections of ancient mountain structures were subjected to re-raising and until now they are not inferior or even exceed many alpine folded structures. To such, the mainly elevated in the lines of fallen mining structures belongs to the Caledonian structures of Scandinavia, Caledonian and Hercinian structures of the Urals, Central and Central Asia, Siberia (Tien Shan, Altai Sayan, etc.), Australia, the Kimmerian structures of the North East of the USSR, China and North America (137). Within the limits of the Gondwana, splits continued and the formation of a robine system on an African platform, accompanied by volcanic eruptions.

The most difficult was the tectonic development of the Mediterranean geosyncline region. According to its development and modern tectonic state, it differs significantly from the Western-Pacific and Eastern-Pacific Geosynklinal regions relating to the Alpine cycle. Within the Mediterranean region, there have been several floss phases over the Mediterranean region. As a result, by the end of the period, under the influence of alpine folding, she almost graduated from the stage of its geosyncline development or, as they say came to the stage of general stabilization, although some features of geosynclinal development were preserved at its limits and until now (discontinuous and folded dislocations, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions ).

As for the rest of the geosynclinal areas located along the shores of the quiet Ocan, then, despite the education within their limits, the young Alpine mountain structures within their limits are still preserved in them. specific traits Geosynclinal development, and at a rather young stage, which is confirmed by a number of features. These are: a strongly dissected relief of the surface of the earth's crust (alternation of deep and narrow oceanic depressions with high-dimensional island arcs), a sharply differentiated nature of tectonic movements, extremely high and currently seismicity (deep-focus earthquakes) and intensive volcanic activity.

Alpine folding in the neogenic period was accompanied by places active introduction. And the outpouring of magma. In recessed folded structures, especially in the Mediterranean geosynclinal zone. Industrial deposits of copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, tungsten and other non-ferrous metals are associated with non-bent intrusions. In particular, polymetallic deposits of such age are available in the Caucasus. In the process of forming alpine folded structures between the towering arcs of the folded mountains, extensive isolated basins occurred, sometimes considerable depths. As such Kotlovin, modern Mediterranean, black and other seas, as well as the Sea of \u200b\u200bthe Sunda Archipelago and the Pacific Coast of Asia are considered. Along with such basins engaged in the seas, edge (foothill) and intertons, filled with powerful strata and clay precipitation and which are currently foothill plains and lowlands (pre-vertical, predkiscosky, mesopotamusky, etc.). Some of them is a sediment linked. In Paleogenic and especially in non-heugenous sediments of a number of such deflections, huge accumulations of oil were found. In neogene time there was no significant transgression, and the sea covered only the regional areas of platforms, mainly in areas adjacent to the Mediterranean geosyncline region. Thus, at times, the southern outskirts of the Russian platform were floodied by the waters of the seas, which were mainly located within the next neighboring, Mediterranean geosyncline region. At the beginning of the period, in the early and middle Miocene, these seas were another direct continuation of the seas of the Mediterranean region of Europe, but since the beginning of the late Miocene, new raising and folding formation in the Alps, on the Carpathians, Balkans and the Transcaucasus, led to the full separation of Southeastern European pools. There was a huge closed Sarmatian lake-sea, which was stretched from Hungary in the West through Moldova and the South of Ukraine, along the Pre-Based to the Aral Sea, covering the region of the modern Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. At the end of the Miocene Epoch (Maeotic Century), this Sea was somewhat declined, but until the beginning of the Pliocene era (Ponte century) it remained uniform.

After the Pontic Century, the sea of \u200b\u200bthe south of Europe was finally divided into a series of isolated pools - the Mediterranean, Black, Caspian Sea, etc., which were reduced to the size of less modern, then expanded their limits. So, in Late Pliocene, an extensive transgression of the Caspian (Akchaghyl) of the sea arose when it covered the entire Caspian lowland and was introduced by narrow long bays into the Volga and Kama valleys already existing then. The Pliocene Seas of the Black Sea-Caspian region were very despicable, and their precipitation along with the sea contains freshwater fauna of mollusks.

As a result of the formation of alpine mountains, a significant re-raising of many areas of ancient curved folded structures, as well as the general raising platforms, the terrestrial surface relief in comparison with previous periods acquired completely new features, which are mainly preserved to the present.

The climatic features of the neogenic period are restored pretty well. In Western Europe and in the south of the Russian Platform, at the beginning of the period there were a warm moderate or subtropical climate, but with the winter season; This is confirmed by the composition of plant and animal residues and other signs. To the north of this zone, right up to Greenland, the climate was moderate. In the second half of the period, in the Pliocene Epoch, the climate in Europe began throughout the continental, moderate (but still warmer than in the modern era). At the end of the neogenic period, the cooling came, and the climate situation began to resemble modern. Some scientists even believe that the climate in Western Europe was more severe than at present.

Due to the wide establishment of the continental regime and the restoration of the mountains among non -ogenic deposits, continental precipitation and precipitation of the inland seas and lakes were obtained. In the first and beginning of the second half of the period in comparatively narrow epispental basins, located along the geosynclinal areas, sevenchee limestone, clay and sands were degraded. On the outskirts and bays of such pools located in the zone of warm and dry climate, salts and gypsum (for example, in Preparpathia and Transcarpathia, in the Custinian region) were deployed. On land were formed in many places river and lake sandstanding sediments, often cooked, as in the USA, Far East, in Western Europe, in the south of the Russian platform.

In those areas of geosynclinal areas, where the marine regime continued to be maintained throughout the entire period of a large part of it, the powerful strata of the clay and sands with the sea fauna. In the edge (foothill) and intergressive deficits and depuses due to the destruction of already existing and still receding mountain structures, very powerful strata of debris rocks of the type of MO LASS were accumulated; They are distinguished by very abundant oil and gas content. Such oil retroshes are traced with small breaks both along the Mediterranean and along the Pacific geosynclinal areas. The largest oil fields in the south of Western Europe, Carpathians, the Caucasus, the Middle East (Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, etc.), Burma, Malay Archipelago, Japan, Sakhalin, California, Central America (Mexico, Sakhalin, California, Central America (Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia et al.), Argentina, etc.

Often, sea and lake sediments are notogeneous contain powerful layers of solid brown rails of large industrial significance (Kerch Peninsula, Turgasy deflection, West Siberian lowland, etc.).

Neogene deposits In the USSR, known in about the same places as Paleogenic, but they are developed at a significantly lower area. In the Russian platform they are represented along its southern outskirts. They are almost completely absent in the Siberian platform. But the neogenic strata rocks are well expressed in the northern and eastern slopes of the Carpathians and the mountain Crimea, in the predfabcasia and the Transcaucasia, on extensive spaces Central Asia and West Siberian lowland. Well presented Neogen in Kamchatka, Kuril Islands and Sakhalin.

Organic world

The composition of non -ogenic fauna and flora In many ways, it is similar to modern, but their geographical distribution was different. In Southern Europe, the heat-loving flora continued to exist at the beginning of Neogen (in Miocene), presented as evergreen plants - palm trees, sequoia, swamp cypresses, ferns, and plants with fallen foliage-adubs, maples, poplars, bug, acacia, etc. The north has spread the vegetation of temperate climate - Decide and coniferous. In Pliocene, the area occupied by thermal-loving plants was greatly reduced; They continued to exist only in the early southern Europe. On the rest of Western Europe, in Eastern Europe And in the south of Siberia there was a flora of a warm moderate. Floor, and in the north they grew coniferous forests. Thus, in neogene, phytogeographic provinces close to modern, with the exception of the tundra zone, were determined.

In the sea fauna, neogene, as in Paleogen, are widely represented by such classes as pelecy boodes and gastroators; for them on the abundance of forms follow sea hedgehog, Msanka, etc. Among the Pelkiod and Gastrupod a lot of modern clans (Cardium, Mactra, Venus, Tapes, Limnocardium, Con- Geria, Spirialis, etc.), but they are expressed by other species (138).

Mammals differed in a large variety. In the neogenic period, many modern families and birth of mammals have arisen, but along with them there were families and childbirth characteristic of this period only. The study of non -ogenic mammals (and plants), which relatively quickly spread on land, showed that some of the now disassembled continents from time to time received a land connection with each other and looked it again. Such links are established, for example, between Asia and America through Bering Strait and America and America through Iceland and Greenland.

In the neogenic period, families of predatory, hoofs and probitives received widespread. At this time, bears, hyenas, cunits, dogs, mastodonts, rhinos, pigs, bulls, sheep, giraffes, man-like monkeys, and at the end of the period (Pliocene) - elephants, hypopotams, hypartarons and real horses. Zogeographic provinces of the neogenic period were generally similar to modern, but differed in the outlines of their borders and sizes. In Australia, the development of the samples continued.

Due to the pronounced insulation of non -ogenic fauna, the fauna forms complexes that have a purely local value. Among the governing fossil form, having a wide spatial distribution, low-quality.

Neogene Period (Neogen)

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Neugenic period It is the second period of the Cenozoic era. Neogene Takes its beginning 23.3 million liters. n., lasts 20 million years old, and ends at the turn of the current quaternary period of 2.5 million liters. n. During the neogenic period, the ancient Ocean Tetis stopped externally.

Subsections of the neogenic period, its geography and climatic features

In accordance with the decision of the International Union of Geological Sciences from 2016 taken to divide neogen into two departments - Miocene, which includes Aquitan, Burdigalsky, Langa, Serravali, Torton and Messinsky Taruses, and Pliocene, divided into Zanclian and Piacense tiers.

During the Neogene, American continents later moved away from the emerging Eurasian continent, a number of faults occurred in the northeastern part of Africa, as a result of which the Red Sea and the Arabian Peninsula appeared. Such mountain chains and arrays such as Alpine-Himalayan, Cordillera and Andes have been formed and adopted. Moving further towards the current Europe, African Mainland caused the appearance of the Pyrenees, Alpine, Crimean and Carpathian Mountains, Mountain Systems Iran and Turkey. Connected in Paleogen with the Middle Eastern part of the future Eurasian continent drifting continent Industan continued to move in the northern direction, in connection with which the growth of the Himalayan mountain range was led.

The South American Mainland continuing from the African continent continuing from the African continent, finally came across Naska's ancient oceanic Pacific, which was the cause of the formation of the current mountain chain. In this regard, the mining processes in these regions continue to this day. Tactonic processes in the zone of the East Asian belt started in neogene. Here there is an alternate raising, lowering and changing island arcs, accompanied by severe seismic activity and volcanic eruptions. There is an accelerated process of accumulation of thickness of chip materials. Exactly at neogen's era Baikal Graben was formed, the continuation of whose bend is the current Lake Baikal.

As a result of further advancement of the African continent north ancient ocean Tetis was divided into two huge marine pools. And if southern poollocated on the territory of the modern Middle East, there was a connection with the main ocean, the North (it was customary to be called parathis) was in full insulation, as a result of which his salinity was increasingly increased over time. By the end of the neogenic period, as a result of the global global formation processes, parathis collapsed into a number of even smaller basins, as a result of which the future Black and Caspian Sea were formed, as well as the Mediterranean Sea.

As a result of the fact that the main pit for the Mediterranean was isolated from the external oceans, due to the lack of water tributaries about 5 million liters. n. This basin of former parathes almost completely evaporated. Thus, on the site of the current Mediterranean, during Neogen, there was a drying giant "bath", that is, the lowland filled with water is only partially, and descending to many hundreds of meters relative to the level of the world's ocean.

At some time, in one of the places, the Gibraltar Range, connecting Africa with Europe and separating the water of the Atlantic from the Mediterranean depression, was broken, as a result of which the Mediterranean pool began to fill with water and after a few decades of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic water and the Atlantic were fully equal.

Climate Neogen

Climate Neogen It was colder than the previous Paleogen. The worldwide cooling has happened on the border of Paleogen and Neogene, the emergence of stable ice wap shields, and the ubiquitous climate has become even more continental. In the north of the European continent, as on the extensive areas of Siberia, a lane of a moderate climate was held, southerly replaced by subtropics and tropics, but still having pronounced seasonal changes in temperature, from which it follows that for these areas, more or less harsh winter times years, depending on their close location to the equator. In the territory of Greenland, at the time climate became arctic.

Throughout all the neogene, the climate became more severe, its continentality became expressed even more sharp, but at all that it was still much warmer than today, when, finally, which happened in Pliocene (4.5 million liters), a sharp cooling He led him to the level close to this. At the turn of Pliocene and Pleistocene, the ice shells were covered with south - most of Antarctica, the north - extensive squares of the North Sea, including Greenland, Patagonia, Iceland, Scandinavia and the northern parts of Siberia.

Sedimentation of a non -ogenic period

The accumulation of sedimentary breeds of Neogen takes place throughout the territory of the current continents, as well as along the bottom of the world's ocean. Since mining and other geological activity in this period was extremely distributed over all continents, the main sediments of this time are volcanic rocks and products of other tectonic activities. Also, the Molasses and sandy-clay formations prevailed in the lankov.

The greatest sedimentation in the oceans, most compared to previous periods, led various in the thickness of the territories of equator and southern and northern latitudes silicon and carbonate accumulations. The accumulation of silicon during the neogene period went even more powerful than in the chalome period, and was due to the extraordinary dawn of diatomic algae. Terminal deposits took place closer to the continental regions.

Animals Neogene

In the seas and oceans neogen The simplest foraminifera and various radolaries flourished. There were numerous bivalve and burglar clamshells, extremely multiple crustaceans, such, for example, as destraiding. Various were all sorts of Msnoki and Icharkin. In the extreme northern and southern territories in connection with the coldness disappeared, and in the central regions, corals were even more and in a new way, the greatest part of which belonged to six. The varieties of chordic - bony and cartilaginous fish were increasingly multiplied, and the number of marine whale-like, dolphin-like and tie-like mammals increased increasingly.

Extremely diverse was fauna of land mammals of the non -ogenic period. In Miocene, when the structure of the landscape of Paleogene was still preserved, the anchierry fauna was developed on most continents. The characteristic representative of this fauna was anchiteria, a slight mammal in size and structure is the closest to the current pony. It was an ancient ancestor of contemporary horses. Animals Neogene (Fig. 1) had three-pailed limbs, and the variety of species of Anchiteria fauna was struck. It included ancestors, as already mentioned, horses, bears, rhinos, pigs, antelopes, deer, rodents, turtles, primates, etc. It was both representatives of forest fauna and residents of steppes, savannah and a steady. They were ecologically heterogeneous in accordance with the climatic conditions, in which they were forced to dwell, so, for example, for faster climatic zones were more characteristic of monkeys, gazelles, antelopes, mastodonts, etc. When there were more varieties in more severe northern latitudes, Have time to acquire plentiful woolen cover.

Closer to the middle of neogen in the vast territories of the Eurasian continent, North America and the African continent began to distinguish the fast-moving processing hipparione fauna. It consisted of the first ancient horses, rhinos, proboscis, rodents, hippos, giraffes, deer, turtles, camels, saber-toothed tigers, Gien, first man-like monkeys and other predators.

The main representatives of the fauna are considered to be hipparones, horses of small size, still having three-legged limbs who have replaced by the actemies, and dwelling on open steppe and savannah expanses. By virtue of the structure of its limbs, these animals are notogeneous moved perfectly in high steppe grasses and by marsh bodies.

Fig. 1 - Animals and plants are neogen

The predominant in the hypharion fauna were varieties living in the territories of steppe, forest-steppe and other open landscapes. By the end of the neogene, the hyparion fauna almost everywhere replaced Anchitheria. The composition of it even more expanded due to an increase in the number of the number of such types of savanno-tall-headed ancient animals, such as antelopes, various ostrich, camel-like, giraffes, sobbing horses.

Since even in Paleogen, the relationship between various continents was broken, and therefore, representatives of the fauna could no longer migrate from the continent to the continent. This caused the manifestation of heterogeneous provincial differences. For example, the South American continent was abundantly populated by various hoofs, rodents and flat-type flat-like primates. This endemic fauna was also characteristic of the Australian continent.

Neogene plants

In the period of non-beam under the influence of more severe climatic factors, the first taiga, forest-steppe, flat-steppe and mountainous vegetable landscapes arose.

In the equatorial zones, moisthed moisture plants were dominated. These plants of the non -ogenic period consisted of bananas, ficc, palm, bamboo, laurel, wood-fern, evergreen oaks, etc. closer to the northern and south labels Forests, due to the shortage of precipitation and seasonal climate change, was replaced by Savannes.

Closer to moderate latitudes began to prevail the prevailing forests, consisting of evergreen wood forms. With the arrival of a dry climate of Neogen, the vegetation of the mediterranean type is common here, which was expressed by the appearance among the total mass of the laurel evergreen forests of such varieties of tree plants, such as the samshes, planenes, various nuts, cypress, and olin, as well as southern species of pine and cedar.

Also important role in the distribution of plant species in the neogenic period had terrain relief. In the foothill areas there were tice, taxodium, ferns. Above the slopes of the mountains covered broadband forests with a pronounced subtropical bias, then the slopes were covered with coniferous forests consisting of pines, fir and fir, in the future replacing rare tundra shrubs and herbal threshold, further turning into glaciers and year-round snow covers. This type of vegetation is called high alignment.

Closer to the polar regions in the forests disappear evergreen wide form. In forest arrays, such heads and coated plants are more beginning to prevail, like sequoia, pine, spruce, whale, alder, beris, maple, various nut and chestnut. For arid areas of moderate latitudes were characterized by wide savanna and steppe spaces. Forests here are more about river and seaside pools.

Due to the sharp cooling, which came at the end of Neogen to replace the universal short and minor warming, they became brightly expressed divisions on such zonal types of landscapes, like taiga, forest-steppe and tundra. At the turn of the Neogene and Quaternary period, the extensive areas of sushi were engaged in taiga forests, as scientists suggest, as a result of cooling, descended from the zones of high-mountain explanation and excavated by the vast territories of the former Taiga steppes.

Closer to quaternary period extensive plain areas moderate belts Transformed into steppe. Almost smaller than the prolesk, and more and more areas of the plains were covered with brown herbal steppe vegetation. In arid belts, savanna and gentlemen were changed with arid deserts and semi-deserts.

Minerals of the Neogene Period

One of the significant minerals of the Neogene is oil. Neogen includes oil fields of Caucasus, Sakhalin, Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan, as well as Romanian, Iraqi, Iranian, Arabian, Indonesian, California, Mexican, Colombian, Argentine and other oil pools.

The widespread fields of combustible gases, brown coal, gypsum, stone cooks and potash salts are also numerous. As a result of the intrusion of the magmatic rocks, copper, arsenic, zinc, lead, molybdenum, antimony, mercury, bismuth, tungsten and other ores were in the ridges of many mountainous arrays. Also, Neugenic can be attributed to the deposit of the iron ores of the Kerch Peninsula and the boxing deposits in the zone of the tropical belt on the Islands of Guinea, Ghana, Suriname, Guyana, Jamaica, etc.