The history of Slavic writing briefly. The topic The emergence of Slavic writing

Purpose:trace the peculiarities of the formation of writing from the ancient Slavs, to study the contribution to the formation of the book language of the Solun brothers Kirill and Methodius.

Keywords:life, epigraphics, grades, paleography, incongabula.

Equipment: Tables "Glagolitsa", "Cyrillic", "Latina", images of Kirill and Methodius.

Questions:

Sources of information about the start of writing from Slavs.

The activities of the Solun Brothers Constantine and Methodius to create Slavic ABC

Slavic alphabets.

Old Slavonic language.

Creature slavic writing With a full basis, the brothers is attributed to the brothers Konstantin Filosopher (in Kirill Monastic) (approx. 827 - 14.2.869) and Methodius (approx. 815-6.4.885).

Information about the start of Slavic writing We draw from a number of sources:

slavic Life (biographies of those declared by the Church of Saints) Cyril and Methodius,

several commendable words and church services and their honor

writings of the blackberry brave "on letters",

anonymous Latin essay "Appeal (in Christianity) Bavarians and Quarantans" (871),

latin's reports. Anastasia librarian (870s),

latin essay (sometimes attributed to the Wellelfire Gauderych) "Life (Constantine) and the transfer of the relics of St. Clement "(the so-called" Italian legend "),

several messages of Roman dads, in particular Adrian II, John VIII, Stephen V,

life and commendable words in honor of the students of Constantine and Methodius - Clement Ohrid, and some other written evidence.

Oddly enough, information about the activities of Konstantin Philosopher and Methodius in the modern Byzantine sources in modern, including large quantities Works and letters of Patriarch Foto.

The problem of the emergence of Slavic writing attracted the attention of Slavs for a long time.

About hundreds of lists (handwritten copies) of the works of the blackberry of the brave, dozens of text lists about Konstantine (Kirill) and Methodius have come to us. With the beginning of scientific Slavsov, Kirillo-Mefodievsky issues were and remains the focus of Slavists. A number of bibliographies are published, in which hundreds of works on this issue are listed: G. A. Ilinsky (up to 1934), M. G. Popruzhenko and Art. Romansky (1934-1940), I. Duicheva, A. Kirimagova, A. Powunova (1940 - 198) Sources to the problem of the emergence of Slavic writing. The best Russian edition is made by P. A. Lavrov (1930): The main Slavic sources in Russian translation with foundation comments B. N. Flor (1981) were recently issued under the name "Tale of the Beginning of Slavic Writing" (1981).

From the Soviet publications, the meaningful book of S. B. Bernstein "Konstantin Philosopher and Methodius" (1984).

Original enemies western Slavs.- Pieces were Germans and Danes. Having become Catholics, Germans and Danes are already as a blessed Roman dad crusadsevcontinued anti-Slavic expansion under the good pretext of the baptism of pagans into Christianity.

Crusaders so diligently "baptized" hated Slavs, that several tribes were simply destroyed - in the chronicles that have been catholic authors, only names have been preserved.

However B. slavic lands Greek missionaries acted. On the territory of the Czech Republic in the IX century. There was a Slavic Principality of Great Moravia. The Velikomolevskaya Power (830-906) was a large early-referred state of Western Slavs, covered by Moravia, Slovakia, Czech Republic at the time of his heard. (i.e., current Czechoslovakia), as well as a puddle, pannonia, parts of the current Slovenia. And in 863, Moravian Prince Rostislav appealed to the Byzantine Emperor Mikhail III with a very characteristic request. He himself was already baptized (in 1994, was canonized as a holy equivalent prince Rostislav Velikomolevsky). Now the holy prince requested Byzantium to send Christian bishop and preachers to their people.

Apparently, the request of the Moravian Prince was caused by the fact that he, struggling against the Latin-German clergy, which was the conductor of the influence of the German emperor Louis, wanted to get political and church support from Byzantia. In Byzantium, favorably reacted to the ambassadors, as it discovered the perspective to spread and strengthen the influence of Byzantium in the West, in the regions of the Moravian Principality. It was decided to send a mission to Moravia, at the head of which two brothers Greg Konstantin and Methodius were delivered. The first one, who devoted himself to the church service, was known for his scholarship and missionary activities. His name in sources is usually used with the epithet "philosopher". Methodius was for some time the ruler of one of the Slavic regions. Both of them are natives of the city of Solun (Thessaloniki), which at that time was a Greek colony in Slavic territory and was surrounded by Slavic settlements. Konstantin and Methodius knew the language of Slavs, who lived both in the city itself and in its surroundings. It was about this that, according to the testimony of the "livestock of Methodius," said the Byzantine emperor, referring to the brothers: "You are both Solunyan, and Solunyan say well in Slavyansky."

According to "Life" Konstantin and Methodius, Konstantin, before departure to Moravia, amounted to Slavic ABC and began to translate the Gospel to Slavic.

For more than three years, brothers in Moravia were held, where the frames of Slavic "book people", future ministers of the church, were preparing, and translated Greek bubbies to Slavic language. From the very first days, the Slavic language in writing and church ritual was encountered hostile by the German clergy, who seen in the activities of Constantine and Methodius a greater danger for himself. To get support, Konstantin and Methodius with a group of their students went to Rome to Pope. On the way, they stopped in Pannonia, the Slavic principality, the population of the current Slovenians. There, they were welcomedly met by Prince Kotel, who gave them about 50 students to teach Slavic writing.

In Rome, Konstantin and Methodius adopted Papa Adrian II, which, seeking to strengthen its influence in Moravia and Pannonia, recognized the Slavic language in writing and liturgy. There, Konstantin fell ill and died in 869, tightening shortly before death in the monks under the name Kirill. After the death of Konstantin Methodius with students returned at the beginning of the Panononia. In Moravia, at this time, Scholyopolk joined the throne, the Rostislav nephew, who changed the political orientation to the Latino-German. In order to approve his influence in Moravia and Pannonia, Pope Adrian II founded special Slavic bishopia for these areas, and Methodius was appointed Bishop of Pannonia.

But soon he fell into the hands of the German clergy and imprisoned in Bavaria. There Methodius was more than two years. After liberation, he returns to Moravia, where there were great changes during this time. After the uprising against Franks, Svyatopolk became an independent ruler of this country. More and more obeying the German influence, he was not a supporter of Slavic writing. Therefore, Methodius and his students took place in extremely difficult conditions.

In 885, Methodius died. After his death, opponents of Slavic writing have achieved Pope Stephen V prohibition slavic language In church liturgy. Pupils Methodius were expelled from Moravia. Leaving her limits, one of them went south to Croatam, and others in the southeast, in Bulgaria, where they continued the case of Slavic writing.

Especially favorable conditions for Slavic writing were created in Bulgaria. The most talented student of Methodius was a Clement, whose activities proceeded in Macedonia and Southeast Albania. In Macedonia, he and his students rewrite the Cyril-Methodius originals of liturgical books and make new translations from Greek.

The flourishing of Slavic writing During the board of King Simeon (893-927), when the capital of Bulgaria Preslav is becoming not only a state center, but also the center of Slavic writing in the east of Bulgaria. Preslav's scribes used the same language as they wrote in Macedonia, but in their manuscripts of retreat from previous language bookstores, they reflected more significantly than in the West.

In Moravia and the Czech Republic, after the expulsion of the students, Methodius Slavic writing lasted until the end of the XI century, when in the Czech Sazavo monastery, where she was still preserved, the Slavic books were or destroyed by the supporters of the Latin Letter, or were so spoiled that they could no longer be read.

The activities of Konstantin and Methodius on the development of Slavic writing, the implementation of the first translations to the Slavic language, creating the first original texts on it, that is, on the formation of the first literary language of Slavs, proceeded in the 60-80s.IX in. The oldest abdicated written monuments in Slavic refer to the second half of the X - the first half of the XI century. If we consider especially Latin-written Freasing passages, then nevertheless it is necessary to state that the oldest Slavic written monuments that have come down to us are fulfilled by two significantly distinguishing alphabets - verbs and Cyrillic. Which of the Slavic ABC was invented before, which one of them was invented by Konstantin-Kirill, who invented another alphabet and when - these questions occupied the Slavists during the entire XIX and the first two thirds of the XX century. Until now, there are still controversial moments on this subject, there are absolutely unanimous solutions. Nevertheless, we can assume that a number of provisions related to the Slavic ABC ratio in antiquity are currently resolved with a fairly high degree of reliability. First, it does not cause objections the thesis thatKonstantin Philosopher invented Slavic ABC. This situation in the sources has repeatedly repeated: "And then folded writing" (LCD, ch. 14), "and Tog (philosopher), quickly creating letters" (LD. Chm. 5), "and created (Konstantin) for them (Slavs ) Thirty letters and eight "(xp, ch. L)etc. Secondly, with a high probability you cansaythat Constantine did not have a developed letter of writing. This is directly indicated in the life of Konstantin, (ch. 14). When the philosopher said, he is ready to go to the Moravian Slavs to implement the case entrusted to him (according to life, Moravian Prince Rostislav Prosp.: Send such a teacher and bishop, "so that we have in our own right Christian faith"), "If they have letters For their language, "in response," said Zagesar to him: "My grandfather and my father, and many many people searched for them and did not find how I can find."

In the composition of the blackberry of the brave "On the Writers" written, apparently, during the period of the Golden Century "of Slavic writing in Bulgaria, from the students of Konstantin and Methodius or a student of their students, it was reported that the Slavs had" features and cuts ", T . e. Transteencies mnemotechnical means (see 3.1), and after baptism used unsettled, i.e., unsuitable, means of the Greek and Latin letter.

We did not reach the Slavic texts of Docyrillovsky time, recorded, or rather procraged, in this way. If they were, then it was not a letter system, but some attempts to apply someone else's letters to Slavic speech. Therefore, the assumptions of scientists, the most vividly pronounced in the works of the Bulgarian Academician E. Georgiev, about the existence of the Slavs of the system of writing to Constantine remain unproved hypotheses.

Thirdly, sufficiently reasonableapprovalabout,that the verb was invented to Cyrillic.

Under the Old Slavonic language in East Slavic, Czechoslovak, Yugoslav and French Vieux Slave) Linguistics is customary to understand the language of the oldest Slavic written monuments that appeared on the light in X and in part XI century. In them, mostly, letters denoting nasal vowels (USES) are properly used: for their nasal copies, the vowels were still a reality.

In Bulgarian science, as well as in the writings of some German scientists, this language is called Strokrobolgar. This name has deep historical roots, as in the life of Methodius in a report on how the Byzantine emperor offered Konstantin and Methodius to go with a preaching mission to Moravia, it was recorded: "You boat Selunyan, and Selunyan VSI purely Slunski verbal." Obviously, at the time of creating the first written language Slavs were still very vividly an idea of \u200b\u200btheir language unity, including the homeland of Slavic primordants. In the pre-revolutionary Russia, Staroslavlsky was called Starocerkovnos Slavic. It is also called it and now partially in Germany, in English-speaking countries, in Poland. This name cannot be considered accurate, since the scope of application of the first Slavic written language went out of the church framework: this language was used in legal acts, and in the field of then science, such as history.

The number of older Slavonic monuments is quite limited. These are a few biblical texts: four relatively well-preserved list of the Gospel (Mariinsky, Zographers, Assemiani Codes and Savvina book) and separate sheets with gospel texts, the poorly preserved text of the New Testament, the Ennian Apostle, the text of the Collection of Spiritual Psalry Hymns (Sinaiskaya and, possibly, Fragments Slutskaya). The largest monument in size is the Supercilk manuscript, a collection of sermons, lives intended for use in the Church in March (Martov Mineya). A compilation of a clod, from which only a small part, containing, among other things, is reached, preaching, which is attributed to Methodius to us.

Sinai Celebrations (Evhologies) contains prayers. Kiev leaves - a monument with obvious Moravian linguistic devils- represents the text of the dinner. The rest of the Old Slavonic monuments are the preserved individual sheets of liturgical books, as well as several small inscriptions made on the stone.

These monuments are included in the so-called narrow canon of Old Slavonic texts.

The monuments of the Old Slavonic language are written by completely different alphabets - Kirillic and the verbs (Mariinsky, Zografsky, Assemiani Codes, Sinai Psaltry and Church, Cloce Collection and Kiev leaflets are written by the verbs; Savina Book, Superkilki, Kirillic).

Initial information about Staroslavlyansky was already kept in the fundamental works of the first researchers of Slavic languages \u200b\u200bin early XIX. V.- J. Dobrovsky and A.H. East.

Appear on a more solid actual basis for the description of the Old Slavic phonetics and grammar, made by the Grand German Language A. Schleicher, as well as A. Leskin, V. Vondrak, F.F. Fortunate, and later N.S. Trubetsky and other scientists. F. Mikloshich creates the first old Old Slavonic dictionary. Later, in the middle of our century, the wonderful publications of the Old Slavic monuments were prepared by J. Wece and Y. Kurtz (Assemiani Codex), R. Natigal (Sinai Church), A. Gold (Cloce Collection), K. Mirchev and H. Codov (Enansky Apostle ) and etc.

For the Starrog Slavonic language, a complex system of verb forms, transmitting various shades of the past time - aorist (past perfect), Perfect (past indefinite), imperfect (past imperfect), Plywamperfect (long-lasting).

It had reduced vowels to Kommersant, which subsequently in the end of the word and in a weak position (for example, a window from Article-Slav. Okuno, a house from St.-Slav. Dom), and in a strong position developed in "Full-Page "(Father from St.-Glory. Ostice) 1. A characteristic Old Slavonic feature was nasal vocabulary [he] and [en] - the letters ѫ ("YUS Big") and ѧ ("YUS Small"). The nasal preserved, for example, in Polish, in the Russian [it] moved to [y], and [en] - in ['a].

A very interesting was the fate of Praslavyansky vowels * O and * E in combination with sonorous consonants * R and * L. If it is consecrated to designate all other consonant letter t, it turns out that the South Slavs, for example, in the same Old Slavonic language, there has been lengthening with his subsequent variables with consonants * R, * L: * TOR\u003e * TO: RT\u003e TRO: T\u003e TRAT; * TOLT\u003e TO: LT\u003e TLO: T\u003e TLAT; * TERT\u003e TE: RT\u003e TRE: T\u003e TRHT; * Telt\u003e TE: LT\u003e TLE: T\u003e TLѣT (that is, the so-called misconduct type has developed -, -Le-, -rѣ-: Grad, chapter, golden, power, mlѣko, dp), etc.). In Western Slavs, this corresponded to the type -ro-, -lo- (cf. Polish. Głowa, Krowa). The eastern Slavs developed a full-way type -O-, -, -er- (city, head, gold, parish, milk, middle, etc.): * TOROT\u003e TOROT; TOROT; * TÅrt\u003e TERT\u003e TERET\u003e TERET, etc. (Little letter in the upper case denotes the appeared initially weak gathering).

Russian classical poetry actively used the Old Slavonic words synonyms (familiar to Russian readers through the Church Slavonic language) - for example, to give a "height" style.

There were seven cases in Staroslavlyansky. Typically, the endings of the nominal and vinitive case of the only number coincided in animate and in inanimate nouns (the exception was made to designate people standing hierarchically: the Prophet, Prince, Father, etc., - here the form of Vinitive could coincide with the form of a genitive, as in Modern Russian). The modern proposed peligue, the sixth in a row, corresponded to the local one. By the way, that before the old Slavonic words and their declination on the case, we mention such interesting phenomena, as the Russian tongue lost by the Russian language (seventh) - Goro (from Mountain), Earth (from Earth), Son (from Son), etc. , as well as a dual number, also lost by Slavic languages \u200b\u200b(except for the Ludge Surb language). The Bulgarian and Macedonian languages \u200b\u200bgenerally lost the declination of the nouns - in them, as in other languages \u200b\u200bof the analytical system (like, for example, French), the pretexts and order of words are indicated for the contextual meanings of the nouns (they developed and the characteristic postpositive definite article, written in a punch after Words - for example, Bulgarian "books" from "Book").

Questions for self-control:

1 At what time of the ancient Slavs appeared writing?

2 Which of the Slavic ABC is more ancient?

3 What language is called Old Slavonic?

4 On the basis of what Staroslavlyansky is studied?

Adlivankin, V. A. Mislanov, I. A. Frolova. - Perm, 2007.- 159 c.

Adlyivankin S. Yu. Praslavyansky [Text]: Tutorial / S. Yu. Adlivankin; S. Yu.

Bernstein S.B. Comparative Grammar Slavic Languages \u200b\u200b[Text]: Tutorial / S.B. Bernstein.- 2nd ed: MSU, Science, 2009.- (Classic University Tutorial).

Gears A. P. Staroslavyansky [Text]: Textbook / A. P. Gruzcar, 2007.

Culture of Slavs and Rus [Text]: Textbook, 2008.

Minerals Yu.I. Introduction to Slavic philology [Text]: tutorial/ Yu.I. Minerals. - M.: Higher. Shk., 2009.- 320 C.

Selischev A. M. Introduction to the comparative grammar of Slavic languages \u200b\u200b[Text]: Monograph / A. M. Selishchev. - M.: Komkniga, 2010.- 128 C.

Sokoliansky A.A. Introduction to Slavic Philology [Text]: Tutorial / A.A. Sokolayansky.- M.: Academy, 2007.- 398 c.

Suprun A.E. Introduction to Slavic philology [Text]: Tutorial / A.E. Supboy.- 2nd ed., Pererab.- Minsk: Higher. Shk., 2009.- 480 c.

Modern Russian language is based on Staroslavansky, who, in turn, was used to be used both for writing and for speech. The many scrolls and paintings have been preserved to this day.

Culture of Ancient Rus: writing

Many scientists argue that before the ninth century there was no writing and in risen. This means that during the time of Kievan Russia, writing did not exist as such.

However, this assumption is erroneous, because if you look at the history of other developed countries and states, it can be seen that every strong state existed its writing. Since also included in a row pretty strong countries, then writing was also necessary for Russia.

Another group of researchers was proved that writing was, and such a conclusion was supported by a number of historical documents and facts: the brave wrote the legends on letters. Also, "in the lives of Methodius and Constantine" is mentioned in the Eastern Slavs writing. As proof, Ibn Fadlan records.

So when appeared writing in Russia? The answer to this question is still controversial. But the main argument for society confirming the emergence of writing in Russia is agreements between Russia and Byzantium, which were written in 911 and 945.

Kirill and Methodius: a huge contribution to Slavic writing

The contribution of Slavic enlighteners is invaluable. It was with the beginning of their work, it had his own alphabet, which was much easier to pronunciation and writing than the previous language.

It is known that the enlighteners with their students did not preach from East Slavic peoples, but researchers suggest that, perhaps, Methodius and Kirill set themselves such a goal. Attachment to their views would not only expand the circle of their interests, but also would simplify the introduction of a simplified language in the East Slavonic culture.

In the tenth century, the books and lives of great enlighteners fell into the territory of Russia, where they began to enjoy a real success. This time the researchers attribute writing on Russia, Slavic ABC.

Rus since the appearance of his language alphabet

Despite all these facts, some researchers are trying to prove that the alphabet of the enlighteners appeared during the times of Kievan Rus, that is, before baptism, when Russia was a pagan land. Despite the fact that most of the historical documents are written by Cyrillic, there are papers that contain information written by the verb. Researchers say that, probably, the verbs also used in Ancient Russia It is during the period of the nine-tenth centuries - before the adoption of Christianity.

Most recently, this assumption was proven. The research scientists have found a document that contained the records of a certain popup of the population. In turn, I wrote that in 1044 a verb was used in Russia, but the Slavic people perceived it as the work of the Chirill enlightener and began to call "Cyrillic".

It is difficult to say how much the culture of ancient Russia was different at that time. The emergence of writing in Russia, as it is considered, it began with the moment of widespread the books of enlighteners, despite the facts telling that writing was an important element for pagan Russia.

The rapid development of Slavic writing: the baptism of the pagan land

The rapid pace of development of the writing of the East Slavic peoples began after the baptism of Russia, when writing in Russia appeared. In 988, when Prince Vladimir accepted Christianity in Russia, children who were considered a social elite, began to teach alphabetic books. It was at the same time that church books appear in writing, inscriptions on the cylinder castles, also present written expressions, which blacksmiths were knocked out on the order, on swords. Texts appear on princely seals.

It is also important to note that there are legends about coins with inscriptions that princes Vladimir, Svyatopolk and Yaroslav used.

And 1030 widespread use acquire birchy diplomas.

First Written Records: Cookie Diplists and Books

The first written records were recorded on birch grams. Such a certificate is a written entry on a small fragment of the birch crust.

The uniqueness of them is that today they have been preserved perfectly. For researchers, such a find has a very great importance: In addition, thanks to these certificates, you can find out the features of the Slavic language, letters on the birch crust are able to tell about the important events that occurred during the eleventh and fifteenth centuries. Such records have become an important element to explore the history of ancient Russia.

In addition to Slavic culture, birchy diplomas were used among the cultures of other countries.

At the moment, in the archives, many birest documents, the authors of which are Old Believers. In addition, with the advent of birch "paper", people taught to dissect the birch birch. This discovery was an impetus for writing books to Slavic writing in Russia began to grow more and more.

Find for researchers and historians

The first letters made on birch paper, which were found in Russia were located in the city of Veliky Novgorod. All who studied history know that this city had an important meaning for Russia's development.

New stage in the development of writing: translation as the main achievement

Southern Slavs rendered a huge impact on writing in Russia.

With Prince, Vladimir in Russia began to translate books and documents from the South Slavic language. And with Prince Yaroslav Mudrome, a literary language began to develop, thanks to which such literary genrelike church literature.

Huge importance for old Russian language had the ability to translate texts with foreign languages. The first translations (books) who came from the Western European side were transfers from Greek. Exactly greek language largely changed the culture of the Russian language. Many borrowed words were increasingly used in literary worksEven in the same church writings.

It was at this stage that the culture of Russia began to change, whose writing was increasingly complicated.

The reforms of Peter the Great: On the way to a simple language

With the arrival of Peter I, which reformed all the structures of the Russian people, even the culture of the tongue was made significant amendments. The appearance of writing in Russia in antiquity immediately complicated, and without that complex in 1708 Peter the Great introduced the so-called "civil font". Already in 1710, Peter first personally reviewed each letter of the Russian language, after which a new alphabet was created. The alphabet was distinguished by its simplistic and ease of use. The Russian ruler wanted to simplify Russian. Many letters were simply excluded from the alphabet, due to which not only the conversational speech was simplified, but also writing.

Significant changes in the 18th century: introduction of new characters

The main change during this period was the introduction of such a letter as "and brief". This letter was introduced in 1735. Already in 1797, Karamzin used a new sign to indicate the sound "yo".

Already by the end of the 18th century, the letter "Yat" lost its meaning, because her sound coincided with the sound of "e". It was at that time that the letter "yat" stopped using. Soon she also ceased to be part of the Russian alphabet.

The last stage of the development of the Russian language: small changes

The final reform that has changed writing in Russia, was the 1917 reform, which continued until 1918. It implied the exception of all the letters whose sound was either too similar or even repeated. It is thanks to this reform today a solid sign (Kommersant) is separating, and soft (b) became dividing when the soft consonant sound is designated.

It is important to note that this reform aroused a huge discontent from many outstanding literary figures. For example, Ivan Bunin strongly criticized this change in his native language.

The question of creating one of the alphabets spread among the Slavs in the IX-X centuries. It is associated with the activities of the Byzantine missionaries of Kirill (before the adoption of monastics in 869 - Konstantin (about 827- 14.2 869) and Methodius (815-6.4.885) among the Western Slavs who inhabited Moravia (the historical region in the Czech Republic).

In IX century The Velikomorava Principality arises, which in the second half of the IX century. It seeks full independence, reflecting the campaigns of the German kingdom. In order not to get into political dependence on it and prevent the spiritual enslavement of their people, the Moravian Prince Rostislav sent an embassy in 862 to send the Embassy with a request to Emperor Mikhail III and Patriarch Fotia to send missionaries ("Teachers"), who would preach Christianity in Slavic , not in Latin and Greek. In 863, the Brothers Konstantin and Methodius, who knew the Slavic and a number of other languages \u200b\u200barrived in Moravia. With you, they brought the Slavic alphabet developed by them, with great accuracy transmitted sound Makeup (phonetics) of the Version Slavic language and translated on Slavic language.

It is still not clear due to the limited number of preserved sources of that time, which of the two Slavic alphabet of the verbs or Cyrillic amounted to Konstantin.

Konstantin and Methodius were engaged in the preparation of ministers of the National Slavic Church, literacy learning, further transfer to the Slavic language of the Greek civil servants. Their activities were held in a constant fight against the German clergy, which led the service in Latin and opposed the introduction of the Slavic language in church source.

After three years of educational activities in 867, at the invitation of the Pope of the Roman brothers arrived in Rome to give a report on their activities. At that time, the Christian church was not yet divided into Orthodox and Catholic. Dad Adrian II under the influence of Constantine and Methodius officially recognized Slavic writing and worship in Slavic.

After the death of Cyril in 869, Methodius was dedicated to San Bishop and returned to Moravia, where he continued educational and missionary activities.

After the death of Methodius in 885, the new Roman dad Stephen V banned worship in Slavic and began the brutal persecution of students and followers of Cyril and Methodius. Many of them continued their activities in other Slavic countries.

A crucial role in the fate of the spiritual heritage of Cyril and Methodius was played by Bulgaria, where their students and followers found not only protection, but also state support at the end of the IX-X centuries. Here, the Slavic ABC was improved on its basis high Development Reached the first Slavic national literature. In the future, this lighter and convenient alphabet, called the "Cyrillic", pushed out the verbs and became the only one among the South and Eastern Slavs.

Adopting christianity eastern Slavs In 988, they contributed to the widespread and rapid development of writing and written culture.

Together with the liturgical books and theological literature on Russia from Bulgaria, who accepted Christianity 120 years earlier, penetrated the first interslavyan literary language, which arose on the basis of one of the dialects of the ancient Bulgarian language. This language, called usually by Staroslavlyansky or Church Slavonic, became the language of the cult and religious culture.

At the same time, an ancient Russian, Old Belorussky and Old Ukrainian literary languages, serving various spheres of cultural, social and social and social, formed at the local East Slavic basis. state life East Slavic peoples. Becoming written, the Karoslavansky language quickly approved along with Greek and Latin as the third literary language of Europeans.

Since the XI century, Cyrillic performed preferably in the form of a charter - a solemn, strict writing, in which the letters stand right on the line are correct and proportional to the form approaching the square, located, at an equal distance from each other, without splitting the text on separate words and suggestions. See Tables 1, 3.

From the XIV century A decorative version of Cyrillic is used to decorate manuscripts - Vyaz. See Table 10, Texts 12, 16, 17.

In addition, in the XIV-XV centuries. The charter comes to replace the charter, which reflected the process of accelerating the letter, the gradual disappearance of geometry, proportionality of letters, the appearance of their tilt. See Table 4. In the XY-XVI centuries. The semi-supesting of the scope of the scorpius acquired the nature of the individual handwriting. See Tables 5-9.

Writing in Slavs arose in the 60s. The 9th century, when the Slavic tribes settled on the large territory of central, southeastern, central Europe and created their states. During the struggle against the German princes, the Velikomoravsky Prince Rostislav decided to rely on the Union with Byzantia and directs the Embassy to Emperor Mikhail III in Byzantium to send such educator teachers to the Great Moravia, who could preach the Christian religion in Slavic. Please correspond to the interests of Byzantium, striving to spread their influence on the Western Slavs.

Among the school, the educated person who knew Greek, Latin, Arabic, Jewish, Slavic languages, at the same time he studied Hebrew. It was a librarian of the Main Byzantine Library Konstantin,according to nicknamed the philosopher, who was also an experienced missionary (baptized Bulgarians, won in the theological disputes in Malaya Asia, went to the Khazaras in the lower Volga, etc.). His older brother helped him Methodiuswhich for a number of years was the ruler of the Slavic region in Byzantium, probably in the south-east, Macedonia. In the history of Slavic culture they are called solong brothers , or Cologne Two . So, they were from Sununi's gopota (Fesaloniki), where the guises and Slavs lived together. According to some reports, the enlighteners themselves were half the Slavs (the Father, apparently, was Bulgarian, and the mother-blood of (A.M. Kamchatnov)).

Kirill and Methodius were transferred to the ancient Bargarian gospel, the apostle, psalrty. Thus, laid the foundations interslavyan book literary language (Old Slavonic language). With this fiction, the Slavs are attached to the values \u200b\u200bof antique and Christian cywalization, and also have the opportunity to consolidate the achievement and its own culture on the letter.

Issue about existence writingtwo approaches are traced to Cyril and Methodius:

1) The Slavs did not have written, because Writes themselves not found,

2) The Slavs had a written writing, and more satisfied perfect.

However, the question of the existence of Slavic writing to Cyril and Methodius is not resolved so far.

Initially, the Slavs used two alphabets: glagolitsa and cyrillic.

Issue about the ancient Slavic alphabets a lot of controversial and not fully solved:

- Why the Slavs used two alphabets?

- Which of two aBCis more ancient?

- Is one of the ABC docyrillovskaya?

- How when and where it appeared second ABC?

- Which one was created by Konstantin (Kirill)?

- Is there a connection between alphabets?

- What is the basis of the signs of verbs and Cyrillic?

The solution of these issues is difficult in that the manuscripts from the time of activity of Constantine and Methodius (863-885) before us did not reach us. And also, the well-known Cyrillic and verbic monuments refer to X-XI centuries. At the same time, both alphabets are also used in the southern, and moisters, and the Western Slavs.

Existing theories can be reduced to the following provisions:

1. Slavan to Kirill and Methodius were safe (talked in science until the 40s of the twentieth century.).

2. The presentation of the Slavs was to Kirill. References to the Docyrillovsk letter from foreign travelers and historians are noted. (What?)

3. More ancientis an cyrillic . And Konstantin (J. Dobrovsky, I.I. Szrenevsky, A.I. Sobolevsky, E.F. Karsky, etc.), and glagolitsa Invented later as a peculiar type of Tynopisi in the prosecution period of Slavic writing in Moravia and Pannonia.

4. Glagolitsa Created Constantine. Cyrillic It appeared later - as a further improvement of the verbs based on the Greek statutory letter (M.A. Selishchev, P.I. Shafarik K.M. Shpkin, P.I. Yagich, A. Vaian, Dober, V.F. Maresh , N.Stichonravov, etc.) . According to one version, Cyrillic was created by Clement Ohridsky (V.Ya. Yagich, V.N. Shchepkin, A.M. Selishchev, etc.), on the other - Konstantin Bulgarian (G.A. Ilinsky).

5. Ancient Slavic letter is an cyrillic , which is a modified Greek letter adapted to the phonetics of Slavic speech. LaterkoKanstantine created glagolitsa (V.F. Miller, P.V. Golubovsky, E. Georgiev, etc.). Then the verbs was ousted by Cyrillic, the proms of the simpler and perfect.

What kind of alphabet invented Kirill?

Cyrillic is an historicalthe alphabet created on the basis of another letter: greek→cyrillic (cf. ancient Egyptian → phoenician→ hebrewand Greek→ latin).

Inscription letters glagolitesdo not go to the well-known alphabets of their time. In this particular, the dependence of the number 25BUKV verbs from Cyrillic, and in some - from Latin (6 - the styling of Latin letters), 3-symbolic construction ( az, other, word), 4- are independent phonetic ligatures ( yusand ETS), 2 - independent graphic compositions ( zeloand nAY). (A.M. Kamchatnov). Inverse imitation is excluded, because The dependence of Cyrillic from the Greek alphabet is traced.

The question remains unresolved in the Slavs sources of verbs. In individual verbic letters at the end of the XVIII-first half of the nineteenth centuries. Seen the modiation of Greek letters. In the 80s of the XIX century. English Paleographer I.Teilor tried to determine the source for all the verbal alphabet - greek minusful letter. This point Vision was adopted by D.F. Belyaev, I.V. Yagich, who in all signs saw the Greek source - letters minuscable letterand them combination (ligatures).

Slavist A.M. Selishchev noted that in addition greek Signs used elements negreic Letters (Hebrew, in his Samaritan variety, Coptic letter). L.Gateler believed in 1883 that some signs of the verbs are associated with not Greek, but with albanianletter. And I.Ganush in the work of 1857, the letters of the verbs from the Gothic Runic Letter.

A number of its graphem is in direct communication with the counties of other alphabets. (For example, the connection of Slavic Sh, C.and Hebrew signs, also a connection with a number of signs of their special systems (alchemical, cryptographic, etc.) (E.E. Grantrom).) In turn, M.I. Tolvalova argues that the verbs "has quite distinct expressed external and internal signswho are absolutely alien to any modifications of the Greek-Byzantine or Latin Letter, but ... ... clearly visible in the system of both georgian Alphabets "(about the sources of the verbs. Ultrasonic LDG. Series Philologist. 1960. V.52. p.19).

EAT. Vereshchagin and V.P. Vomper is believed that Kirill invented glagolitsawhich does not detect direct dependence on the Greek alphabet, although Kirill borrowed the general principle of the device and partially the order of the letters (PP. 1988.№3). But for themselves greek letters he is in the Slavic alphabet did not suffer. The verbs is original, not directly removed from other alphabets, it is thought out to the details. Its elements are circles, semicircle, oval, sticks, triangles, squares, crosses, perekrests, hellet., envodushki, corners, hooks.The verbs are well agreed with the sound features of the Slavic language: signs have been created for fixing typically Slavic sounds ( nose, reduced, affricat, palatalized and some ringing consonants). The manuscripts written by these letters belong to Moravia and the Balkans and belong to the number of the oldest. it Kiev verbal leaves (There are Western Slavic features), Prague verbal excerpts(This is the Czech faith of the Old Slavonic text). Dolmatinsky Croats from the XII -CII century. only the verbs used to this day, in Moravia also for a long time used the verbs.

Cyrillic, for a separate exception, is mirror image of verbsBut directly late with a solemn (uncial) Greek letter (separate careful writing). This is a "dreaming Slavic ABC."

The most common visual systems of signs. This is I. manual alphabet in deaf-and-dumb and road signs, and the signs of the differences on the titles of the military, and gesture-mimic signs, who are divided into international ( handshake, smile etc.) and national (for example, rotary traffic The index finger near the nose among the French means " lying"). To visual signal systems owned by I. language in his written formHowever, any language enjoys special graphics.

In their oral form, the language belongs to the auditory systems of signs. These include other signs of signs. So, Gamadrila enjoy the sign of danger " oh-oh", Alarm" oK-OK-OK", Sign" blah Blah" However, the language is distinguished by the rules of the signs and at the level of vocal-auditory views. At this level, it differs from them its self-reconnaissance, under which it should be understood that any language declared the words available in it with a clearly defined and limited number of sounds.

Language is different from other signs of signs and on biologicallevel. Not only is its functioning associated with three bodies - articulation, hearing and brain- But during the hominization, these bodies have gained their specificity compared to the inquiry authorities in animals. So, among higher primates organs

articulations are not adapted to pronounce words, although their mental abilities are high enough to enjoy visual signs in a very developed form. This is what curious information we read on this issue in the book Gerhard Follmer "Evolutionary theory of knowledge: congenital structures

tours of knowledge in the context of biology, psychology, linguistics, philosophy and the theory of science "(M., 1998. pp. 102):" Sarappa Sarah has reached completely amazing results in 1972. Approximately 130 words were symbolized by plastic pieces that Neither in color nor in the form did not correspond to the subordinated subjects ( Mary, Banana, Plate), neither presented properties ( red, round, different). Sarah forms and understands new proposals, answers questions, while moving from the object to the symbol. On the question of the color of the apple, she is responsible correct " red"Although not a single apple is nearby and the plastic icon itself is not red for the apple."

As you can see, higher primates are capable of marked learning: they are able to explore visual signs, but why can they not master sound signs? Why can't they teach them to speak in human language? This is hampered by the features of their articulation apparatus. It is not adapted to pronounce human words.

The most bright difference between the language from other signs in the biological level consists in the asymmetry of the human brain. It consists in the following: right-handed hemisphere in the right-hander specialized as a clear-shaped, and left - as verbal (linguistic). In Leftst, on the contrary. Figuratively speaking, one of the hemispheres shows a silent movie, and his other voiced. The brain asymmetry is the result of a long evolution of man.

On the psychological levelthe peculiarity of the language compared to other systems of signs is due to its greatest complexity. That is why mental mechanisms of speech activity are more complex than the corresponding mechanisms of any other sign activity. So, speech activities Talking is carried out in three periods -

Ø non-verbal (non-tan, wordless) thinking,

Ø internal speech and

Ø External speech.

The first of these is to model the subject of speech in the consciousness of speaking without the help of the language, the second - in the design of this subject of speech using internal speech, which is not directed to the listening, and the third - in its design with the help of external speech addressed to the recipient of speech.

On the cultural levelFinally, the specifics of the language in comparison with other systems of signs is its versatility - in the sense that it is used in all spheres of culture, while other signs have a narrow scope. For example, mathematical symbolism is used only in mathematics, chemical - in chemistry, etc. The language is the cement that connects the whole culture of the people speaking. Without language, the process of humanity would be impossible.

9. Background of the descriptive letter: subject letter, kip, vampum, etc.

The main means of communication of people is a sound language. But there are also additional, auxiliary means of communication. These include, for example, a letter (different types of its types and species), various systems of special purpose signs: road signs, marine alarm signs, etc. The most important of the additional means of communication is the letter that is most fully and accurately reflects the sound language. According to the figurative expression M. V. Panova, « letter - Oral speech clothing. It transmits, "depicts" oral speech» . A letter, as well as a sound language, serves a wide variety of livelihoods and activities of people and, thus, is significantly approaching the sound as the main means of communication of people.

Letter fundamentally different from the sound language, it "He is in relation to the language something external, does not apply, so to speak, to its essence" [Scherba, 1957, p. 157]. The main external difference between the sound language and the letter is that the sound language is perceived by rumor, and a letter, one way or another reflecting the sound language - visually. The letter is determined:

as a system of descriptive, or graphic, signs used to transmit speech (information, voice information) at a distance or to fix it in time;

as "means of communication between people in cases where direct communication for them is not possible for them, i.e., practically when they are separated by space (geographically) or time (chronologically)";

as "additional to sound speech Means of communication with the system of graphic signs, allowing you to fix speech to transfer it to a distance to preserve its works in time, etc..

The written form of language studies grammatogram. Grammatorate (Graphics) - Science of writing, under which one of the forms of fixing the language is understood by graphic signs. She enters B. lingvotechnik where other methods of technical transfer of literature are studied (for example, using radio, tape recorder, etc.

Writing has its own prehistory, on the basis of which it originated. We are talking about two forms of presented state -

Ø subject I.

Ø Pictographic.

In the first case, we are dealing with the transfer of information using certain objects, and in the second - using the drawings.

Subsection president(mnemonic Signs). According to the testimony of the ancient Greek historian of Herodota (V century BC), in 514 the powerful Persian (ancient) king Darius I took a military campaign against the Scythians, who acquired a protracted character. Scythians sent a message to the message, which usually leads as a bright example of the subject preposition. This message consisted of the following items - birds, mice, frogs and five arrows. After passing several options for deciphering this message, the royal priests came to this version: "If you, Persians, like birds, do not fly into the sky, or, like mice, do not go to the ground, or, like a frog, do not go into the swamp, then You will be amazed by our arrows. " Darius did not make these warnings and failed to defeat the Scythians.

Indians widely used the subject "writing". So, Iroquoise (Inki, Ancient Peruvians) used vampima - cords with sinks strung on them. The number of shells, their location and color were meaningful (for example, white color indicated the world, and purple - war). With the help of vampums, they transferred the necessary messages to their fellows. Indians (North American) used also kip - a nodule "letter." The site of seashells in it occupied nodules.

Pictographic pretendity(pictogram – fashionable letter). This is a presented view otherwise called picture, Since the message, pictographic, represents Mine Michartin, drawing. Examples of pictographics left all the same Indians. At one time, they sent the US president a pictographic letter depicting the crane, three kunits, a bear, a sea man and a marine cat, connected by lines. The president correctly understood this message. He read: "The tribes of the crane, three kunits, a bear, a sea man and a maritime cat commissioned in a single rush of the hearts (for this all the figures depicted and were connected by lines) chapter of the Zhuravl's tribe to apply for the president to allow them to move to the lakes area." As you can see, the pictographic "letter" (a peculiar "remedy") is not the most the best way Information transfer. Like the subject pretendness, it is fraught with meaningful. Nevertheless, presented, as the archaeologists indicate, appeared in the very gray-haired antiquity, i.e. Long before IV-III Millennium BC, when the present writing appeared.

On the one hand, "figurative letters" are sometimes indistinguishable from the aimless drawings, laid on the rocks, walls of caves, fences, on classroom tables, etc., or from images and patterns reproducible on various subjects for decoration purposes; On the other hand, they are moving into real ideographic, and then phonetic writers, as evidenced by the analysis of Egyptian, ancient Chinese and some other hieroglyphs. Just more often and longer, similar "writings" on the stone, on the rocks (see Petroglyphs) are preserved; Andreh gathered a lot of examples from Africa (Wadi Mokatteback on Sinai, Wadi Telissar in Fetzane, in Algeria, Cordofan, Somalia, Transvaal), South. and South. America, Australia, Asia and Europe. Known by concentric circles and crosses of rocks in Northumberland (England), images on scalds in Sweden, Ireland, on Onega Oz., "Pisnici" (images of animals, people, etc.) in Yenisei, Tobolu, etc., "deer stones "in Mongolia, etc. The most studied similar images from North American Indians; Mallery dedicated to them extensive treatises with many drawings. It begins with an explanation of relatively recent images, the meaning of which is still understood by the old men, and then goes to similar images of more ancient times. Almost all of these images represent real objects; Symbols and emblems are very rare. Many of them are reminded of events important for individual tribes (wars, contracts, hunger strikes, abundance of Dichi in a well-known year, the death of the famous leader, resettlement, etc.); Some are associated with myths and religious rites, others perpetuate visits to places in individuals. The manner of the image (people, animals, etc.) is almost the same in all the Indians, as well as the usual designations of death (for example, from the wound in war), the union, belonging to the famous clan or family, the origin of one person from the other and t d.

10. The main stages and forms of development of the descriptive letter.

It is believed that writing appeared from the Sumerians who created a clinox letter, six or five thousand years ago. Writing passed through a number of stages in its development -

Ø verbal letter

Ø verbally - slightly,

Ø alphabetically -Log and

Ø alpos - sound.

Verbal letter.This type of letter is hieroglyphic (ideographic). The hieroglyphs tend to depict those or other reality phenomena that are denoted by words. That is why there is a speech about the verbal letter. Initially, the hieroglyphic letter was similar to the pictographic, since the most ancient hieroglyphs (for example, in the ancient Suchmers and the ancient Chinese) still resembled drawings of the phenomena - a man, tree, etc. But over time they became more abstract. Thus, the Sumerian pattern of hieroglyphic evolved into the cliff. Similarly, the case was in China.

Over time, the Chinese learned not only words with the help of hieroglyphs, but also other units of speech - including sounds. But from this, the hieroglyphic letter did not lose its main disadvantage - an excessive number of hieroglyphic signs. There are tens of thousands! As noted by Yu.S. Maslov in their textbook on the introduction into linguistics to read Chinese newspapers, you need to know 6-7 thousand hieroglyphs. In Chinese writing there are single hieroglyphs and multiplodes. The first record simple wordsthat denote, for example, substances ( tian 'Sky', Yu 'Rain', Xue 'Snow', Ren 'Man', MA 'Horse'etc.), quality ( da 'Big', Bai 'White'etc.), actions ( zou 'Go', Kan Watch ', He' Drink 'etc.), and with the help of multiplayd hieroglyphs are recorded difficult wordswhich are in Chinese immeasuracy more than, for example, in Russian. The philanthy in Chinese is the most productive method of word formation. That is why most hieroglyphs are transmitted not to simple words, but complex (most often - double, two-root). But the most curious thing is that we are completely and next we meet complex words and the corresponding hieroglyphs where in other languages \u200b\u200b(for example, in Russian) we are dealing with single-corpus words. So, complex in Chinese are words with the meaning " friend", Which is indicated by two hieroglyphs with the values" friend"And" close person ", With the meaning" hot", Which is expressed with the help of hieroglyphs, which themselves transmit values" sultry"And" hot" etc.

A verbal syllable letter.This type of letter is intermediate between verbal and sludge. In this form of letters, some signs (graphemes) denote words, and some are only syllables that could coincide with affixes - suffixes, endings, etc. Such a letter used the ancient Egyptians. But at the same time, it should be remembered that only in theory we drastically separate the types of letters from each other under consideration. The theory here simplifies the practice. Thus, Chinese characters as a whole can be regarded as verbal writing, since most of the hieroglyphs in it records words, but there are hieroglyphs in it, with which affixes are recorded (ie. logo and morphemephone letter, For example, suffix multiple number mEN.. Unlike the morphological indicators of the plural number in other languages, it is used only to designate a plurality of persons ( tongzhìmen 'Comrades', Xueshengmen 'Students' etc.).

Alphanumen syllable letter.This type of letter is the last step towards the alphanume's familiar to us. The Phoenician letter is the most ancient example of this type of writing. We got inscriptions made by representatives of this people in the XII-X centuries. BC. But in the syllable letter of the Phoenicians, the letter was recorded not a whole syllable, but only a consonant, whereas the next vowel sound or the absence of any sound was implied. That is why the Phoenician letter is also called a consonant (consonant - consonant). The Greeks, creating an alphanumeric letter, originally used also elements of a consonant syllable letter. So, the word " Minerva»They could write as MNRVA.. It is easy to guess why the Song Slogging Form (Sonant - Vowel) did not get distribution: to recognize the recorded word on vowels much more difficult than according to consonants. That is why the Acquadges, Hitty, Etruscans and other ancient peoples used the consonant form of a sludge letter.

An alphanumeric letter.The transition to this type of writing from the consonant-sludge was not so easy as we could theoretically assume. In fact, different peoples went to the graphic development of vowels with different ways. Moreover, some of them stopped halfway to such a development. So, in Hebrew and Arabic, the vowels are indicated only in part. But the Greeks, relying mainly on the Phoenician letter, passed this path to the end. In turn, relying on the Greek letter, their alphabets created the Romans, and after them and other Europeans who borrowed letters already from Latin.

Orthodox Slavs, as historians suggest, received their alphabet from Cyril (hence her name - Cyrillic). However, the question of which ABC was created by Kirill, still not solved in science. According to one of the versions, it is believed that he created not Cyrillic, but a verb, which over time came out of use. Nevertheless, from his behalf, the name of the alphabet, which we use and we are with you. Kirill and his brother Methodius in the second half of the 9th century were transferred to the "Bible" from Greek to the language that was called church-Slavic or Staroslavlyansky. His living source, as suggesting, was the Macedonian Dialect of the Bulgarian Language.

11. The emergence of Slavic writing and the main stages of the development of the Russian letter.

The emergence of Slavic writing.

The origin of Slavic writing and the Old Slavonic language is connected with the missionary and educational activities of the Kirill and Methodius brothers.

In the end 862 Embassy arrived to the Byzantine Emperor Mikhail from Moravia from Prince Rostislav. The ambassadors passed the request to send moravia missionaries who could lead worship in their native to Moravians in the Slavic language instead of the alien Latin - the language of Roman Catholic Booster, sent by the German clergy.

Emperor Mikhail and Patriarch Fotiy gladly accepted the request of Rostislav and sent to Moravia with their missionaries of the scientist Macedonian Konstantin Philosopher and his brother of his Methodius. The choice of these brothers was not accidental: Konstantin had already missionary experience, was a brilliant polemist and diplomat; Both brothers occurred from Soluni (Sovr. Thessaloniki), where there was a mixed Greek-Slavic population, so they were well owned by both languages.

After the instructions given to him, Konstantin, to go to Moravia, developed the Slavic alphabet and translated into the Slavic language the main Russian service books.

In the summer of 863, Konstantin and Methodius arrived in the capital of Moravia G. Tellegrad. Prince Rostislav met them with joy and honor. Konstantin and Methodius in the divine services read the gospel of postwoman, and the people with joyful amazement did not listen to the divine truth that sounded in their native language. Konstantin and Methodius elected and diligently trained students of Slavic ABC, worship, translated from Greek brought books.

Temples where worship was conducted on latin, the German Catholic clergy has lost their influence and income. In 864, Louis German in the Union with Bulgarians besieged the velegraph. Prince Rostislav was forced to recognize himself with Vassal Louis. This strengthened the position of the German clergy, it began to obstruct the activities of Constantine and Methodius, in particular, refusing to the ordination of their students; Priest Konstantin and Monk Methodius themselves do this, naturally could not. Since Moravia was in the jurisdiction of the Roman department, Konstantin and Methodius went to seek the defense to their immediately priestly.

In Rome Konstantin handed the power of St. Clement Pope Adrian II. The man is weak and indecisive, Dad Adrian expedited to strengthen his authority to acquire the relics of the High Priest of Rome, so he met the brothers with great honor, took the divine service in Slavic, raised to put the Slavic books in one of the Roman temples and make a service over them. Dad has ordained Methodius to the priests, and his students - in the presbyters and deacons. He made a message to the princes of Rostislav and a goal, wrote in Koto-Rom: "If some of the teachers of your teaching will begin to seduce you, the affectionable book in your language will be late, will not be corrected. Such people are the essence of the wolf, and not sheep ... "

In Rome, Konstantin, who did not differ in physical health, died on February 14, 869, having accepted Schima to death with the name Kirill. By order, Pope Adriana Kirill was buried in Rome, in the temple of St. Clement.

After the death of Cyril Pope Adrian II ordained Methodius in San Archbishop Moravia and Pannonia. Returning to Moravia, Methodius launched a boiler for the spread of Slavic worship and writing. Prince Rostislav, having recovered from defeat, ruined the agreement with Louis German and in the same 869 gazed by him a major defeat. It caused the rage of German feudalists and the German clergy. Louis and German Archbishop will enter into a secret conspiracy with the nephew of Prince Rostislav Svyatopolk who treaches the rostilava and gives it to the Germans. Rostislav roll his eyes and conclude into a dungeon in one of the Bavarian monasteries, where he dies soon. But betrayal did not bring anything to the Svyatopolk: Moravia was attached to the possessions of Louis; Svyatopolk got a small principality, however, it was soon from him selected, and he himself was concluded in the dungeon. After that, Methodius has no strong political support. German power Soon, Methodius was arrested and a court arranged over him. At the court, Methodius kept with dignity, firmly defending the right of his case. Not finding the pretext for condemnation, the authorities still sharpen Methodius to the monastery. Contained it there, of course, not in the crude dungeon, as some researchers write, but quite decently, in accordance with its high Sanne Archbishop. The monastery memorial book is still preserved, in which, along with the names of other brethren, there are also the names of Cyril and Methodius. Apparently, in the monastery, Methodius was provided with opportunities to continue the work scientist; Otherwise, it is difficult to explain the fact that at the exit of two and a half years from the Swabian monastery Methodius very quickly translates almost all biblical books (except Maccalevian).

In 870, a popular uprising broke out in Moravia, which was led by the priest Slavomir. He defeated the Germans and took the velegraph. The Germans remembered the Svyatopolka and appointed him by the head of the troops acting against the rebels, but he, having learned what German "gratitude" was moved to the side of the rebels and turned his weapons against the Germans. In the Union with Czech and Serbs, he defeated the German defeat; in 874, the Germans recognized the independence of Moravia.

The monastery conclusion of Methodius was carefully hidden from the Roman dad. Only from the stray monk Lazarus Pope John VIII found out about the arrest of Methodius. John VIII did not sympathize with Slavic worship, but in the court of bishops over the papal archbishop, he saw a challenge to the authority of the papal throne. Methodius was released by the papal legacy, but Slavic worship was forbidden. However, Methodius, contrary to the ban of Pope, continues the case of Slavic enlightenment. Then the Svyatopolk, the man is a straight and "slave of female pleasures," writes in Rome denunciation to Methodius, accusing him to the heresy, violation of the canons, breathlessness of the papal will. Pope John causes Methodius and his main enemy of the Viking for explanation in Rome. Methodius manages to lean the dad to his side, John permits Slavic worship and justifies the Methodius itself, but at the same time handshaking the viking in the bishops.A dexterous Intrigan Viking is a substantial letter from Pope John Svyatopolk, in which Slavic worship is prohibited, and he, Viking, is appointed head of the Moravian diocese. Svyatopolk recognizes this letter genuine, and a genuine letter, which brought Methodius, is a substrate. The intelligence was accused of tottress, the expulsion threatened, so he hastily sends the race to Rome. At the native meeting of the enemies, Methodius had already tried victory, and people were saddown and grieving, degrading such a shepherd and teacher, when the exclusive message of Pope John comes to this day.

Tired, who has undermined the health of Methodius for three years leaves for Byzantium. In 884, he returns to Moravia, finishes the translation of some biblical books. In 885, Methodius went to bed, appointing Horazda his successor. At Verbal Sunday, Methodius asked him to take him to the temple, where he turned with a sermon to the Moravian people, warning him about speedy tests. On the same day, on April 19, 885, Methodius died.

After the death of Methodius, Svyatopolk, indifferent to the affairs of faith and national culture, gave the conduct of Viking spiritual affairs. The consequences of this were terrible: other students of Methodius were tormented by inhumanly, others vocked the thorns, presbyters and deacons were sold to slavery, crushed the property, Zhggy Slavic books. The nearest students of Methodius Horazda, Clement, Nauma, Angellaria and Lawrence, sharpening in the iron, were kept in the dungeon, and then expelled from the country. In 905, the German Magyar troops won Moravia.

Three from the expelled students of Methodius - Clement, Naum and Angellaria - settled in Bulgaria. Orthodox Prince Boris - Mikhail provided all the support of the students of Methodius. With Tsar Simeon (893-927), Bulgaria has reached the greatest political power and cultural heyday. The whole of the pleiad of outstanding figures of Christian Education - John Ekzarh Bulgarian, Chernorizets Herbra, Clement Ohridsky, Naum Ohrid, Konstantin Preslavsky, Grigory Mnyi - continued the case of Cyril and Methodius: translated, made up compilations, wrote themselves, trained.

In the successor to Simeon Peter (927-969) this activity fades. From the XI century The center of Slavic writing and culture moves to Kievan Rus.

The basis of the Slavic letter is two alphabets - glagolitsa and cyrillic.

The verbs is earlier than Cyrillic, alphabet. It is a peculiar, intricate, loop-like letter, which for a long time in a somewhat modified form used by Croats up to 17 V. At the heart of the verbs lies Uncial ("Bending") a Greek letter, supplemented with letters to designate specific Slavic sounds.

The origin of the verbs is still not fully found in science. According to one version, the verb is associated with the Greek Scropper (mean) writing. According to another - with Hebrew, Samoretian or Coptic Letter. Some scientists discover the bug of verbs with Armenian and Georgian alphabets, while others suggest that the verbs was created artificially for church writing.

The verbs and Cyrillic have a lot of common features. The names and order of letters in the verb and Cyrillic are the same, but do not coincide the composition and numeric values \u200b\u200bof the letters. Slavs and the Greeks did not have figures, so the numerical values \u200b\u200bof the letters were extremely important. The numbers were recorded with letters with special additional signs. Slavic letters that were absent in greek alphabetNumeric values \u200b\u200bdid not have. In Cyrillic, there were such letters that were used exclusively as numbers.

The presence of the Slavs at once two ABC is unusual and causes many questions, among which - is there a connection between the alphabets, the authorship in creating what ABC is owned by Kirill (Konstantin), when and why the second alphabet appeared and there was writing before the appearance of Cyril and Methodius and Creating Azbuchi ?

Answers to these questions have formed 4 points of view On this problem:

1) The point of view is that the ancient alphabet and the basis of the Slavic letter is Cyrillic, named by the name of its creator. The emergence of the verbs binds to a later time period, when Slavic writing was subjected to persecutions from the Catholic clergy. So that the verbs was a kind of grade. This point of view was expressed by scientists from Szrevnevsky, Sobolevsky, Kara.

2) The point of view is that there was writing and to Kirill and Methodius, and the verbs - the basis of an ancient letter that existed to Cyril and his alphabet (Cherny).

3) The point of view is that the creation of the verbs is attributed to Cyril, and Cyrillic is his disciples: Clement Ohrizsky and Konstantin Bulgarian.

4) The point of view determines as the basis of an ancient letter to Cyrillic, as it exists more signs of borrowing from the Greek letter. Then Cyrillic is the invention of Kirill.

As a result of B. modern science More authoritative the theories that bind the verbs with the name Kirill. According to the "Study of Writers" of the Crylla and Methodius, the Slavs did not have his own writing. In addition, monuments of writing written by both alphabets are known, but later inserts are made by Cyrillic.

Thus, the Slavic letter is represented by two alphabets. Cyrillic seems to be later in the time of the arbitrariness, and it is she who became the basis of the modern Russian alphabet that became the basis of the modern Russian alphabet.

11.2. The main stages of the development of the Russian letter.

Christianity - a written religion: her dogmas recorded in books, church services are conducted on books; This requires high accuracy, identity of canonical texts. So acceptance Kievan ruus In 988, Christianity was distinguished by the first step towards finding writing.