Despite the factors, restraining scientific progress and technique, the second half of the XIX century. - This is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology that allowed Russian research activities to introduce into world science. Russian science Developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory studies in European scientific centers and North America, acted with scientific reports, published articles in scientific publications.

Capitalism with its increased technical potential and industrial production sphere, which demanded an increase in the raw material base, led to deep shifts in the field of domestic science and technology. The overall ideological atmosphere of the first colors, a democratic rise who stirred the whole country, the ideas of revolutionary democrats about the tremendous social role of science also contributed to the "extraordinary success of the mental movement" (K.A. Timiryazev).

Academy of Sciences, Universities, scientific societies retained the importance of the main scientific centers. In the blunder time, the authority of university science grew. Large scientific schools arose here, the works of some university professors received world recognition. In the mid-60s, the contemporary noted that "in many industries of science, representatives of our university scholarships are not only not inferior, but even superior to their advantages of representatives of academic scholars."

New scientific centers emerged in the country: "Society of lovers of natural science, anthropology and ethnography" (1863), "Society of Russian doctors", "Russian Technical Society" (1866). A serious contribution to the development of natural and social sciences was made by scientific societies that existed, as a rule, at universities. In 1872, there were more than 20 such societies in Russia, the predominant part of which arose in the second half of the XIX century. (Russian Mathematical Society; Russian Chemical Society, transformed later in physicochemical; Russian technical society; Russian historical Society and etc.) .

Petersburg was the major center of mathematical research, where the mathematical school was established, associated with the name of the outstanding mathematics P.L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). Its discoveries that still affect the development of science belong to the theory of approximation of functions, the theory of numbers and the theory of probability.

In the second half of the XIX century. Domestic science, relying on materialistic and scientific traditions, has reached unprecedented success. The achievements of Russian science associated with the development of world science have greatly raised its international authority. "Take any book of a foreign scientific journal, - wrote K.A. Timiryazev in the mid-90s - and you will almost certainly meet the Russian name. Russian science stated her equalization, and sometimes superiority. "

A.M. Lyapunov (1857-1918) created the theory of equilibrium stability and movement of mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, which influenced the further development of world science.

It is also worth mentioning the first woman professor of mathematics S.V. Kovalevskaya (1850-1891), which opened the classic case of solvability of the problem of rotating a solid body around a fixed point.

Ingenious chemist scientist who created a periodic system chemical elements, was D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907). (Appendix 2.) He proved the inner strength between several types of chemicals. Periodic system was the foundation in the study inorganic chemistry and advanced far ahead science. Work D.I. Mendeleev "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was translated into many European languages, and in Russia only was long published seven times.

Scientists N.N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A.M. Butlers (1828-1886) are the founders of organic chemistry. Butlers developed the theory chemical structure And was the creator of the largest Kazan school of Russian chemist organic chemists.

The founder is Russian physical school A.G. Counters (1839-1896) made a number the most important discoveries In the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, gained recognition worldwide.

Of the inventions and discoveries of P.N. Apple (1847-1894) The so-called "candle of Apple" is the most famous - almost first-suitable electrical lamp without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison A.N. Lododagin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for heat.

The world fame acquired the discoveries A.S. Popova (1859-1905), April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, he reported on the invention to the instrument to receive and register electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the work of the "grinding agent" - a radio receptionist, which was found very soon practical application.

Large scientific and technical discoveries were made by physicist P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912), which proved and measured the pressure of light.

The founder of modern aerodynamics was N.E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921). He owns numerous works on the theory of aviation. By the same time, the first studies in the field of aero- and rocketinamers K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), teacher of the gymnasium in Kaluga, the founder of modern cosmonautics.

Outstanding importance was the work of K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of cosmonautics. The gymnasium teacher in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a wide scale scientist, he first pointed to the development of rocket lighting and astronautics, found solutions to the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.

A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) examined the possibility of creating aircraft. In 1876, a demonstration of flights of his models was successful. In the 80s. He worked on the creation of the aircraft.

The successes of biological sciences were huge. Russian scientists have discovered a number of laws of development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology.

In 1863, in the magazine "Medical Bulletin" was published by the work of I.M. Siechenova (1829-1905) "brain reflexes", which laid the foundations of materialistic physiology and psychology, which had of great importance for the development of teachings on the highest nervous activity. The largest researcher, propagandist and popularizer of scientific knowledge, Sechenov created a physiological school from which I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936). In the 70s, its activities as a physiologist's scientist began.

I.P. Pavlov (1894-1936) - a scientist, physiologist, creator of science about the highest nervous activity and ideas about the processes of regulation of digestion; The founder of the largest Russian physiological school made a huge contribution to the development of world science.

Russian scientists - naturalists were convinced propagandists and continuents of the teachings of Ch. Darwin. Russian translation of its basic labor "The origin of species by natural selection" appeared in Russia six years after the publication in England, in 1865

The first Russian Darwinists belonged to the founder of the evolutionary morphology of plants A.N. Beckets (1825-1902). The development of evolutionary teaching in Russia is associated with the name I.I. Mechnikova (1845-1916) and A.O. Kovalevsky (1840-1901), convened comparative embryology. Mechnikov also worked in the field of comparative pathology, laid the foundations of the Immunite Teaching, discovered in 1883 the phenomenon of phagocytosis, the ability of the protective properties of the body of Mechnikov had worldwide fame He was elected Honorary Dr. Cambridge University, worked at the Louis Pasteur Institute in France.

In the development of darwinism and natural science materialism in Russia, the merit of K.A. Timiryazeva (1843-1920), one of the founders of the Russian Scientific School of Plant Physiology. He was a brilliant popularizer of science and made a lot for the propaganda of Darwinism. The evolutionary teachings of Darwin Timiryazev considered as the largest achievement of the XIX century science, approving the materialistic worldview in biology.

V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - The creator of modern genetic soil studies, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work "Russian Chernozem" recognized in world science contains a scientific classification of soils and the system of their natural types.

Worldwide fame received an expedition organized by the Russian geographical society for the study of Central and Central Asia and Siberia P.P. Semenova-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), N.M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), Ch.ch. Valikhanova (1835-1865). Named N.N. Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) related to the opening of world importance in the field of geography and ethnography, which he did while traveling to South-East Asia, Australia, Oceania.

In the second half of the XIX century. In Russia, humanitarian scientists fruitfully worked in the field of history, linguistics, literary studies, economics, creating important scientific research.

In the field of philology and linguistics did I.I. Szreznevsky (1812-1880) - Founder of the St. Petersburg School of Slavists. They are written valuable work on the history of the Russian Starrog Slavic language, the history of the ancient Russian literature. Large linguist, the founder of Moscow linguistic school was F.F. Fortunates (1848-1914). In the varying period, the beginning of the study of creativity A.S. Pushkin. The first scientific publication of the writings of the Great Poet prepared P.V. Annenkov (1813-1887). He also wrote a number of studies dedicated to his life and creativity.

Intensive work was carried out in the field of Russian folklores, gathering and research of oral folk art was held. Published works were extremely valuable in them with rich actual material. Huge work on collecting and studying folk art did V.I. Dal (1801-1872), published in the 60s " Dictionary Live Great Russian language, "which has not lost its scientific importance to this day. In Soviet times, dictionary V.I. Daly has repeatedly reprinted. (Appendix 3.)

Particular attention, Russian scientists have given the study of domestic history. In the 50-70s. Over the 29-volume publication "History of Russia from ancient times" worked a talented Russian historian S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879). On the basis of a huge actual material, he showed the transition from generic relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.

Of great importance for Russian historiography had the emergence of the Marxist destination associated with the name G.V. Plekhanova (1856-1918), theorist and propagandist of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. By 1883 his first Marxist work "Socialism and political struggle" belongs.

IN. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) read a course of Russian history, organically connected the ideas of the public school with an economic and geographical approach, explored the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N.I. Kostomarova (1817-1885) pays great attention to the history of the liberation war of Russia and Ukraine with Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of the "Russian history and life levels of its main figures." Thus, in the field of science of the XIX century, represents the amazing successes of Russian science, bringing it to leading positions in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westerners, which, with the cardinal discrepancies of philosophical views on the past and the future of Russia, agree on the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.

One of the central topics of the Russian public and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the topic of choosing a development path, the theme of the future of Russia. Collision of historical views of the Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, etc. Granovsky, I.S. Turgenev) and Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, Brothers Kireevsky, Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin) The time turned into an irreconcilable ideological conflict.

Westerners believed in the unity of human civilization and argued that Western Europe comes at the head of this civilization, the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and indicate the path to all the rest of humanity.

Slavophiles argued that a single universal civilization, and, consequently, there is no single development path for all peoples. Every people live their independent real life, which is based on a deep ideological beginning, "People's Spirit", permeating all sides of collective life.

With all ideological disagreements, Slavophiles and Westerners unexpectedly converged in the practical issues of Russian life: both currents negatively treated the fastening right and to the modern police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of printing, words and therefore in the eyes of the royal government were unrealized.

A distinctive feature of the scientific life of the tremendous time was the broad social and educational activities of scientists, promoting scientific knowledge through public lectures, the publication of popular science literature. At this time, the number of scientific and special periodicals has grown (approximately from 60 in 1855 to 500 by the end of the century), and, first of all, this growth touched the province (instead of 7, about 180 scientific journals were published).

The development of science, achievements in the field of natural science, had a huge impact on socio-cultural life. This was reflected in the literature, put a fingerprint on the state of the school, influenced one degree or another to the warehouse of thinking, the level of public consciousness.

Russia in the second half of the XIX century

On February 18, 1855, after the death of Nikolai I, his son Alexander II entered the throne. His Board (1855-1881) passed under the sign of deep modernization russian society. February 19, 1861 was made public Manifesto on the elimination of serfdom And the legislative acts approved the "Regulations on the peasants who came out of the fortress dependence". In 1864, Zemskoy self-government was introduced (gradually, in 34 provinces of European Russia), the court of jury and the bar, in 1870 - the city government, in 1874 - the Universal Military Meament.

In 1863, a rebellion broke out in Poland. It was suppressed. In 1864, Russia managed to complete the Caucasian War, which lasted 47 years. Accession to Russia in 1865-1876. The considerable territories of Central Asia delivered the royal administration before the need to organize control of the remote inocultural outskirts.
Reforms of 1860-1870s. led to a sharp increase in the economy and especially the industry. The most notable aspect of this growth was the "Railway Bum" of the second half of the 1860s of the 1870s, during which the most important highways were built: Moscow-Kursk (1868), Kursk-Kiev (1870), Moscow -Brest (1871).
In the middle of the XIX century. Russia was an agricultural country, the largest producer and supplier of agricultural products. Under the conditions of the abolition of serfdom, the peasants should have redeem their land. "Redempted payments" fell by heavy burden on rural societies and were often stretched for many years, which caused more than 1,300 mass peasant performances, of which more than 500 were suppressed with the use of force. Community land use (the inability to dispose of their postal) and Malozhemnel caused the peasants discontent and held back the growth of the working class, and the lack of social guarantees from the state led to strengthening the operation of workers.

The ideas of V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), who considered, were widespread in society at this time. That the ideal state structure can only be established on the principles of distributing the usual Russian village of communal orders on the whole society. The means of reorganizing public life, they saw the universal peasant uprising. To prepare this All-Russian peasant rebellion, the revolutionary youth tried to establish the propaganda of his ideas among the peasants ("walking in the people" in 1874-1875), but in the peasant environment, naive-monarchical sentiments were still very strong. A part of young people mistakenly believed that the king of the king would automatically cause the collapse of the state apparatus, which would facilitate the revolution. Already in 1866, the first attempt was happening at Alexander II, and in 1879 there was a secret organization "Folk Volya", who settled terror against the prominent employees of the royal administration, and as the highest goal - a kingdom. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by the "populists", but the peasant revolution did not happen.

The king was the son of Alexander II - Alexander III. For his rule (1881-1894), security trends were characterized. The new monarch sought to strengthen the state apparatus in every way and increase the country's handling. To do this, he went to the partial turning of the transformations that were carried out by Alexander II. In historiography, this period was called "Period of Counterformation". In the villages there were Zemstvo Chiefs (nobles), who managed peasant affairs; In the provinces, security departments were established to combat revolutionary motion. The rights of land self-government were significantly limited, and the elected system is changed to ensure the predominance of delegates from landowners. Reaction changes were made to the judicial and censorship. On the other hand, the Alexander III administration sought to act as a social arbitrator. The government was forced to adopt the laws that restricted the operation of workers. In 1883, the pillow was canceled.

Alexander III died in 1894. His son Nicholas II entered the throne, which, as well as his father fought against liberal trends and was a consistent supporter of the absolute monarchy, which, however, did not prevent him from favorably to refer to one or another innovations and transformations if they wore Tactical character and did not affect the foundations of autocracy. In particular, in the Board of Nicholas II (1894-1917), gold support of the ruble and the state wine monopoly were introduced, which significantly recovered the finance of the country. The Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of which was completed in those years, tied the Far Eastern List with the Central Regions of Russia. In 1897 was held First All-Russian Census of the Population.
The liberation of peasants from serfdom contributed to the rapid development of capitalism: the appearance big number industrial and trade enterprises, banks, construction railways, Development of agricultural production. By the end of the XIX century. The number of workers has increased twice and reached 1.5 million people. In 1879-1900 specific gravity large enterprises Grew from 4 to 16%, i.e., 4 times, the workers on them - from 67 to 76%.

The increase in the number of proletariat was accompanied by the emergence of the first revolutionary working organizations. In 1883, G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918) and his associates in Geneva were united in the Labor Liberation group, which began the beginning marxism in Russia. The group developed a program of the Russian Social Democracy, the final goal of which was proclaimed by the creation of the Workers' Party, the overthrow of the autocracy, the seizure of political power to the working class, the transfer of funds and instruments of production to public property, the elimination of market relations and the organization of planned production. The publications of this group were distributed in Russia in more than 30 provincial centers and industrial cities.
Marxist circles began to occur in Russia (by the end of the XIX century. They were about 30). In 1892, in Samara began the revolutionary activities V. I. Lenin (Ulyanov, 1870-1924). In 1895, together with the participants of the Marxist circle of students of technologists (S. I. Radchenko, M. A. Silvin, M. Krzhizhanovsky, etc.) and St. Petersburg workers (I. V. Babushkin, V. A. Shelgunov, B. I. Zinoviev, etc.) Lenin created the organization in St. Petersburg "Union of the struggle for the liberation of the working class", which was soon defeated by the police, and Lenin had to emigrate.

In 1898, the congress of representatives of the St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Yekaterinoslav "Unions of the struggle" and Bund (Party of the Jewish Proletariat) took place in Minsk. Congress proclaimed the creation Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party (RSDLP) and elected the Central Committee (CC). On behalf of the Congress of the Central Committee Manifesto RSDDPIn which the democratic and socialist tasks of the Russian proletariat and his party were briefed. However, the party has not yet had a program and the charter, its local committees were in a state of ideological and organizational breakdown.
In 1855, the Kuril Islands were officially included in Russia. Accession of the Amur region and Primorye was issued Aigunsky (1858) and Pekinsky (1860) contracts With China. According to the Aigong Agreement, the ownership of Russia was recognized on the left bank of the Amur, and Primorye (Ussuriy Territory) was departed to it. In 1875, Sakhalin Island moved to Russia, and the Kuril Islands to Japan.
In 1867, the Turkestan Governorship General was formed from the attached possessions of the Kokand Khanate and Bukhara Emirate. In 1868, the Samarkand and Kat-Kurgan districts of the Bukhara Emirate, which acknowledged the Protectorate of Russia were attached to Russia. In 1869, the Custinian Military Department with the Center in Krasnovodsk was formed. After 1881, the Custinian region was formed with the center in Ashabad. By agreement with the United Kingdom (England) on September 10, 1885, the border of Russia was established with Afghanistan, and in 1895 - the border on the Pamir.
In the spring of 1875, an uprising broke out in the Turkish ownership of Russia in the Balkans. Serbs turned for help to the Russian government, which demanded from Turkey to conclude a truce with Serbs. The rejection of the Turks caused the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. In the summer of 1877, the Russian troops forced the Danube and entered Bulgaria.

However, forces for a decisive occurrence lacked. A naughty detachment of General Gurko took Shipkinsky Pass in the Balkan Range, but could not advance further. On the other hand, the numerous attempts of the Turks knock the Russians with the pass were also not crowned with success. Especially dangerous was the lateness of the Russians with the occupation of the piers on the Western Face of the Sannaya Bridgehead. Turkish troops first reached this strategically important point and entrenched in it. Three extremely bloody storms 8 (20), 18 (30), July 30-31 (September 11-12), 1877 were not crowned with success. In the autumn, the Russians occupied the strengthening of the Telish and Mountain Dubnyak, finally blocking the spine. Trying to support the surrounded fortress, the Turks undertook a counteroffensive immediately from Sofia, and on the eastern faces of the bridgehead. In the Sofia direction, Turkish counterattack was reflected, and the eastern front of the Russian location was broken, and only the desperate counterattack of Russian troops, which has twisted Turkish orders under Zlataritsa, stabilized the front. Having exhausted the ability to resist, after an unsuccessful breakthrough attempt, the Pleven garrison capitulated on November 28 (December 10) of 1877 in the winter of 1877-1878. In incredibly hard weather conditions, the Russian troops forced the Balkan ridge and caused the Turks a decisive defeat with Shainovo. January 3-5 (15-17) According to the Berlin Treatment on July 13, 1878, South Bessarabia, Batum, Kars and Ardagan were attached to Russia.
Directions in the literature and art that established in the first half of the XIX century, they received their further development and in the second half of the XIX century. - early XX century.
Reforms of 1860-1870s. Represented a real coup, the consequence of which were fundamental changes in the social, state and all folk life, which could not affect the development of culture. It happened not only the social, but also spiritual liberation of the people, whose new cultural queries appeared and satisfy them. Significantly expanded the circle of persons of intelligent labor, carriers of culture. An important importance also had scientific and technological progress, which served and factors, and an indicator of cultural development.

Start XX century. - This is the "silver age" of Russian culture, first of all in the field of literature and art. Russia firmly entered the system of world powers, closely interconnected by economic, political and cultural uzami. In Russia, there were widespread use of innovations of the scientific and technological progress of advanced countries (telephone, cinema, gramophone, car, etc.), achievements exact Sciences; Various directions were widespread in literature and art. And global culture has significantly enriched in the achievements of Russian science, literature and art. Speeches of Russian composers, opera singers, ballet masters took place in the famous theaters of Italy, France, Germany, England, USA.
IN russian literature second halves XIX. in. Especially bright image received the topics of people's life, various social and political flows. At this time, there is a flourishing of creativity of the prominent Russian writers L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykova-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasova, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky. In the 1880-1890s. A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky stand out in Russian literature. The traditions of critical realism inherent in these writers found their continuation and development in the work of those who came in the literature at the beginning of the XX century. New Generation Writers - A. M. Gorky, A. I. Kupina, I. A. Bunin.
Along with this direction, especially in the pre-revolutionary decade and mainly in the poetic environment, various literary circles and associations arise, seeking to move away from traditional aesthetic norms and ideas. The poet V. Ya. Bryusov was the associations of symbolists (creators and theorist of the Russian symbolism) belonged to K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Hippius, A. White, A. A. Block. The opposite symbolism direction, aqmeism arose in Russian poetry in 1910 (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam). Representatives of another modernist flow in Russian literature and art - futurism - denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values \u200b\u200b(V. V. Khlebnikov, Igor Northerner, Early V. V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).
Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg and the Small Theater in Moscow remained the main centers of the Russian theater culture In the second half of the XIX century. - early XX century. In the repertoire of the Small Theater, the playful place was occupied by A. N. Ostrovsky. Among the actors of the Small Theater, Sadovsky, Sergey Shsky, Maria Ermolova, Alexander Sumbatov-Yazzhin, and others, were shone on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater Maria Savina, Vladimir Davydov, Polina Streptova.
In the 1860-1870s. Private theaters and theatrical mugs began to occur. In 1898, in Moscow, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Art Theater, and in 1904 in St. Petersburg, V. F. Commissioner, created a dramatic theater.
The second half of the XIX century. - Time is bloom russian musical art. Anton and Nikolay Rubinsteins played a large role in the development and organization of musical education. N. G. Rubinstein became the initiator of the creation of the Moscow Conservatory (1866).
In 1862, the "Balakirevsky circle" (or according to V. Stasova "Mighty Cup") was formed in St. Petersburg, where M. A. Balakirev, Ts A. Kyui, A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Opera Mussorgsky "Hovanshchina" and "Boris Godunov", Roman Corsakov "Sadko", "Pskovtyanka" and "Tsarist Bride" are the masterpieces of the Russian and world music classics. The greatest composer of the era was P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), whose flowering of creativity is accounted for in 1870-1880. P. I. Tchaikovsky is the largest creator of symphonic, ballet and opera music (Ballets "Swan Lake", "Nutcracker", "Sleeping Beauty"; Opera "Eugene Onegin", "Peak Lady", "Mazepa", "Iolanta" and others .). Tchaikovsky is written over one hundred romances, mainly by the works of Russian poets.
IN late XIX.- At the beginning of the XX centuries. The Pleiad of Talented Composers appeared in Russian music: A. K. Glazunov, S. I. Taneyev, A. S. Arensky, A. K. Lyadov, I. F. Stravinsky, A. N. Scriabin. With the help of rich patrons, private operas arise, among which the private opera S. I. Mamontov received wide fame in Moscow. On its scene, the talent of F. I. Shalyapin fully opened.

IN russian painting The dominant situation took critical realism, the main topic of which was the image of the life of a simple people, primarily the peasantry. First of all, this topic has found its embodiment in the work of the Movie Artists (I. N. Kramskaya, N. N. Ge, V. N. Surikov, V. G. Verov, V. E. Makovsky, G. G. Measodoev, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, I. E. Repein, A. I. Kindji, I. I. Levitan). The outstanding representative of the Russian battle painting was V. Vereshchagin, the largest marinist artist - I. K. Aivazovsky. In 1898, the creative association of artists "The World of Art" appeared, in which A. N. Benua, D. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancere, B. M. Kustodiev, K. A. Korovin, N. K. Roerich, I. E. Grabar.
Implementation in architecture The achievements of industrial progress and technical innovations contributed to the construction of structures characteristic of the country's industrial development: factory buildings, railway stations, banks, shopping centers. Modern, along with whom the buildings of the Old Russian and Byzantine style were erected: the top trading rows (now GUM, ARH. A. N. Pomerancers), buildings of the Historical Museum in Moscow (Arch. V. O. Sherwood) and Moscow City Duma ( Arch. D. N. Chichagov), etc.
A significant event in public and cultural life was the discovery of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880, the sculptor A. M. Pekpeshin), among the outstanding sculptors of this time allocated: M. M. Antakolsky, A. S. Golubanka, with . T. Konenkov.

Successfully developed the science. With the name of the great scientist D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) associated with the opening of the periodic system of elements; Research I. M. Sechenov in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity continued I. P. Pavlov; I. I. Mesnikov created the doctrine on the protective factors of the body, which formed the basis of modern microbiology and pathology.
"Father of Russian Aviation" E. N. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of modern aerodynamics, invented the aerodynamic pipe and founded the Aerodynamic Institute in 1904; K. E. Tsiolkovsky laid the foundation of the theory of movement of rockets and jet devices. Academician V. I. Vernadsky gave the beginning of many scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, ecology. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian School of Plant Physiology.
With the development of natural sciences, technical discoveries and inventions are connected: the creation of an electric incandescent bulb (A. N. Lododynikin), an arc lamp (P. N. Apple), radio communication (A. S. Popov).
An outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov developed the fundamental work of the "History of Russia from ancient times", in which substantiated a new concept, explaining the domestic history by the natural and ethnic features of the Russian people.

Cancellation of serfdom, despite its incompleteness, created conditions for the rapid development of capitalism. In 1861-1900. Russia has become agricultural in the agrarian-industrial capitalist country, one of the great world powers. At the end of the XIX century. In industrial production, she ranked fifth, after the United States, England, Germany and France.
As a result of imperial policy, Russia joined a huge space in Central Asia, stopping the expansion of England in this area and having received the raw material base for the textile industry. On the Far East The Amuria and Ussuri Primorye were attached, and the ownership of Sakhalin (instead of the concession of the Kuril Islands). The political rapprochement began with France.

The revolutionary movement of populists could not raise the peasants to the uprising, terror against the Tsar and the Supreme officials turned out to be insolvent. In the 1880s. The spread of Marxism began, in 1892 - the revolutionary activity of Lenin, in 1898 the RSDLP was created.

Before characterizing the social and political thought of Russia of this period, the social composition of the society, which established in the pureform period, should be studied. interior countries.

Russian society of the late 19th century

The transitional nature of the historical development of the Foreign Russia and the multi-tech economy was due to the originality of the social structure of its society. Preserved the textual division of society. Each class (nobles, peasants, merchants, breasts, clergy) had clearly fixed privileges or restrictions. The development of capitalism gradually changed the social structure and appearance of classes, formed two new social groups - the classes of the capitalist society (bourgeoisie and proletariat).

The dominant position in the country still belonged to the nobles. Their some economic weakening did not affect socio-political influence. The nobility remained supporting autocracy, occupied key positions in the bureaucratic apparatus, army and public life. Some nobles, adapting to new conditions, actively participated in industrial and financial activities.

The bourgeoisie grew rapidly, which was formed from merchants, burghers, representatives of the rich peasantry. She gradually gained economic strength, but played a minor role in the political life of the country. Weak and unorganized, it supported autocracy, which provided an expansionist foreign policy and the possibility of exploitation of workers.

The peasants remained the most numerous social group. For this estate continued to maintain numerous limitations in a wide variety social spheres. The community was unshakable, which limited the legal, economic and personal life of the peasant, however, the penetration into the village of capitalist relations contributed to the division of rural residents on Kulakov (rural bourgeoisie) and the main mass of the poor.

The impoverished peasantry and urban poor were served as the source of the formation of the proletariat. The peculiarity of the working class of Russia was that he did not impose his connections from the village. Therefore, the ripening of personnel proletariat went slow pace. The position of the Russian working class was significantly different from Western European. Russia has developed heavy working conditions and life, there were no trade unions and the working system of workers. All this raised them to the struggle for economic rights. The anti-government activities of revolutionaries fell on the fertile soil of the proletarian discontent with a tough system of exploitation in the country.

Such were the main participants of the internal political relations in the second half of the 19th century. Consider this relationship.

After the murder on March 1, 1881, his son Alexander III (1818--1881) entered the throne. According to nature, Alexander III was the exact opposite of his father and reminded his grandfather - Nikolai I. In a short time, he retreated in his politics from the line Alexander II in almost all spheres of public life.

In the 80--90-kh. A number of reactionary measures are carried out by autocracy. In historical literature, they are known as "counter-formulations", because Pursued the goal to limit the effect of reforms of the 60--70s., which, in the opinion of the ideologues of the new course, weakened the legitimate power in the country and led to the crisis. The former mentor of Alexander III, Ober-Prosecutor of the Synod KP, became ideological inspirers of the reactionary political course. The victorious and editor of the Moscow Vedomosti M.N. Ratops.

On March 8, 1881, the Council of Ministers rejected the draft constitution developed by M.T. Loris Melikov. Instead, on April 29, 1881, the manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy", proclaiming the king faith, "by virtue and the truth of the autocratic power", which he is obliged to protect "from all sorts of excitement." Orlov A.S. and others. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: Tutorial. - 2nd ed .. - M.: Tboyl L.V. Roznikov, 2000.- p.256

In accordance with the "Regulations on measures to protect state order and social peace" published on August 14, 1881, "a state of emergency was actually declared in the country: each resident could be arrested, without a court exiled to a remote area for 5 years or was devoted to the military court. Local authorities were endowed with the right to close educational institutions and the press bodies, suspend the activities of Zemsky meetings and urban dum.

A law of 1889 is very important in the counseling cycle on the introduction of the position of Zemstvo chiefs. He approved a new Social Institute of Zemstvo officials from the number of hereditary nobles, which rummaged over all the peasant authorities of self-government. Zemstvo chiefs focused in their hands all the administrative and judicial power in the field.

The courts under the control of the Zemsky bosses. The Institute of World Judges ceased to exist. Part of the court cases transferred to the consideration of the Zemstvo chief, the rest of the affairs were transferred to the payroll.

Instead of a non-alone Kuri "Position 1890" Installed the estate curia of the nobles and urban classes. The peasantry actually deprived of the election representative office: the governor himself appointed vowels from among the candidates elected peasants.

In 1892, the counterformation changed the election order to the city duma. A significant part of the urban population (clerks, small merchants, intelligentsia) deprived of election rights. At the same time, industrialists, merchants, major officials began to prevail in the city duma, i.e. Peace of the urban population.

Councils did not bypass the sphere of culture and education. So, all the lower schools were withdrawn from the maintenance of zeal and transferred to the Synod. Most schools become church-parish. If in 1882 church-parish schools numbered 4.5 thousand, then in 1894 there were 32 thousand, Russian history: a textbook for universities / G. B. Pole, A.N. Makarova, N.S. Krivtsova et al. - M.: Culture and Sport, Uniti, 1997.- S. 170 The increase occurred not at the expense of the opening of new educational institutions, but as a result of the transition of Zemstvo schools to the status of church-parish.

The government sought to completely subdue the secondary school to the control of the state and the church in the face of Synod. In 1887, a circular on the "kitchen children" was introduced, which did not allow the reception in the gymnasium of children of Laces, Lukek, small shopkeepers, etc.

In 1884, the new university charter eliminated the autonomy of universities. At the same time, a police supervision of students was strengthened and the training fee was increased. Many progressive professors were fired from universities. It was curtailed female higher education.

"Temporary regulations on the press" of 1882 committed to the liberal policies of the 60s in the field of censorship. The right to close any edition received not only the Ministry of the Interior, but also the Ober-Prosecutor of the Synod. The government supported the "right" publications, among whom "Moscow Vedomosti" M.N. Katkova. Censorship under Alexander III was even more rigid than under Nicolae I.

Strengthening the authoritarian regime was to serve as stabilization of the domestic political situation., But nevertheless did not weaken the development of the opposition movement. The complex socio-political structure of Russia led to an extraordinary placement of forces on the internal political stage. In the countries of Western Europe, during the change of feudalism, capitalism, the public struggle against absolutism was headed by bourgeoisie, whose slogans were requirements political freedoms, the establishment of the republic or the restriction of the power of the monarch legislative acts. Otherwise it happened in Russia. In the development of the opposition movement, two main directions were formed - bourgeois-liberal and revolutionary-democratic.

The second half of the XIX century occupies a special place in the history of Russia. By significance, the period can be compared only with the era of Petrovsky transformations. This is the time of cancellation in Russia centuries-old serfdom and a whole series of reforms affecting all parties to public life.

On February 18, 1855, 37-year-old Alexander II joined the Russian throne. On February 19, 1861, the emperor signed a manifesto on the abolition of serfdom. The abolition of serfdom was accompanied by reforming all parties to the life of Russian society.

Land reform. The main issue in Russia during the XVIII-XIX centuries was a land-peasant. Ekaterina II raised this issue in the work of a free economic society, which considered several dozen programs to cancel the serfdom of both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree "On Free Blade", allowing the landowners to free their peasants from serfdom together with the land for the redemption. Nicholas I created 11 secret committees on the peasant issue, whose task was to cancel the serfdom, the decision of the land issue in Russia.

In 1857, by decree Alexander II, the secret committee on the peasant issue began to work, the main task of which was the abolition of serfdom with the obligatory endowment of the peasants of the Earth. Then such committees were created by provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and punishes of both landowners and peasants were taken into account) reform was developed for the abolition of serfdom for all parts of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas, the maximum and minimum magnitude of the transmitted peasant stationed was determined.

The emperor on February 19, 1861 signed a number of laws. There was a manifesto and the provision on the declaration of freedom to peasants, documents on the entry into force of the situation, about the management of rural communities and others. Cancellation of serfdom was not a one-time event. At first, the landlords of the peasants were released, then specific and attributed to the factories. The peasants received personal freedom, but the Earth remained landlord property, and until they were assigned to the peasants, the peasants at the situation of the "temporary obligated" carried in favor of subsidiaries, which were not essentially different from the previous, serfs. Pasteners transmitted to the peasants were on average by 1/5 less than those they were treated before. These lands were to buy agreements, after that the "temporal-based" state was terminated, the treasury paid for land with landowners, peasants - with a treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption).

The use of land, relationship with the authorities was built through the community. It was kept as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (peace).

As a result of the reforms, the serfdom was destroyed - then "obvious and for all a sensitive evil", which in Europe was directly called "Russian slavery." However, the land problem was not solved, as the peasants in the section of the Earth were forced to send the fifth part of their passengers. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, the peasant in many respects in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that were standing in front of it. That is what caused P.A. Stolypin to carry out land reform, allowing peasants to exit the community. The essence of the reform was to solve the land issue, but not due to the confiscation of the land at the landowners, as the peasants demanded, and at the expense of the edge of the Earth themselves.

Zemskaya and urban reforms. The principle conducted in 1864 the god reform was in election and unconditionality. In the provinces and counties of Central Russia and the part of Ukraine, the Zemstvo was established as local governments. Elections to Zemsky meetings were conducted on the basis of the property, age, educational and number of other centes. Women and employed employment were deprived of the right to participate in the elections. This gave the advantage of the most secured segments of the population. Meetings chose Zemskie councils. The zemstvo was made by the affairs of local importance, promoted entrepreneurship, education, health care - conducted work to which the state was not funds.

The city reform conducted in 1870 was close to Zemskoy. In major cities, urban duma was established on the basis of all-known elections. However, the elections were carried out on a valuable basis, and, for example, only 4% of the adult population participated in them. City Duma and the urban head decided issues of domestic self-government, education and medical care. To control the land and urban activities, the presence of urban affairs was created.

Judicial reform. New judicial chances were approved on November 20, 1864, the judiciary was separated from the executive and legislative. An immaculate and vowing court was introduced, the principle of displaceability of judges was approved. Two types of court were introduced - general (coronary) and global. The common trial was criminal proceedings. The lawsuit became open, although in some cases cases were listened with "closed doors". The advisory of the court was established, the posts of investigators were introduced, a lawyer was established. The question of the guilt of the defendant solved 12 jurors. The most important principle of reform was the recognition of equality of all the subjects of the Empire before the law.

To parse civil cases, the Institute of World Judges was introduced. The appellate instance for ships was the court chambers. The post of notary was introduced. Since 1872, major political affairs were considered in a special presence of the Governing Senate, which became simultaneously the highest cassation instance.

Military reform. After appointment in 1861 D.A. Milyutin Military Minister begins reorganization of the management of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinates directly to the Military Minister. In 1867, a military judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the king approved the charter about the universal military service. A flexible call system was introduced. Recruit sets Canceled, the call to the service was subject to all the men's population that has reached 21 years. The service life was reduced in the army to 6 years, on a fleet up to 7 years. The appeal to the army was not subject to spiritual faces, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some nations of the Caucasus and the Far North. The only son was freed from service, the only breadwinner in the family. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was significantly less than the number of recruits, so all suitable for the service, with the exception of the benefits, pull the lot. For those who graduated from primary school, the service was reduced to 3 years, for graduated by gymnasium - up to 1.5 years, university or institute - up to 6 months.

Financial reform. In 1860, the state bank was established, the decoupling system was canceled, which was replaced by excise taxes3 (1863). Since 1862, the Minister of Finance became the only responsible manager of income and budget expenditures; The budget has become vowels. An attempt was made to conduct monetary reform (free exchange of credit tickets for gold and silver at the established rate).

Reforms of enlightenment. "Regulations on the initial folk schools" dated June 14, 1864, the state-church monopoly for enlightenment was eliminated. Now open and maintain primary schools were allowed both to public institutions and individuals in control of the county and provincial schools and inspectors. Tired high School Introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions, but introduced a training fee. The gymnasiums were divided into classic and real. In classical gymnasiums, mainly humanitarian disciplines were taught, in real - natural. After the resignation of the Minister of Folk Education A.V. The head (in 1861, D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead of him), a new gymnasium charter was adopted, which preserved only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real collections. Along with the male middle education, a system of women's gymnasiums appeared.

University Charter (1863) provided universities wide autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. The leadership of the school was transferred to the Council of Professors, who was subordinate to the student. Universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher women's courses in St. Petersburg, Kiev, Moscow, Kazan.

As a result of the publication of a number of laws in Russia, a slender education system was created, which included the initial, secondary and higher educational institutions.

Censorship reform. In May 1862, the reform of censorship began, "temporary rules" were introduced, which in 1865 replaced the new censorship charter. According to a new charter, preliminary censorship was canceled for books in 10 or more printed sheets (240 pages); Editors and publishers could only be responsible for the court. According to special permits and when making a collateral, several thousand rubles were released from censorship and periodicals, but they could be suspended in administrative procedure. Without censorship, only government and scientific editions could exit, as well as literature translated from a foreign language.

The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor in the socio-economic development of the country. Administrative reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always quickly suspected the ideas of the king reformer. The variety and speed of transformations gave rise to a sense of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost the landmarks, there were organizations that confess the extremist, sectarian principles.

For the economy of the Foreign Russia, the rapid development of commodity-money relations is characteristic. There was an increase in sowing and agricultural production, but the productivity of agriculture remained low. Crops and consumption of products (except bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time in the 80s. Compared to the 50s. The average annual collection of grains grew by 38%, and its exports increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity relations has led to the property differentiation in the village, the middle naval farms ruined, the number of poor people grew. On the other hand, strong foolish farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But quite unexpectedly for them in the country there was a traditionally hostile attitude towards trade, to all new forms of activity: to a fist, merchant, buyer - to a lucky entrepreneur.

In Russia, the large industry was created and developed as a state. The main care of the government after the failures of the Crimean War were enterprises that produced military equipment. Russia's military budget overthrew the English, French, German, but in the Russian budget he had a more significant weight. Special attention was paid to the development of heavy industries and transport. It is in these areas that the government guided funds both Russian and foreign.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state on the basis of issuing special orders, so large bourgeoisie was closely related to the state. The number of industrial workers increased rapidly, however, many workers maintained economic and psychological ties with the village, they carried the charge of the discontinuities of the poor who lost the land and forced to seek food in the city.

Reforms laid the foundation of the new loan system. For 1866-1875 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual loan societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866, the largest European banks began to actively participate in their work. As a result of state regulation, foreign loans and investments were mainly on railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market at the huge expanses of Russia; They were important for the operational transfer of military units.

In the second half of the XIX century, the political situation in the country has repeatedly changed. During the preparation of reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of actions, attracted all supporters of transformations - from the highest bureaucracy to democrats. Subsequently, difficulty with the implementation of reforms aggravated the internal political situation in the country. The struggle of government with opponents "left" found a cruel character: the suppression of peasant performances, the arrests of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. The role of III security (gendarme) branch increased.

In the 1860s, the political arena came out radical traffic - populists. Distribution intelligentsia based on revolutionary democratic ideas and NiGilism D.I. Pisarev, created the theory of revolutionary population. The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural "world". "Buntar" M.A. Bakunin predicted the peasant revolution, the wick of which was to light the revolutionary intelligentsia. PN Tkachev was the theorist of the public coup, after which the intelligentsia, having completed the necessary transformations, will free community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of \u200b\u200bthorough preparation of peasants to revolutionary struggle. In 1874, mass "walking in the people" began, but the agitation of populists could not light the flame of the peasant uprising.

In 1876, the organization "Earth and Volia" arose, which in 1879 broke into two groups. The group "Black convey" headed by G.V. Plekhanov paid the main attention to propaganda; "Folk Volya" led by

A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovsky highlighted political struggle to the fore. The main means of struggle, according to "People's Republic", was an individual terror, a kingubius, which was to serve as a signal to a popular uprising. In 1879-1881 The people have conducted a series of attempts on Alexander II.

In a situation of acute political confrontation, power fell on the path of self-defense. On February 12, 1880, the "Supreme Regulatory Commission for the Protection of Public Order and Public Tranquers" was created at the chapter with M.P. Loris Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved the suspension of the terrorist activities of revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880, the Commission was eliminated; Loris Melikov was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs and began to prepare the completion of the "great case of state reforms". The development of projects of final laws of reforms was entrusted to the "people" - temporary preparatory commissions with a wide representation of zeal and cities.

On February 5, 1881, the present draft law was approved by Emperor Alexander II. "Constitution Loris-Melikova" provided for the election of "representatives from public institutions ..." in higher Organs state power. On the morning of March 1, 1881, the emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the draft law; Literally a few hours later, Alexander II was killed by members of the Organization "People's Volia".

The new Emperor Alexander III March 8, 1881 held a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss the Loris Melikov project. At the meeting with a sharp criticism of the Constitution, Ober Prosecutor of the Holy Synod KP Victorious and head of the State Council S.G. Stroganov. Soon followed the resignation of Loris-Melikov.

In May 1883, Alexander III proclaimed a course called in the historical and materialistic literature "Counterformations", and in the liberal-historical - "correction of reforms". He expressed himself in the following.

In 1889, the positions of the Zemstvo Chiefs with Wide Rights were introduced to enhance the surveillance of peasants. They were appointed from local nobility-landowners. The authorities and small merchants, other low-income layers of the city were lost. The change was subject to judicial reform. In the new position about the deputy 1890, the estate-noble representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884 Many publications were closed, university autonomy was abolished. Primary schools Transferred to the Church Office - Synod.

In these events, the idea of \u200b\u200b"official nationality" of the time of Nicholas I - the slogan "Orthodoxy was manifested. Autocracy. Spirit of humility "was consonant with slogans of the left era. New official ideologists K.P. Victorious (Ober-Prosecutor of Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of the Moscow Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (the publisher of the newspaper "Citizen") lowered the word "people" as "dangerous" in the old formula, as "dangerous" in the old formula; They preached the humility of His Spirit in front of the autocracy and the church. On practice new Politics It turned out in an attempt to strengthen the state by supporting on the traditionally faithful throne of the noble estate. Administrative measures were supported by economic support for landlords.

On October 20, 1894, 49-year-old Alexander III suddenly died in the Crimea from acute inflammation of the kidney. Nikolai II joined the imperial throne.

In January 1895, at the first meeting of representatives of the nobles, the tops of the zero, cities and the Cossack troops with the new king Nicholas II declared the readiness to "protect the starts of the autocracy as firmly and steadily as guarded by his father. During these years, representatives of the Tsarist family were often interferred in the state management, which at the beginning of the twentieth century had to 60 members. Most great princes occupied important administrative and military posts. An uncle of the king, the brothers Alexander III - the great princes Vladimir, Alexey, Sergey and cousins, Nikolai Nikolayevich, Alexander Mikhailovich, provided.

After Russia's defeat in the Crimean War there was a new the ratio of power, and the political championship in Europe passed to France. Russia as a great power has lost its impact on international affairs and was insulation. The interests of economic development, as well as considerations of strategic security, required to eliminate the restrictions on military shipping on the Black Sea, provided for by the Parisian peace treaty of 1856. The diplomatic efforts of Russia were aimed at the separation of participants in the Paris World - France, England, Austria.

In the late 50s - early 60s. There was a rapprochement with France, which intended to capture the territory on the Apennine Peninsula, using the Italian liberation movement against Austria. But relations with France have aggravated due to the abuse of Russia of the Polish uprising. In the 60s. strengthening the relations between Russia and the United States; Pursuing his interests, autocracy supported the Republican Government A. Lincoln in the Civil War. At the same time, an agreement was reached with Prussia on the support of Russia's claims on the abolition of the Paris Treaty, instead of the royal government promised not to interfere with the creation of the North-German Union led by Prussia.

In 1870, France suffered a crushing defeat in the Franco Prussian War. In October 1870, Russia declared his refusal to carry out the humiliating articles of the Paris Treaty. In 1871, the Russian Declaration was adopted and legalized on the London Conference. The strategic task of foreign policy was not solved by war, but diplomatic means.

Russia has become an opportunity to more actively influence international affairs and above all - in the Balkans. In 1875-1876. The uprisings against Turkey covered the entire peninsula, the Slavs were waiting for the assistance of Russia.

On April 24, 1877, the king signed a manifesto on the announcement of Turkey War. A plan of a speed campaign was developed. On July 7, the troops fucked the Danube, went to the Balkans, captured Shipkin Pass, but were detained under the whites. Plevna fell only on November 28, 1877; In winter, the Russian army passed through the Balkans, on January 4, 1878. Sofia was taken, January 8 - Adrianopol. The port requested the world, which was concluded on February 19, 1878 in San Stefano. Under the contract in San Stefano, Turkey lost almost all of its European possessions; A new independent state appeared on the map of Europe - Bulgaria.

Western powers refused to recognize the San Stefan Treaty. In June 1878, the Berlin Congress opened, which made decisions, significantly less profitable for Russia and the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. In Russia, it was encountered as an insult to national dignity, the storm of indignation was rising, including in relation to the government. Public opinion was still in captivity of the formula "Everything immediately". The war ended with the victory turned into a diplomatic defeat, economic disorder, the exacerbation of the domestic political situation.

In the first years after the war, "overbalanced" of the interests of the great powers took place. Germany leanned towards the Union with Austria-Hungary, which was concluded in 1879, and in 1882 supplemented with the "Thieves Union" with Italy. Under these conditions, there was a natural convergence of Russia and France, which ended in 1892 by the conclusion of a secret union supplemented by the Military Convention. For the first time in world history, the economic and military-political opposition to the sustainable groups of the great powers began.

In the "Middle Abroad" the conquest and accession of new territories continued. Now, in the XIX century, the desire for the expansion of the area was determined primarily with the motives of a socio-political nature. Russia actively participated in great politics, sought to neutralize the influence of England in Central Asia, Turkey - in the Caucasus. In the 60s. In the US, a civil war occurred, the import of American cotton was difficult. His natural substitute was "sideways", in Central Asia. And finally, the seizure of territories pushed the imperial traditions formed.

In 1858 and 1860. China was forced to give the land on the left bank of the Amur and the Ussuri region. In 1859, after half a century war, the mountains of the Caucasus, finally, were "surrenized", their military and spiritual leaders of Imam Shamil captured in a high-altitude Aule Gunib. In 1864, the conquest of the Western Caucasus was completed.

The Russian emperor sought to ensure that the rulers of the states of Central Asia recognize his supreme power, and achieved this: in 1868, Khiva Khanate, and in 1873 Bukhara Emirate recognized the vassal dependence on Russia. Muslims of Kokand Khanate declared Russia "Holy War", "Gazavat", but suffered; In 1876, Kokand was joined in Russia. In the early 80s. Russian troops broke the nomadic Turkmen tribes and came close to the borders of Afghanistan.

In the Far East, the southern part of Sakhalin is acquired in the Far East in exchange for Kuril Islands. In 1867, the United States for 7 million dollars was sold to Alaska. According to the testimony of the historian

S.G. Pushkareva, many Americans believed that she was not worth it.

Russian Empire, "Unified and indivisible", spread "from Finnish Cold Rocks to Flame Taurida", from Vistula to Pacific Ocean and took the sixth part of the Earth.

The split of Russian society in the spiritual field began with the times of Peter I and deepened in the XIX century. The monarchy continued to "Europeanization of Russia", not believing with the traditions of domestic culture. Outstanding achievements of European science, literature, arts were available only to a limited number of Russian people; They have little influenced the daily life of a simple people. The man of another culture was perceived by the peasants as a barin, "strangers".

The level of education was reflected in the reading tastes. In the 1860s Folklore, fairy tales about knights and pedagogical works accounted for 60% of all publications. Over the same time, the popularity of stories about robber, love, science has grown from 16 to 40%. In the 90s. The folk literature appears a rational hero, relying on a personal initiative. Such a change in the subject indicated the emergence of liberal values \u200b\u200bin the mass consciousness.

In Volklore, Epos folklore, fell the role of ritual poetry and grew the importance of the integrity-satirical genre directed by its edge against the merchant, official, fist. In the chastushka, the topic of family relations was supplemented with socio-political scenes. The workers folklore appeared.

In the folk consciousness, along with confidence, the mystical faith in the patronage or hostility of supernatural forces, with hard work, was getting around with hard work, cruelty, with dignity, was fraught with hard work.

Russian science came out on new level, Differentiated on the fundamental and applied. Many scientific discoveries and technical innovations have become the property of world science and technology.

The second half of the XIX century was the era of the heyday of Russian literature. Passionate thought about the fate of the Motherland, attention to man is characteristic of her features. In the 90s. started " silver Age»Russian poetry. Contrary to the established views, the poets of this pore, symbolists, were not distinguished from the problems of modernity. They sought to take the place of teachers and prophets of life. Their talent manifested itself not only in the sophistication of the form, but also in humanity.

The Russian theme with more clarity and purity sounded in culture and received a predominance by the end of the XIX century. At the same time, the social and domestic foundations of the ancient Russian life disintegrated, the Orthodox-National Consciousness was weathered.

There was significant changes in everyday life. Urban utilities developed. Streets were brought (usually by cobblestone), their lighting was improved - kerosene, gas, then electric lights. In the 60s. Water pipeline was built in St. Petersburg (in Moscow, Saratov, Wilna, Stavropol, he existed until 1861) and seven provincial cities (Riga, Yaroslavl, Tver, Voronezh, etc.), until 1900, he appeared in 40 major cities.

In the early 80s. A telephone appeared in the cities of Russia, by the end of the XIX century, almost all significant cities had telephone lines. In 1882, the first long-distance line Petersburg was performed - Gatchchina. In the late 80s. Moskaya - Petersburg has entered into operation, one of the most extended in the world.

The growth of the population of large cities caused the construction of railways. The first "horse" was organized at the beginning of the 60s. In St. Petersburg, in the 70s, she began to work in Moscow and Odessa, in the 80s - in Riga, Kharkov, Roer. In the 90s. Horses began to replace the tram message. The first tram in Russia went in Kiev in 1892, the second - in Kazan, the third - in Nizhny Novgorod.

Municipal economy usually covered the central part of the cities. The outskirts even in the capitals remained unfavorant. Lastly semi-life of large noble estates. Europeanized life of merchants. The labor population of large cities, who lived before in small houses, became more crowned in stone bulk, profitable houses, removing there Kamorki and beds at the owners of apartments.

In 1898, the residential fund of Moscow was examined. It turned out that out of a million inhabitants of the capital 200 thousand are in the so-called "furious-charter apartments", many in the "Camorkas" - rooms with partitions that are not reaching the ceiling, many shot individual beds or even "half" on which workers slept Different shifts. With the wage of the working 12-20 rubles. In the month of Camorka cost 6 rubles. Single bed - 2 rub., Half - 1.5 rubles.

In the above-mentioned planning of rural settlements, the deform time did not produce significant changes. Still in the Non-Black Strip, small villages were prevailed with wooden skeners stretched along the rural street. As before, the farther north, the smallest the size of the settlements. IN steppe stripe Large sizes The villages were determined by the conditions of water supply.

Kerosene lighting distributed in the village. However, Kerosene was roads and huts lit by small lamps. In the deaf corners they continued to burn Luchin. The standard of living of peasants in Novorossia, Samara, Ufa, Orenburg provinces, in the predfaccasia and Siberia was significantly higher than in the central provinces. In general, the standard of living in Russia was low. This is evidenced by the average life expectancy, which is retreating from European countries. In the 70s - 90s. In Russia, it was for men for 31 years, for women 33 years old, and in England, respectively, 42 and 55.

Study theory

From the rules of a highlighting study

1. The understanding of objective historical facts is subjective.

2. The three theories of study are subjectively allocated: religious, world-historical (directions: materialistic, liberal, technological), locally historical.

3. Each theory offers its understanding of history: has its own periodization, its conceptual apparatus, its literature, its explanations of historical facts.

Literature of various theories

Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia, the end of the XVII-XIX century: studies. for 10 cl. general education. institutions / ed. A.N. Sakharov. 4th ed. M., 1998 (universal). Vernadsky G.V. Russian history: tutorial. M., 1997 (Local). Iona I.N. Russian civilization, IX - the beginning of the twentieth century: learning. kn. for 10-11 cl. general education. institutions. M., 1995; Kornilov A.A. History course Russia XIX. century. M., 1993 (Liberal). History of the USSR XIX - At the beginning of the XX century. Textbook. /Under. ed. I. A. Fedosova. M., 1981; Munchaev S. M., Ustinov V.V. History of Russia. M., 2000; Markova A. N., Skvortsova E. M., Andreeva I. A. History of Russia. M., 2001 (Materialist).

1. Monographs: Great reforms in Russia 1856-1874. M., 1992 (Liberal). Power and reform. From autocracy to Soviet Russia. St. Petersburg, 1996 (liberal). Choosing a path. History of Russia 1861-1938 / Ed. O.A. Vaskovsky, A.T. True. Ekaterinburg, 1995 (Liberal). Kartashov A.V. History of the Russian Church: in 2 tons. M., 1992-1993 (religious). Litvak B.G. The coup of 1861 in Russia: why the reformist alternative was not realized. M., 1991 (Liberal). Lyashenko L.M. Tsar liberator. Life and activity of Alexander II. M., 1994 (Liberal). Medushevsky A.M. Democracy and authoritarianism: Russian constitutionalism in comparative perspective. M., 1997 (Liberal). Shulgin V.S., Koshman L.V., Zezina M.R. Culture of Russia IX - XX centuries. M., 1996 (Liberal). Eidelman N.Ya. Revolution from above in Russia. M., 1989 (Liberal). Pipes R. Russia with old mode. M., 1993 (Liberal). Modernization: foreign experience and Russia / answer ed. Dreeshymers V. A. M., 1994 (technological).

2. Articles: Zakharova L.S. Russia on a fracture (autocracy and reforms 1861-1874) // History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. Essays of the history of Russia IX - the beginning of the twentieth century. Cost. S.V. Mironenko. M., 1991 (Liberal). Litvak B.G. Reforms and revolutions in Russia // History of the USSR, 1991, No. 2 (liberal). Potkin I.V., Selunskaya N.B. Russia and modernization // History of the USSR, 1990, No. 4 (Liberal).

Explanations of historical facts

In various theories of learning

Each theory chooses its facts from many historical facts, builds its causal relationship, has its explanations in literature, historiography, studies their historical experience, makes their conclusions and forecasts for the future.

Causes of cancellation of serfdom

Religious and historical theory studies the movement of a person to God.

Orthodox historians (A. V. Kartashov et al.) The abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are interpreted positively as the "will of God". At the same time, supporters of the theory of official nationalities based on the principles "autocracy. Orthodoxy. Nature ", the events of the second half of the century perceived as an attempt on the traditional states of the state. Chief ideologist autocracy k.p. The victorious people, 24 years, controlled power, spoke with an enemy of all transformations, including the abolition of serfdom, calling them a "criminal mistake".

Historians of the world-historical theory, based on single-line progress, positively evaluate the processes of the second half of the XIX century. However, the emphasis in explaining the events in different ways.

Materialist historians (I. A. Fedosov et al.) Determine the period of cancellation of serfdom as a sharp transition from feudal social and economic formation to capitalist. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia is late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. A halfness in the conduct of reforms caused a perturbation of the advanced part of society - the intelligentsia, which was then lied to terror against the king. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country "led" on the wrong way of development is the "slow clipping of the roting parts", and it was necessary to "lead" to the path of radical solving problems - the confiscation and nationalization of landlord land, the destruction of autocracy, etc.

Historians-Liberals, contemporaries of events, VO Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. The defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed the technical lag of Russia from the West and undermined the country's international prestige.

Later liberal historians (I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes, etc.) began to note that in the middle of the nineteenth century, serfdom has reached the highest point of economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the Military Power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and the threat of the stability of the country. Interpretation focuses on the price of reforms. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for sharp socio-economic changes and "painfully" perceived changes in their lives. The government was not entitled to cancel the serfdom and conduct reforms without comprehensive socio-moral training of the entire people, especially the nobles and peasants. According to the liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life is impossible to change the violent way.

ON THE. Nekrasov in the poem "Who in Russia live well" writes:

The Great chain broke out

broke and hit:

one end of Barina,

other - on the man! ...

The historians of the technological direction (V. A. Kratyovshchikov, S. A. Nefedov et al.) It is believed that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of the modernization transition of Russia from the traditional (agricultural) society to the industrial. The transition from traditional to the industrial society in Russia was conducted by the state in the period of influence from the XVII-XVIII centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - westernization) and acquired the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms on the European sample.

"Machine" progress in Western Europe "forced" tsarism to actively impose industrial orders. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the west, and traditional structures also preserved. As a result, the situation of the "imposition of historical epochs" (Industrial - Agrarian) was established in the country, which led to the social shocks later.

The industrial society introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants entered into a sharp contradiction with all the indigenous conditions of Russian life and should inevitably give rise to protest both against autocracy that did not give the desired freedom of the peasant and against the private owner, the figures, formerly alien Russian life. The industrial workers appearing in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry with its centuries-old community psychology for private property.

Tsarism is interpreted as a mode forced to begin industrialization, but failed to cope with its consequences.

Local-historical theory studies the unity of the person and the territory constituting the concept of local civilization.

The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and populists. Historians believed that Russia, in contrast to the Western countries, is in its particular development. They substantiated the possibility of a non-capitalist path to socialism through the peasant community in Russia.

Comparative theoretical scheme

The subject of study +. historical fact \u003d Theoretical interpretation

Causes of cancellation of serfdom

and reforms Alexander II

The position of Russia in the second half of the XIX century remained extremely difficult: she stood on the edge of the abyss. Economy and finance were undermined Crimean war, and national economy counted chains Fortress law could not develop.

Nicholas I. Heritage

The years of the reign of Nicholas I are considered the most disadvantaged from the time of troubles. An ardent opponent of any reforms and the introduction of the Constitution in the country, the Russian emperor relied on an extensive bureaucratic bureaucratic unit. The ideology of Nicholas I was based on the thesis "People and King are one." The result of the Board of Nicholas I was the economic backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe, the patient illiteracy of the population and the arbitrariness of the township in all spheres of public life.

It was necessary to urgently solve the following tasks:

• In foreign Policy- Restore international prestige of Russia. Overcome the country's diplomatic isolation.
• In the internal policy, create all the conditions for stabilizing internal economic growth. Solve the painless peasant question. Overcome the lag from Western countries in the industrial industry due to the introduction of new technologies.
• When solving domestic tasks, the government involuntarily had to face the interests of the nobility. Therefore, the mood of this class also had to be considered.

After the reign of Nicholas I, Russia needed a sip of fresh air, the country needed reforms. New Emperor Alexander II understood it.

Russia in the reign of Alexander II

The beginning of the Board of Alexander II was noted by unrest in Poland. In 1863, the Poles raised the uprising. Despite the protest of the Western powers, the Russian emperor introduced the army into Poland and suppressed the rebellion.

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Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom on February 19, 1861, I immortalized the name of Alexander. The law equalized the entire class of citizens before the law and now all the segments of the population carried the same state-of-government.

• After partial decision of the peasant question, local government reforms were carried out. In 1864, Zemstvo reform was carried out. This transformation reduced the pressure of the official apparatus to the local authorities and made it possible to solve most of the economic problems in the field.
• In 1863, judicial reforms were held. The court became an independent authority and was appointed by the Senate and the king for life.
• Under Alexandra II, many educational institutions were opened, for workers were built sunday schools, Mid-Education Schools appeared.
• The transformation touched the army: the sovereign changed 25 years of service in the army from 25 years to 15. Boreed punishments in the army and fleet were canceled.
• In the reign of Alexander II, Russia has achieved significant success in foreign policy. Western and East Caucasus, part of Central Asia, was attached. Defeating Turkey in the Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878, Russian Empire restored black Sea Fleet And mastered the basp of Bosphorus and Dardanelles in the Black Sea.

Under Alexandra II, the development of industry is activated, bankers seek to invest in metallurgy and in the construction of railways. However, in agriculture there was some decline, since the liberated peasants were forced to rent land from their former owners. As a result, most of the peasants ruined and went to the city for earnings along with their families.

Fig. 1. Russian Emperor Alexander II.

Public movements in the second half of the XIX century

Transformations of Alexander II contributed to the awakening of revolutionary and liberal forces in Russian society. The public movement of the second half of the XIX century is divided into three main currents :

• Conservative flow. The founder of this ideology was performed by rollers, D. A. Tolstoy and K. P. Victoroscians joined him later. Conservatives believed that Russia could develop only three autocracy criteria, nationality and Orthodoxy.
• Liberal flow. The founder of this current was the prominent historian Chicherin B. N., Caven K. D. and Muromsev S. A. Liberals were joined later to him, the Personality and Independence of the Church from the state.
• Revolutionary current. Ideologists of this current were originally A. I. Herzz, N. G. Chernyshevsky and V.G. Belinsky. Later, N. A. Dobrolyubov joined them. Under Alexandra II, thinkers produced the magazines "Bell" and "Contemporary". The views of theoretical writers were based on the full rejection of capitalism and autocracy as historical stored. They believed that prosperity for everyone would come only under socialism, and socialism will come immediately by passing the stage of capitalism and the peasantry will help him.

One of the founders revolutionary movement MA became Bakunin, who preached the socialist anarchy. He believed that civilized states should be destroyed in order to build a new world community federation in their place. The end of the XIX century brought the organization of secret revolutionary circles, the largest of which was "Earth and Volya", "Velikoros", "People's Relief", "Rubble Society" and TD. Promoted the introduction of revolutionaries in the peasant environment in order to campaign them.

The peasants did not respond in any way on the calls of the differences to the overthrow of power. This led to the split of revolutionaries into two camp practitioners and theorists. Practices arranged terrorist attacks and straightened with prominent public figures. Organization "Earth and Will", later renamed in " Folk will"Alexandru II suffered a death sentence. The verdict was carried out on March 1, 1881 after several unsuccessful attempted. The terrorist Grinevitsky threw the tsar bomb under his feet.

Russia to the reign of Alexander III

Alexander III went to the state deeply shocked by a series of murders of prominent politicians and police officials. The new king immediately began to defeat the revolutionary circles, and their main leaders-Tkachev, Perovskaya and Alexander Ulyanov, Kaznili.

• Russia instead of the Constitution almost prepared by Alexander II, during the reign of his son, Alexander III received a state with a police regime. The new emperor began a planned offensive on the reforms of his father.
• Since 1884, student circles have been banned in the country, since the main risk of freedomiff is the government in a student environment.
• Local government rights were revised. The peasants again lost the voices when choosing local deputies. In the city duma, a rich merchants fastened, and the local nobility.
• The judicial reform also has been changed. The court became more closed, judges more dependent on the authorities.
• Alexander III began to be embraced by Great Russian Chauvinism. Proclaimed the favorite thesis of the emperor- "Russia for Russians." By 1891, the pogroms of Jews begins with the connivance of power.

Alexander III dreamed of reviving the absolute monarchy and the occurrence of the reaction era. The board of this king proceeded without wars and international complications. This made it possible to accelerately develop the external and internal trade, the city grew, plants and factories were built. At the end of the XIX century, the length of the roads in Russia increased. The structure of the Siberian highway was launched to connect the central regions of the state with the Pacific Coast.

Fig. 2. Construction of the Siberian highway in the second half of the XIX century.

Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century

Transformations that began in the era of Alexander II could not but affect the various spheres of Russia's culture in second XIX century.

• Literature . New views on the life of the Russian population were widespread in the literature. The Society of Writers, playwrights and poets was divided into two currents - so-called Slavophiles and Westerns. A. S. Khomyakov and K. S. Aksakov were counted to the Slavophilas. Slavophiles believed that Russia had no special way and no Western influence on Russian culture. Westerners, who were counted by Chaadaev P. Ya., I. S.Turgenev, historian Solovyov S. M., argued that Russia, on the contrary, should go along the Western way of development. Japading the differences in views, and Westerners and Slavophiles equally worried further fate Russian people I. state Device countries. At the end of the XIX, the beginning of the XX century there is a flourishing of Russian literature. The best works are written by F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Goncharov, A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy.
• Architecture . In the architecture in the second half of the XIX century, the ectyticism of the mixture of various styles and directions began to prevail. This affected the construction of new stations, shopping centers, apartment buildings, etc. The design of those or other forms in the architecture of a more classical genre was also developed. The famous architect of this area was A. I. Shockenshneider, with the help of which the Mariinsky Palace was designed in St. Petersburg. From 1818 to 1858, St. Petersburg was built by St. Isaac's Cathedral. This project was developed by Auguste Montpherr.

Fig. 3. Isaakiovsky Cathedral. Sankt Petersburg.

• Painting . Artists inspired by new trends did not want to work under the dense care of the academy, which was stuck in the classicism and was torn off from the real vision of art. Thus, the artist V. G. Perov pointed his attention on various sides of the life of society, exposing the sharp criticism of the remnant of serfs. In the 60s, the flourishing of the works of Portraight Kramsky, V. A. Tropinin, left us a lifetime portrait of A. S. Pushkin. The works of P. A. Fedotov did not fit into the narrow framework of Academism. His works "Watching Major" or "Aristocrat Breakfast" ridiculated stupid complacency of officials and remnants of serfs.

In 1852, Hermitage opened in St. Petersburg, where the best works of painters from around the world were collected.

What did we know?

From a briefly described article, you can learn about the transformations of Alexander II, about the emergence of the first revolutionary circles, about Alexander III conteforms, as well as the flourishing of Russian culture in the second half of the XIX century.

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