The concept of the sign language as a sign system. Language - Sign System

The sign is a material object used to transmit information. Semiotics science studies all sorts of iconic systems, since among these systems a central place occupies a human language, the object of this science intersects with the object of linguistics.

Properties of signs

1. Intentity

The sign has a deliberate, targeted nature, it is specifically used to transmit a certain meaning.

2. Bilateralness

The sign should have two sides: the ideal, internal (value, meaning) and material, external (form). For language sign, the main form of existence is sound.

3. Conventionality (convention)

The title is based on an agreement, agreement, convention.

4. Conduct

Each sign is a member of his system, it is due to this system.

5. Conservativeness

A sign tends to stability, has relative resistance in time.

6. Variability

The ratio of the two sides of the sign can change. The desire to expand the expression plan or content plan is called a language sign asymmetry. Extreme point - It is the splitting of the sign, the appearance of two new independent units in its place. If the form of the two signs formed remains the same, but there is a shift in the value, it is formamed. Shape shift when maintaining content leads to the formation of synonyms. The sign retains identity to itself, until at least one side remains unchanged. If both parties have changed - both the content plan, and the expression plan, is a different sign, a new two-sided unit.

The components of the language system signs enter each other in the relationship of the twofold. This is or related relationship, compatibility (syntagmatic relations) or relationship of similarity, interchangeability, competition (paradigmatic relations). It can be said that partner words are entering the first type of relationships, and in the second - Duber's words. For example, the word "hot" in modern Russian combines with the words "tea", "bread", "air", "sand", "kiss", etc. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations are comprehensive categories of the language, all other types of relationships between units, for example, synonymy and antonymy - a special case of paradigmatic relations, and the verbal control is the implementation of syntagmatic relations.

Signs usually include all major language units, except the phonam, namely, morph, word, phrase and offer. But at the same time, it is often emphasized that the most typical sign unit is the word, since it performs nominative (called) function, denoting separate concepts, presentations and objects. The word has its own expression plan - this is a sequence of certain sounds. He also has a content plan - this totality of seven (sema is the minimum meaningful element). The membership of the content plan and the word expression plan does not coincide.

Morphemes (B. school practice They are called significant parts of the word: roots, consoles, suffixes and endings) do not possess nominative function and implement their capabilities not independently, but only through the word, in combination with other significant parts. For this reason, morphemes are sometimes called semi-shows. And in fact: comparable, on the one hand, independently meaning such words-signs, like red, red, blush, red, and on the other - the value of the root-half sign is red \u003d in the composition of the words, where he does not have in itself A clear correction with a specific concept: red \u003d ha, Krasn \u003d OTA, red \u003d tint, red \u003d rexy.

Sounds and syllables are also not signs (they only have an expression plan).

Language for philosophers XX century. It turns out reality that hides the secrets of being, as for philosophers of the XVII-XIX centuries. - Thinking.

The term "language" depending on the context of its use entered into such meanings:

1. Language is a sign system, which is a universal means of establishing a human relationship with the environment in the process of its livelihoods. Man leaving the language and then uses it in different types Activities for a specific purpose.

2. Language The system of special signs and symbols, which is an interpretation in a certain pragmatic context of its use.

3. Speech - calculus, that is, building a formal model by means of language. It was called a formalized, logistic language (see 4).

The function of the language is informative, information (transfer of information, knowledge from a person to a person, from generation to generation), communicative (communication in the communicative act), representative (representative of his own experiences, mood, sensations, thoughts, etc.), heuristic (with The help of one language is created new languages, new iconic symbolic systems, new knowledge systems), etc.

The modern language is divided into natural (conversational, national) and artificial (formalized).

Natural (national, conversational) language is a sign system that has arisen historically and reflects, defining the sphere of sensations, desires, sentiment, intentions of people, as well as their images and thoughts. Functions of the natural language - communicative, cognitive, informational, representative, etc. To the languages \u200b\u200bthat mentioned functions include verbal (lat. Ver-Halts) and non-verbal (gesture language, etc.).

Artificial (formalized) language - logically designed language, a special system of signs based in order to encode certain information, mathematical and logical operations on artificially created symbols, etc. Features of artificial languages \u200b\u200b- the accuracy of their construction on well-defined rules; The definition of their understanding. Artificial languages \u200b\u200binclude code systems, signs road, scientific speech (language of mathematics, mathematical logic, etc.), programming language, etc.

depending on the sphere of cognitive and practical activities People distinguish such varieties of languages: ordinary (everyday); media language; business; scientific; philosophical; Legal, etc.

Language is an object of study of philosophy and such sciences as linguistics (linguistics), semiotics, logic, psycholinguistics, the theory of artificial intelligence, each of which is developing its concept of language.

Philosophy and specific sciences are learning the language in structural relations: "Objective reality - thinking - language"; The relationship of thinking and language. In the XX century Speech as an object of study has gained independent importance and began to be studied in its izentent existence and functioning as a special system of signs. According to the new direction of research, the language began to consider: as a manifestation of thoughts; as an image of knowledge; As a syntactic system, where there is a relationship between graphic signs, etc.

Semiotic language concept

Semiotika (Greek. SEMEIOTIKE - Doctrine of signs) - Science of signs and language as a sign system; Humanitarian discipline, which explores all the facts of culture (language, science, philosophy, art, theater, cinema, literature, etc.) as phenomena, having a sign expression. The ideas of semiotic analysis of the language were considered in their works Philosophers (Aristotle, T. Gobbs, D. Lokk, Lyibnіts) and linguists (A. Gumboldt, F. de Sosurur, E. Benwenist, O. Plebnay), but as a special science ( The knowledge knowledge system for signs) was formed at the beginning of the XX century. Founders of semiotics - American philosophers and linguists Ch. Pierce (1830-1914) and C. Morris (1901-1979).

Semiotics studies signs and tongue as a sign system in three aspects - semantic, syntactic, pragmatic.

Semantics (Greek Semantikos - Meantage) - component Semiotics, theory, which studies the meaning and value of language expressions, analyzes the language as a sign system with the functions of definition and notation. Maintenance semantic categories - statements, name, term, meaning, meaning, denotate, reference, deskriptsia (the content of these categories will be defined in 2.4).

Syntaxis (Greek Syntaxis - Communication, Building) is an integral part of semiotics, which learn the rules of combination and place the linguistic signs in a certain iconic system, abstracting from the functions of definition and notation that the semantics explores.

Pragmatics (Greek. Pragma - action, business) - an integral part of semiotics, which studies methods of using signs and language as a sign system in specific practical situations.

The main object of research semiotics is a sign.

Sign (lat. Nota - sign, label, score) - object (object, image), which represents another object, properties of an object, links between objects, action, events, situations, state of affairs, etc. in the process of practical and cognitive activity of people. It contains certain information about the object that represents. For example, fingerprints on the crime scene - a sign, which reports: At the scene of the crime there was a person who can be identified with a subject of crime.

Each sign has its definition and denotes a specific object (meant and indicated sign functions). The definition of the sign makes it sense, and the designation is its substantive value (see 2.4).

Types of signs:

1. Depending on whether the element of which system is certain signs, they are divided into linguistic and records. Language sign - letter, symbol (unit of natural or formalized language as a sign system), which has graphic image. The totality of language signs create a language alphabet. Browse a sign is an element in the score system. For example, the change in the habitat of some wild animals is a sign of a violation of the ecosystem on Earth.

2. By means of communication with a meaning object, signs are divided into copies, index signs, signs, signs symbols.

A copy of the copy means the similarity between the sign and the meaning item. Examples of copies: a man's reflection in the mirror (the image of a person in the mirror is the sign of the authenticity of a person and its mirror reflection); the photo; copies of documents; Fingerprints on a specific subject.

Sign-index (lat. Index - pointer) - in mathematics and logic - symbol (numeric or letter), which is attributed to other characters to distinguish them from each other. For example, AV A2, al, xv x2\u003e HP, where 1, 2, P - index signs.

Sign sign (sign, symptom, pointer) is a sign of the relationship between the subject and its properties, between objects. Examples: Smoke - fire sign; High temperatures in humans - a sign of the disease; A broken car on the road - a sign of a transport accident.

The symbol sign is such a sign that does not have similarities with a meant object, but expresses specifically something common, abstract (concept, idea, hypothesis, theory, quality, property, abstract essence of a certain subject). For example, the coat of arms, the flag, the anthem makes the symbols of a certain state (symbolize the idea of \u200b\u200bstatehood).

The process of the functioning of signs is indicated by the term "semi-zeal" - (Greek. Zeta - sign). It means the interpretation of the signs and indicates the process of interpretation of the sign in relation to the "subject - a sign - interpretation", resulting in the phenomenon of the birth of the meaning and the meaning of the sign. The semiotic concept of the language as a sign system is based on modern logical and semantic and pragmatic language concepts.

Already in the philosophy of the XVII-XVIII centuries. The judgments were formulated that the word is a sign of the subject. It is in these centuries that many philosophers (J.Lock, Libnits, I.Kanta, Condorse, Herr and others) laid the foundations of the sign theory of the language.

Its main provisions: 1) the relationship between the sign and denoted is conditional in nature;

2) the language is allocated among other types of characters as a special type; 3) Language signs have

communicative function.

V.Gamboldt first of the language came to the conclusion that the word is a sign of concept.

Linguists, accepting this thesis, however, did not immediately appeal to its development. During the Sixix. general Theory The sign developed within the framework of logic (Ch. Pirs, E. Gusserl), psychology (V.Vudt, Helmgolts), brain physiology (I.M. Sechenov, V.M. Bekhterev). Intimate the language as the signs of signs received a justification in early XX century in work

F. de Sosurira "Course of General Linguistics".

Language sign, according to F. de Sosurura, has two sides: denoting (acoustic image) and denoted (meaning of the word). The sign is in the brain, in the consciousness of man. The sign is quite arranged in relation to the designated idea. According to the thought of the Swiss scientist, the language sign is not fundamentally different from many other signs, which people enjoy (ABC Morse, alarm with flags), and therefore it should be studied in semiology (science of signs).

After the appearance of the book of Sausier, the intensive development of the sign of the sign in general and the linguistic sign in particular. Received a significant development and science of signs - semiotics, the foundations of which were laid in the 30s. XX century (Ch.S. Pierce) Domestic linguists turned to the problem of language badge significantly later than

foreign, in the late 50s. XX century Until that time, the opinion was widespread that the word -Connerable unity of sound and the meaning is that the value is as an image external world Similarly

representations. The modern linguistics recognizes the language of the complex sign system. This point of view is adhered to most scientists. The complexity of the problem itself is caused by the meaningfulness of the term "sign". Therefore, in the linguistics there is no single concept of "language

The concept of sign and linguistic sign. Signs and functions of signs

The sign in understanding F. de Sosurira is the unity of the external and inner sides, the unity of meaning and meaning - it means that the nature of the sign is bilateral. The range of linguistic sign is somewhat special, compared with the sign at all.

Signs are generally characterized by the following signs:

Arbitrary, or non-motive, i.e. Signs wear random character

(eg, road signs For motorists),

Disproportion, i.e. Failure inability to figure out new, derivatives

"Signs" having a new meaning;

There is no semantic relationship between signs, the sign of its value is autonomous, signs only

unambiguous (for example, the red flag of the driver warns only about danger),

- "impassivity" of the sign, i.e. Signs do not contain emotional expressive elements.

Linguistic signs detect a different nature:

The value of the linguistic sign may vary depending on the context;

Language sign in most cases is motivated (for example, a woven from the plet - "What is brazed");

The presence in the language sign "System of Values" (for example, the word always refers to other words in the proposal);

Language sign is multivarid;

The sign is deprived of an expressiveness, the linguistic sign of it has (Wed: hare, bunny, bunny).

The language sign is understood as the language essence (a unit of a language or a combination of units), replacing or indicating an out-of-language entity (object, property, attitude, event, state of affairs), when the latter becomes the subject of mentally speech activities (V.A. Vinogradov).

Following the sausage, the language sign is interpreted as a bilateral (bilateral) essence, which has a content plan (meant) and an expression plan (meaning).

The relationship of meant and meaning, the plan of content and the expression plan can be supplied under the philosophical categories of content and forms. Meaning can be considered as content, but meaning - as a form of a linguistic sign.

In relation to objects of consciousness, the functions of language signs are determined:

a) nominative - the ability to call an object;

b) detective - point to it;

c) expressive - to express the state of consciousness;

d) ingrowable - denote the concept;

e) modeling - create a sign analog of situations;

e) Pragmatic - to influence a person.

Typology of linguistic signs

Marking means of communication of people are diverse. These include: Telegraph code, various transcriptions, stenography, tables, numbers, gestures (applause, push, plug), ciffers, etc. artificial systems Mathematical, physical, chemical signs, road signs, passwords, signals-ciffers, different memorable signs, conducting technology, money, dial, electrocardiograms, drawings, geographical maps, music, dance,

breasting signs, orders and medals, straps, stripes, etc. in semiology, following the part of Pirz, it is customary to distinguish between three types of signs that are traced in the language:

Iconic signs - the most accurate images of the designated (for example, in the sound of octopia and the words of meow-apparatus formed from them, pluck);

Indexal signs perform the role of the pointer (in the language it includes, for example, index pronouns);

Symbolic signs - those in which the connection between meant and meaning does not follow from their nature, nor from the adjacency of their denotates (lat. Denotare - denoted, denotat-substituted object) in space, but is determined by the socially established convention. These are mostly signs of natural languages.

Language as a sign system

Language signs of any natural language are in certain relations with each other, forming some unity and integrity. Each component language System (sound, word, morpheme, phrase, offer, etc.) There is not isolated, but in contrasting with other components of the language system and considers it from the point of view of its significance and functional characteristics.

In the language system, allocate a number of interrelated concepts: language levels; units of the language; paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships between language signs; language badge; Functions of language signs; structure of linguistic signs; external and internal tongues in the language; Synchronia and diachrony, etc.

A large role in the development of learning about the language system was played by the works of I.A. Bodoyna de Courtae on the role of relations in the language, on the allocation of the most common types of language signs (background-ma, morphem, grafem, syntagma), F. de Sosurira about the language sign and sign theories of the language, about the language as a system. In the presentation of linguists, the language as a sign system has a number of signs.

Signs of language as a sign system

1) Language is a universal sign system, i.e. Any sign of any sign system can be expressed in the language (for example, marine code signs, mathematical formulas etc.), sets out with the help of the language of the language and is explained. The language system is able to cover not only the real world, but also the experiences of a person, the phenomena of nature, etc.

2) In the language, everything is unusual - and denoting, and denoted. Indicator - sounds. No other system has such signs! Denotable - objects, concepts - are transmitted by words (there are several hundreds of thousands in the language) and proposals that in the language countless quantity. Language signs are a complicated phenomenon - on the one hand, the sign indicates all sorts of concepts, and on the other - it contains in itself the information of grammatical, speaking how this sign should be used.

3) Language system, as a multi-storey building, includes levels - phonetic, morpheme, lexical, word-forming, phrases, proposals, text. Each of them occupies a certain place in the system.

4) Language signs in the language system differ in their functions, language assignment: the sound is a unit of perception; Morphem - a unit of value, the smallest compatibility of the concept; The word is nominative; The phrase is a grammatically organized unit of a language in which grammatical patterns are manifested; Offer - a unit for the expression of thought; Text is the largest unit of language. Each superior unit may include several downstream (but not vice versa).

It should be noted that Morphem and Word are recognized as signs. In some cases, the signs consider the proposals. All others are subenks (sound / phoneme, super-segment units: emphasis, intonation, etc.).

5) Strictly certain classes of units of the language can be combined with each other - the syntagmatic relations of language units manifest themselves. Syntagmatic relationships are installed at all levels of the language: there are laws of combination of signs, morpheme, etc. - About proposals. The variety of language syntagms is inexhaustible.

6) Language signs have paradigmatic relations, paradigm - a set, a set of grammatical forms of one word (for example, a house - houses - home ... - cases noun; I go - you go - it goes ... - Forms of the facial of the verb, etc.).

7) Language system is a balanced set of syntagm and paradigms of language signs.

8) the relationship between the units of the language is changing (some units in the history of the language can disappear, others - appear) - to understand each one can only if we consider this unit of language only in the ratio, in comparison with other units of the language, which simultaneously coexist In the language and enter into one language system. Therefore, two approaches to the study of linguistic units are synchronous and diachronic.

The distinction of synchronization and diachrony is necessary in order to understand how the language is arranged.

9) language simultaneously and simple (children to three years have already been able to master the language), and is unusually complicated in their inexhaustibility (no one, obviously can not say that he made

tongue completely).

Understanding the language as the signs of signs received a substantiation in the work of F. de Sosuriura "Course of General Linguistics": "The language sign does not associate a thing and its name, but the concept and acoustic image. This latter is not a material sound, a purely physical thing, and a psychic imprint of sound, the idea that we receive about it through our senses ... ", there is a" linguistic sign, therefore, a bilateral mental entity ... ".

We also turn attention to the nature of the sign and its bilateralness: both of his parties, and the concept, and the acoustic image, in the understanding of the sausage, are psychic: "This definition puts an important terminological question. We call the sign of the concept of concept and acoustic image, but in the generally accepted use, this term usually indicates only an acoustic image, for example, the word arbor, etc. Forget that if Arbor is called a sign, then only inspired, because it includes the concept of "tree", so that the sensual side involves a sign as a whole.

The ambiguity will disappear, if you call all three cash with names that assume each other, but at the same time mutually opposed. We offer to keep the word sign to designate the whole and replace the terms "concept" and "acoustic image", respectively, the terms "meant" and "meaning"; The last two terms have the advantage that there is opposition that exists both between them themselves and between the integers and parts of this whole. As for the term "sign", then we are contentful to them, not knowing how to replace it, as a honeyst language does not offer any other suitable term. "

So, according to the conviction of the sausure, the sign is the essence of mental and in general, in the components of its parties: the designated is a concept denoting - an acoustic image. IN modern linguistics The views of the sausage often adapt to the worldview of the setting and serving these views of linguists, and it turns out that the designated is a thing, a thing, and denoting - sound, material shell of the word; Another option: Distotable - this is a concept denoting - the sound of the word. But this, as it is easy to make sure, does not match the views of the Geneva Linguist, for which the language sign is mental, and therefore mental and built from the signs language.

Following the sausure, modern linguistics often sees two "primary value of the property" in the language sign: the first is the arbitrariness of the sign, the second is a linear character meaning.

Consider that the "course of general linguistics" is understood under the arbitrariness of the sign.

"Communication connecting meaning with meant, arbitrary; Since under the sign we understand the whole, resulting from the association of some meaning with some meaning, the same thought we can express easier: the language sign is arbitrary.

Thus, the concept of "sister" is not associated with any internal attitude with the sequence of S-OE: - R serving in french Its meaning; It could be expressed by any other combination of sounds; This can be proven by differences between the languages \u200b\u200band the very fact of existence. different languages: Meaning "Bull" B-OE-F (FR. Boeuf) one way language border And meaning o-K-S(it. Ochs.) On the other side of it. " And then the scientist explains the word "arbitrary": "The word" arbitrary "also requires explanation. It should not be understood in the sense that meaning can freely get out speaking (as we will see below, a person is not authorized to make even the slightest change in the sign already adopted by a certain linguistic team); We only want to say that meaning unmatiful, i.e. arbitrarily in relation to this meant, with which he does not really have any natural communication. "

The second property of the sign in the "course of general linguistics" is recognized as a linear nature of meaning: "Meaning, being perceived by the rumor, is deployed only in time and is characterized by signs borrowed in time: a) it has a length and b) this length has one dimension - This is a line. "

According to Sosurira, the unmotivation of the sign and the length of the denoting determines the two fundamental (speaking of the modern) principle of studying the language, and the consequences of these principles are notishable, they subordinate to their entire language linguistics.

Consider these positions from a materialistic understanding of the language - practical, actual consciousness. Language sign - real and objective (as, however, any other sign); He represents a phenomenon material and ideal, not mental: its meaning is ideal, its objective, affordable perception through the sense organs form is material.

The thesis about the nothot of the sign deserves attention, but cannot be unconditionally accepted, even if the sign proposed by the Sosurist is an understanding of a sign as a bilateral mental entity. First, if it means and meaning the same mental and form a mental whole, so to speak, merge in this whole, it is impossible to submit the independence of one side of this dual mental entity (meaning) from another (meant). Secondly, it's just incorrect (and this is well shown the facts of various languages), as if the sound-arc structure of the word (meaning) does not depend on its semantics (meant). In the words of derivatives (and such words in developed literary languages, most) the motivation of their material structure to the expressed value is revealed quite well in order to see it: any sophisticated word german language (There are many words in this language) speaks and even shouts about their greater or less motivation: bergbauingehieur - Schule`School of mining engineers"; Blumengarten.`Flower", etc. In Russian derivatives, simple and complex, dictionaries, their motivation is also clearly visible to the expression of which they were created by the language: run inand run out, gluitand Share, studentand Teacher, Flowerianand Flower, aeronautand Cosmonautics.It is the needs of the expressed information and the word-forming patterns that have developed in the language are predetermined by the sound thermal shell, which will receive the newly born word. No arbitrariness in the sense of independence of one side of the word from another (material from semantic) in the language is not.

By the way, a prominent modern linguist - E. Benvelist is questioned by the idea of \u200b\u200barbitrary language sign: "One of the components of the sign, an acoustic image, represents in it meaning; Other, i.e. The concept is meant. The relationship between the meant and meaning is not arbitrary; On the contrary, it is not necessary. The concept ("meaningful") "Bull" in my mind is inevitably identified with the sound complex ("meaning"). And can it be otherwise! Together they are imprinted in my mind, complying, they appear in the presentation under any circumstances. Symbiosis between them is so crazy that the concepts of "bull" is like a soul of an acoustic image. There are no empty forms in consciousness as not and not received the names of concepts. "

And further: "Now we see the scope of" arbitrary "and can turn her borders. Arbitrariness is that some one sign, and not some other attached to this, and not another element real Mira. In this and only in this sense, it is permissible to talk about chance, and then, rather, perhaps, not to solve the problem, but in order to outline it and temporarily get around. "

The thought, expressed in the second of the above quotation from the work of E. Benvenista, is correlated with an element of the real world, and this specificity, apparently, accidentally, in the sense that the material form of the sign is not chosen by the language not by the prescription of the "Real Element in the world. E. Benovenist caught a weak spot of the sign theory of sausure and his followers, whom the signs of the language rejected the things that were denoted by them, and at the same time from the people they serve. We know, meanwhile, the words of Karl Marx that neither thought nor the language forms the special kingdom itself: they are the essence of the actual life. This truth, despite its solid philosophical age, would have to remember the linguists of our time.

As for the second principle of the sign theory of Sosurira ("linear nature of meaning"), this principle apparently reflects one of the significant realities of the language. Indeed, any signs of the language applied in the composition of other, more complex, signs form a linear sequence. This is obvious if you mean to understand the real material units, of which the word or proposal is built. But the savory is meaning - this is an acoustic image, fused with the concept. It remains unclear, at least two things: a) if the acoustic image of a separate element of the language or speech chain consisting of many such elements is available; c) if it mean also in mind and if meaning is linear in nature, why it is not allowed that it is a linear character, which means that the sign as a whole! After all, the essence of meaning meant, as well as the sign as a whole, the same - mental?

The arbitrariness of the sign and linear character means entailing important investigations, among them: not the variability of the sign, the continuity of it in time is the variability of the sign. The arbitrariness of the sign will not allow people to change it at their discretion, because there are no visible reasons why it would be impossible to put another word. Language without changing, according to F. de Sosurira, because it interferes with his change, firstly, the arbitrariness of the sign, secondly, is the multiplicity of signs that are not necessary to educate any language, thirdly - too complex the nature of the language system, Fourth - resistance to the inertness of the speaking team to any linguistic innovation. IN last case This refers to the inertness of the linguistic skills. "It is because the sign is arbitrarily," says Sosurur, "he does not know another law, except for the tradition of tradition, and, on the contrary, he can be arbitrary only because it relies on the tradition."

In the "course of general linguistics" we read: "The time that ensures the continuity of the language has a different effect on it, which at first glance is opposite to the first namely: it is with a greater or lesser speed, it changes the language signs, so that a certain sense You can speak at the same time as not about the variability of the language sign, and about the variability of it.

In the end, both of these facts are mutually determined: the sign may change, because its existence is not interrupted. With any change, the prevailing moment is the stability of the previous material, the incorrect is only relative to the past. That is why the principle of change relies on the principle of continuity. "

Find out what the sausur is understood under the changeability of the sign. According to the scientist, it is a shift relationship between meaning and meaning. "Other public institutions - customs, laws and the like - are based, to varying degrees, on the natural relations of things; They have the necessary compliance between the uses used and the goals. Even a fashion that defines our suit is not fully arbitrary: it is impossible to deviate a certain measure from the conditions dictated by the properties of the human body. The language, on the contrary, is unlimited in the choice of your funds, for it is impossible to imagine that the association could prevent anyone as you like with some kind of sound sequence. "

"... Your arbitrary character has a dramatically different from all other public institutions. This is clearly detected in how it develops; There is nothing more complicated by its development: as the language exists simultaneously in society and in time, then no one can change anything in it; Meanwhile, the arbitrariness of his signs theoretically provides freedom to establish any relationship between sound material and concepts. It follows from this that both elements coming in the sign live in an unprecedented degree separately and that the language changes, or, or rather, evolving, under the influence of all forces that may affect either sounds or in meaning. This evolution is inevitable: there is no language that would be free from it. "

We reviewed the concept of FD. Sausure. It is complex and dialectic. And I want to accept it and at the same time I want to disagree with it. The scientist connected the principle of arbitrariness of the sign and understanding of the sign as a bilateral mental entity.

We will try to look at the matter in other things. Sign - material carrier of social information. It is unproduced in the sign system, because the creation of each new sign is due to the condition achieved by the entire system. It is arbitrarily in relation to real objects only in the sense that the properties of these objects do not require that they would be alone, and not by other sounding. However, the sign is not accidental and in relation to the object, because there are real relationships between objects that predict many links between words, in particular already existing and newly formed. If there is a verb in the language to readand there are regular ways of education of arbitrary words, then not completely non-rapidly distracted action will be called in a word reading, man exercising this action, word reader, and the place where this action is engaged, reading room. It turns out that the real properties of real objects affect the choice by people of the form that the newly created word will receive. Thus, the arbitrariness of the sign and in relation to the object becomes very and very relative.

But if the sign is not arbitrarily, and besides, it is not a bilateral mental entity, they cease to act on the volatility of non-changing sign, which are expressed in the fairness of F. de Sosurira attracted by us for understanding the quotations.

The signs of the language have stability, which is not explained by their own nature, but the sustainability of society, its labor skills, its public institutions, the patterns of consciousness and the results achieved by its development. Society is interested in the sustainability of the language, providing the possibility of mutual understanding of the members of the team and the continuity of labor and other experience, its transfer from one generation to others. But whenever the societies arise in society that are not able to satisfy the existing language system, changes begin in it. Language is stable, but also changed. The language changes are caused again not its own properties of the non-bilateral mental nature of the sign, but the conditions for its use, the interaction of the language and consciousness as manifestations of real life.

It is true that the language is different from all other social establishments and cannot be changed by the will public figures or scientists. It is too complicated, and he is subordinated to the universal tradition of its use, as it is needed to all and for the implementation of all types of work. In addition, the changes occurring in it and the possibilities of such changes are not realized in everyday communication and do not represent interest.

How can I refer to the idea of \u200b\u200bcomplete isolation, the independence of changes to each of the two sides of the tongue? And this idea seems somewhat cut off from the real appearance of the language. Sounds themselves can, of course develop, regardless of the change in the meaning of words, but the sound appearance of the word is usually correlated with its morpheme structure. The morpheme structure, in turn, is correlated with the meaning of the word. Therefore, every restructuring of value, if it is associated with the word formation, changes the sound side of the language, words. And if so, then on the independence of the sound change of the sign from the change in its values, it is possible to say only to those words, in the semantic structure of which there are changes without the participation of the word formation mechanism. So if we can talk about the independence of changing the words of the word from changes to its sound, then this independence must be recognized as non-absolute, and relative.

Question 1.

Language as a sign system. The main features of the language

When communicating, we use language signs - deputy subjects. We do not convey the subject A, but call the image B. In the language sign, two values \u200b\u200bare allocated:

Specific - determined by the unique qualities of the sign

Abstract - determined by the attitude of this sign to other signs of the language

The language serves as an intermediary between thinking and sound, while they cannot be separated from each other. Language sign connects concepts and acoustic image.

An acoustic image is not only the sound, but also a psychological imprint of sound, or the idea that we get about it.

Properties of language sign

Language sign has the following properties:

Arbitrariness - any concept may be associated with any other combination of sounds

Linearity - we perceive the linguistic signs one by one; At the same time, the position of the linguistic sign relative to other language signs is important.

Language Sign Functions: Edit

Language sign has two functions:

Perceptive - it can be an object of perception

Significtive - it has the ability to distinguish higher, significant elements of the language - morphemes, words, suggestions.

Differences between letters (graphic language signs) and sounds (phonetic linguistic signs) are not functional, but material.

The words of the human language are signs of objects. Words are the most numerous and significant signs.

Thus, the language sign is a deputy subject used for communication purposes and allowing the speaker to call in the consciousness of the interlocutor images of the subject or concept.

The difference between the human language from other iconic systems is its versatility. Other systems are limited in their application. They are a set of signals that include those or other reflexes necessary to resolve the state, but they do not have a separate value.

The main features of the language

The main functions of the language are:

Communicative (communication function);

Imaging (the function of the incarnation and expression of thought);

Expressive (expression function internal state talking);

Aesthetic (creating function excellent means language).

The communicative function lies in the ability of the language to serve as a means of communication between people. The language has units necessary to build messages, the rules of their organization and ensures the emergence of similar images in the consciousness of participants in communication.

Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between communications participants.

From the point of view of speech culture, the communicative function involves the installation of speech communication participants to the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of understanding of speech.

The achievement of functional effectiveness of communication is impossible without knowledge and compliance with the norms of the literary language.

An impending function is that the language serves as a means of registration and the expression of thought. The structure of the language is organically related to the categories of thinking.

This means that the word allocates and draws out the concept, and at the same time the relationship between the units of thinking and the iconic units of the language is established. That is why V. Humboldt believed that "the language should accompany the thought. The thought should, not behind the language, follow from one element to another and find the designation in the language for everything that makes it connected" (ibid, p. 345) . According to Humboldt, "To fit thinking, a language, as far as possible, the internal organization of thinking should be complied with its structure" (ibid.).

The speech of the educated person is characterized by clarity of presenting his own thought, the accuracy of the recovery of other people's thoughts, consistency and informative.

An expressive function allows the language to serve as a means of expressing the internal state of the speaker, not only to inform some information, but also to express the attitude of the message that speakers the contents to the interlocutor, to the situation of communication. The language expresses not only the thoughts, but also the emotions of man.

An expressive function involves the emotional brightness of speech in the framework of the etiquette adopted in society.

Artificial languages Do not have an expressive function.

The aesthetic function lies in the installation that the message is satisfied with its form in unity with the content to satisfy the aesthetic sense of addressee. Aesthetic function is characteristic primarily for poetic speech (folklore, fiction), but not only for her - aesthetically perfectly perfect, and a publicist, and scientific speech may be.

Aesthetic function involves wealth and expressiveness of speech, its compliance with the aesthetic tastes of the formed part of society.

Question 2.

The meaning of the concept of "culture of speech" and its main qualities

A culture of speech - the ownership of the norms of the oral and written literary language (the rules of pronunciation, word consumption, grammar and stylistics). Used B. modern science in two main values: 1) socially historically determined modern speech culture of society; 2) the set of requirements for the quality of oral and written speech carriers of the literary language from the point of view of the socially conscious linguistic ideal, the taste of a certain era. In mastering the culture of speech, two stages usually allocate. The first is associated with the development of literary and linguistic norms. The ownership of them ensures the correctness of the speech, which is the basis of the individual K. r. The second stage involves the creative application of the rules in different situations Communication, including speech skills, the ability to choose the most accurate, stylistically and situationally relevant options. Literacy is a traditional sign of "cultural" speech. Signs: correctness, cleanliness, accuracy, expressiveness, logicality, relevance, wealth.

Basic signs

Procescence ( literary language - this is the language treated with masters of the word: writers, poets, scientists, public figures);

Stability (stability);

Communication for all native speakers

Regulatory

The presence of functional styles.

Modern concept Cultural speech as science highlights 3 leading aspects of speech culture:

- regulatory (compliance with current standards);

- ethical (compliance with certain communication rules, ethical behaviors);

- Communicative (culture of possession of various functional varieties of language). Elementary and uncomplicated application of a language for communication purposes

provide the quality of "good" speech: accuracy, cleanliness, logicality,

expressiveness, wealth, relevance. Accuracy - the compliance of the semantic content of speech and information that lies with it. Speech accuracy is associated with accuracy

typulating, with the right use of multivalued words,

synonyms, antonyms, homonyms. The most important condition for the accuracy of speech is

compliance with lexical standards. Speech is accurate if the speaking selects

those words and designs that more accurately transmit shades of meaning, significant for this statement. Cleanliness means the absence in speech alien literary language elements

(dialectful, professional, jargon, etc.) logicality is the expression in the semantic links of the components of the speech of bonds and relations between parts components of thought. The expressiveness of speech is called quality resulting from the implementation of the expressive opportunities laid in the language. Expressive can be created by language units of all levels. In addition, there are specific fine properties of the language (trails, stylistic figures) that make the statement with bright, figurative, emotional. Expression

it also creates the use of winged words, proverbs and sayings. Speech

the experience of each of us says that according to the degree of impact on our

consciousness is not the same. Two lectures, read on the same topic,

have a completely different effect on a person. Effect depends on degree

speech expressiveness. Wealth is a wide and free use of linguistic units in

speech, allowing you to optimally express information. Replenity is the use of language units in the speech of language units that meet the goals, situations, conditions, the content of communication

Question 3.

The main aspects of the culture of speech, definitions.

Three aspects Culture speech

Culture of the speech is also defined as such a choice and such a organization of language funds, which in a certain situation of communication, subject to modern language norms and ethics of communication, provide the greatest effect in achieving the delivered communicative tasks. In definition, three aspects of speech culture are underlined: regulatory, ethical, communicative.

The normative aspect is based on the definition of the norm as the central concept of speech culture given by S.I. Ozhegov:

Norma is a set of most suitable ("correct", "preferred") for servicing the language of the language of the language, developing as a result of the selection of language elements (lexical, pronouncing, morphological, syntactic) from among the coexisting, present, formed again or recoverable from the passive stock of the past ...

The ethical aspect of the speech culture is a moral and moral substantiation of the sounding and written words: the knowledge and application of the rules of language behavior in cunning situations.

The communicative aspect of the speech culture is associated with the language function, in compliance with certain rules. speech communication. For successful implementation Communicative tasks need an idea of \u200b\u200bthe spheres of communication. Language carriers in accordance with the requirements of the communicative aspect of the culture of speech must own the functional styles of the language, as well as to navigate in the colloquial speech and the language of fiction, which in their language organizations differ from functional styles.

The support of the Russian literary language is a literary rate. In the process of active language policy in science, there was ideas about the normalization of the language, its codification, language versions, deviations from the literary norm.

There are orthological dictionaries, i.e. Dictionaries recommending norms proper speechwhich provide regulatory and stylistic estimates of language phenomena from the point of view of their compliance with the standards of the literary language. Among modern orthological dictionaries - spelling, orphoepic, grammatical; Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, paronyms; phraseological dictionaries; Dictionaries of the lexical difficulties of the Russian language. The use of vocabulary needed in a particular situation will help overcome difficulties arising in the practice of communication.

Question 4.

The concept of language norm

Language rate (literary rate) is the rules for using speech funds at a certain period of development of the literary language. The norm is obligatory both for oral and for written speech and covers all sides of the language. RESEARCHES: orthoepic (pronunciation), spelling (writing), word-formative, lexical, morphological, grammatical, syntactic, intonational, punctuation. Specific features of the standard language: - relative stability,

Prevalence, - commonly consumption, - societulence,

Compliance with the usage, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Language norms - The phenomenon is historical. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. Sources of change of the norms of the literary language are different: Live, conversational speech, Local skills, spacious, professional jargon, other languages.

Question 5.

Pronunciation of consonants

The main laws of pronunciation of consonants - stunning and liketing. Live pronunciation in his past and modern state is reflected in the poetic speech, in verses, where the one or another rhyme speaks of the pronunciation of the corresponding sounds.

Variability of stress

In order to prevent errors in staging, you should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions at which one or another can be used. It is recommended to use special dictionaries and reference books. They give a system of regulatory litter (one for estimating pronunciation, accent and morphological options), which looks like this.

Equal options.Normal options from which one recognize the main:

a) litter "permissible" (ext.). Most often used in spoken speech.

b) litter "permissible outdated" (add. Options). The litter indicates that the option estimated by it is gradually lost, and in the past it was the main one.

The dictionary also includes options outside the literary norm. To specify these options, so-called prohibitive litters are introduced:

b) "wrong" (wrong) c) "rough incorrectly" (roughly wrong.) A number of accent options are associated with a professional selection of use.

Question 6.

Question 7.

Accuracy of speech

Speech accuracy is most often associated with the accuracy of typing. The accuracy of speech is determined by:

Knowledge of the subject - the logic of thinking, - the ability to choose the necessary words.

Violation of the accuracy of speech as a result of the insufficient knowledge of the characteristics of the Russian language is the use of words in the meaningless meaning; context context multivalism; generating ambiguity; Mixing paronyms, homonyms.

Everyone signless word Performs nominative function, i.e. calls the item or its quality, action, condition. This obliges speaking to pay attention to the meaning of words, to use them correctly.

Reduces the accuracy of the speech of ignorance about the existence in the language of paronyms and homonyms, inability to neutralize these phenomena in speech.

Paronims are called words close to sound and writing, but different by meaning. The presence in the language of paronyms leads to the fact that in oral and written speech one word is mistakenly used instead of another.

Use in the speech of homonyms, i.e. Words, various meanings, but the same writing and sounding, can also lead to semantic inaccuracies, two-party statements.

Cleanness of speech

According to the researchers, the general development of the language is determined primarily by the selection of speech funds, namely the need to limit the use of words on the periphery of the dictionary composition of the language and not possessing the quality of communicative generality.

A huge dictionary of the Russian language from the point of view of the sector of use can be divided into two large groups - the vocabulary of the unlimited sector of use, which includes commonly used, understandable for all words, and vocabulary limited consumptionwhich includes professionalism, dialectisms, jargonisms, terms, i.e. Words used in a certain sphere - professional, social, etc.

Professionalism - words and expressions used by people of one profession (journalists, electronics and other). They are characterized by large detail in the designation of special concepts, labor instruments, production processes, material.

Dialectic vocabulary - words limited in territorial relations included in the vocabulary of individual dialects, understandable only to the resident of the locality.

Jargonisms - words and expressions belonging to any jargon. In modern linguistic literature, the word jargon is usually used to designate various branches of the nationwide language, which serve as a means of communication of various social groups.

Terms are words that are an accurate designation of a certain concept of any special area of \u200b\u200bscience, technology, art, public life, etc. Recall that the concept is a thought of common essential properties, links and relations of objects or phenomena of objective reality.

Clarity and clearness of speech depend on the proper use in it foreign words. Borrowing is a normal, natural phenomenon for any language. Borrowed words in the tongue appear as a result of communication of some nations with others, as a result of political, economic and cultural ties between them.

The place of foreign language words in Russian, their further fate Nonodynakova and is determined by their appointment. Borrowing to the degree of their penetration into the vocabulary of the Russian language can be divided into three groups.

The first of them constitutes foreign language words, firmly entered into Russian. They were borrowed for a long time, learned by all the people and are not perceived as foreignate. The second group makes up words, widespread in Russian and also that are the only names of the designated concepts, but aware of both foreign ones. The third group includes foreign-language words that have not been widespread. These include words with Russian parallels, but also differ from them, with a tint of the value or the sphere of use.

In the process of communication, people often have to clarify how it should be understood what is discussed, to clarify what sense is this or that word, expression. Speech practice has developed several ways to explain words. The most rational way of interpretation of words is the logical definition, i.e. Determination of concept through the nearest genus and species difference.

Common is a synonymic method, i.e. Explanation with the help of words, various sounds, but having a general meaning.

Quite often, when explaining the word, a descriptive method is used, in which its meaning is transmitted by describing the item itself, the concept, phenomena.

Explaining the meaning of the word, sometimes turn well to its etymology. Etymology teaches us to understand the true meaning of the word, clarifies it. Science not only establishes the initial meaning of the word, its initial meaning, but also explores the history of its use, the reasons for the changes that it has undergone.

Clean Speech

Expressive speech

The expressiveness of speech enhances the performance of the speech: the bright speech is of interest among the listeners, supports attention to the subject of the conversation, has an impact not only to the mind, but also on the feelings, the imagination of the listeners. A number of researchers emphasizes that the expressiveness of speech largely depends on the situation of communication.

Help speaking to make a speech-shaped, emotional special artistic techniques, visual and expressive tongue, traditionally called paths and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words.

Before analyzing various images of the language, you should clarify what properties the word has. The concept of the picture of the word is associated with the phenomenon of multigid. Words calling only one object are considered unambiguous, and words denoting several items, reality phenomena, are meaningful. The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and subsequent portable. Direct values \u200b\u200bare directly related to certain items whose names they are. Portable values, in contrast to direct, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through the attitude to the corresponding direct.

With the concept of portable consumption of words, such artistic means like a metaphor, methonymy, synimia, widely used in oratory performances, oral communication are connected.

The metaphor is based on the transfer of the names in similarity. Metaphors are formed on the principle of personification, extracting, distraction, etc. Metaphors should be original, unusual, cause emotional associations, help deeper to realize, submit an event or phenomenon.

Metonimia, in contrast to metaphor based on adjacency. At metonimia, two subjects, phenomena that received one name must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as a connection, but somewhat wider - closely connected with each other. Synekdoka - a trail, the essence of which is what is called part instead of multiple or, on the contrary, an integer - instead of a part, the plural is instead of the sole.

Comparison is a figurative expression based on comparison of two objects or states having general feature. A comparison suggests the presence of three data: subject, image and sign.

Epitts are artistic definitions. They allow, more brightly characterize the properties, quality of the subject or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. IN scientific literature Typically, three types of epithets are distinguished: general-language (constantly used in the literary language, have sustainable communication with a defined word); People's poetic (used in oral folk creativity); Individually - author (created by the authors).

To revitalize speech, giving it emotionality, expressiveness, images also use the techniques of stylistic syntax, so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repeat, etc.

Reception based on comparison of opposite phenomena and signs is called antithesis. Antiteza is widely represented in proverbs and sayings. Antiteza is an effective means of speech expressiveness and in public speech. The valuable means of expressiveness in the speech is inversion, i.e. Changing the usual word of words in a sense and stylistic purpose.

Often, to strengthen the utterance, give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. We start several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a replay is called Anaphore, which is translated from greek Means only.

IN oral speech Repeats meet at the end of the phrase. As at the beginning of the sentence, can repeat separate words, phrases, speech structures. A similar stylistic figure is called Epifora. In practice oratory. Receptions have been developed. One of these techniques is a question - a retaliatory move. In addition to the question of response, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. A rhetorical question Enhances the impact of speech on the listeners, the corresponding feelings awakens in them, carries a greater semantic and emotional load. The means of expressiveness include direct speech. Literally transmitted alien speech is called quote. As a form of transmission of someone else's statement in a speech, an indirect speech, transmitting someone or words from a third party. A rich material for speeches contains oral folk creativity. This treasure for speaker - proverbs and sayings. Proverbs and sayings are clots of folk wisdom, they express the truth, tested by the centuries-old history of the people - the Creator, the experience of many generations. For the creation of the image and emotionality of speech, the phraseology of the Russian language is served.

It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording, the skillful use of terms, foreign words, successful use of the visual and expressive means Language, proverbs and sayings, winged words, phraseological expressions, the wealth of an individual dictionary, the effectiveness of communication, strengthen the effectiveness of oral words.

Question 8.

Question 9.

Pleonasm. Tautology.

Pleuonism (from Dr. Greek. Πλεονασμός - excessive, ultra) - speech turnover, in which there is a duplication of some meaning of meaning; The presence of several language Formsexpressing the same value within the completed segment of speech or text; as well as language expressionwhere there is a similar duplication. The term "pleonism" came from the ancient stylistics and grammar. Antique authors give pleonazum various estimates. Quintilian, Donat, Diomed define the Pleepams as the overload of speech with unnecessary words, therefore, as a stylistic vice. On the contrary, Dionysius Galicarnassky determines this figure as the enrichment of speech in words, at first glance, excessive, but in reality clarity, power, rhythmism, persuasive, pathos, fell in speech by laconic. Lite to the pleonazma with stylistic figures are tautology and, partly, periprase. The ratio of terms Pleeping and tautology is understood by the lingules in different ways. Pleuonism is a linguistic term, tautology - and linguistic, and logical (although in logic it is used in a completely different sense). Pleuonism is found in folklore: lived, sadness, longing, road path, sea-oxian. Also, this tool is widely used in fiction, usually in order to specify the details of the narrative or amplification of emotions, estimates: in fact, extremely strange! - said the official - the place is completely smooth, as if only baked damn. Yes, to incredible even! (N. Gogol, "Nose"); Fair fear again covered it all, from the legs to the head (F. Dostoevsky, "Crime and Punishment"); - I have not seen you for a week, I did not hear you for so long. I'm passionately want, I'm thirsty of your voice. Speak. (A. Chekhov, "Ionch"). 2 A variety of lexical error related to violation of the norms of lexical combination, when unnecessary words are used in the phrase or proposal. For example, in the proposal, they provided the rhythmic and uninterrupted operation of the definition enterprise express similar values; It is sufficient here is one of them. The author's inscription on the cover of the book dedicate to his dad - Sergey Mikhailovich Pleonastic; Quite enough to dad ...

Typical examples The abnormative pleonism is phrase, in which the value of one word repeats the value of the other: more importantly (more unnecessary, since it is more important than "more important"), the first premiere (enough premiere is "the first representation of the play, movie or music performance"), atmospheric air (enough air - "a mixture of gases, which forms the atmosphere of the Earth"), ultimately (correctly ultimately or sufficiently), return back (verb return points back, in the opposite direction), imported from abroad (enough Import - "Importing from abroad").

Some praonistic phrases have fixed in the tongue and are not considered erroneous, for example: go down, climb up, time period, exhibit exhibition (Latin Exponatus means "Deposited Powered"), People's Democracy (democracy in translating from the Greek "Power of the People").

In fiction literature and journalism, abnormative lexical redundancy can act as a means of speech characteristics of characters: - Here you laugh and clutch teeth, "Vasya said," And I really, Mary Vasilyevna, I love you and love you (M. Zoshchenko, "Love").

Tavtology (Greek. - The same - the word) is a kind of pleonism; Single-sized usewords in a sentence or text.

Tautology meets in proverbs and sayings: friendship friendship, and service service; Life live - not the field go; Free will; In the phraseological circulation: walking with a walker, packed, eat, eat. Expressively painted tautological combinations are characteristic of folklore: Soon the fairy tale affects, but it does not soon be done; Sydded sit, grief bitter. He is the ameful use of single-damned words serves as a means of lexical expressiveness in fiction and journalism: "Bitter laugh will be mixed with" (N. Gogol); "As the mind is a smart, as a matter of little, // How the fear is like darkness dark! // How life is alive! How death is fatal! // As youth young Yuna! " (Z. Ezrochi), "The law is the law" (from the newspaper).

Tavtology is a lexical error if the use of single-damned words is not justified with stylistic goals and is random in nature: together to connect, dance to dance, to relate to sports, to confirm the statement. Usually about unintentional tautology they say this: oil oil.

Question 10.

Classification of synonyms

Synonyms, indicating the same concept and having the same lexical significance, differ in their expressive painted, assigned to a certain style, frequency of use.

Many synonyms differ from each other at the same time lexical meaning and expressive pain. So, synonyms can be differentiated:

According to them subjects [Synonyms, the "Skomorok - Lyedieuchi - Comedian - Actor - Artist" reflect different points in the development of the theater and the different attitude to the profession of the actor (cf. next item)

According to social assessment of the designated subject (the synonyms of the "salary - salary" reflect different attitude to the remuneration obtained for labor);

By applicability in a particular style of speech (synonyms "horse - horse" are stylistically not always reversible; in verse "Where are you jumping, a proud horse?" The substitution of synonym "Horse" will produce a comic effect - "Where are you jumping, proud horse?") ;

On an etymological value that can give a special color to one of the synonyms (synonyms "brave - fearless" bind general concept courage in the first case with "daring", "determination", in the second - with the "lack of fear"; Therefore, these synonyms in a known context can be applied as words opposite to the value as antonyms);

According to the presence or absence of portable values: so, in the famous epigram Batyushkov K.N. Council of Epic poems:

"What do you want to give the name

Your poem is the first one

"Peter Long", "Peter Big", but only "Petr Great"

Do not call it. "Using the lack of the first of the synonyms" big - the Great "portable value.

Omonimi (Dr. Greek. ὁμός - the same + ὄνομα - the name) - different in value, but the same sound and writing words, morphemes and other few units. The term is introduced by Aristotle. Do not be confused with mycomphones, submissions and paronims.

In relation to the words belonging to the same parts of speech, the linguistics often distinguishes homonym and polishemia. Omonium is a random coincidence of words, while Poland - the presence of different historically related values \u200b\u200bin the word. For example, the words "Bor" in the meaning of the "pine forest" and "boron" in the value of the "chemical element" are homonyms, since the first word of Slavic origin, and the second originated from the Persian "Bura" - the names of one of the boron compounds. At the same time, for example, the words "ether" in the sense organic Both "Ether" in the sense of "broadcasting and television" linguists call the values \u200b\u200bof one word, that is, Phasemia, since both occur from Dr.-Greek. αἰθήρ - mountain air. However, the other part of the linguists conducts the border between Phasemia and Omonimia. Namely, if most people sees in two coincident words, the overall shade of meaning (as linguists say, the "common semantic element"), then this is polishey, and if it does not see, it is homonymy, even if words have a general origin. For example, in the words "braid" (tool) and "braid" (hairstyle), the total semantic element is "something long and subtle". The only linguists consider all certain meaning of multivalued words with homonyms. In this case, Prasemia is a private case of homonym.

The coincident words belonging to different parts of speech, all or almost all Russian linguists are unconditionally refer to homonyms. An example of such homonyms are "flow" (leak) and "flow" (flowing).

Classification

· Omonies are complete (absolute) - homonyms, in which the entire system of forms coincides. For example, outfit (clothing) - outfit (disposal), horn (blacksmith) -mountain (overall instrument).

· Omonies are partial - homonyms who do not match all forms. For example, lask (animal) and lask (manifestation of tenderness) Dissolve in the form of a genitive case multiple number (lasp - lask).

· Omonies grammatical, or omophores - words that coincide only in separate forms (the same part of speech or different parts speech). For example, numeral three and verb three They coincide only in two forms (to three - we are three, three apples - three more!).

Question 11.

Question 12.

Question 13.

Functional styles.

The step of the membership of the literary language is the division of each of its varieties - book and spoken language - on functional styles. By definition, V.V. Vinogradova, the functional style is "socially conscious and functionally determined, the internally combined set of techniques of use, selection and combination of speech communication in the field of one or another common, general national Language, relevant with the other methods of expression that serve for other purposes, perform other functions in the speech public practice of this people. " Briefly speaking, options for a literary language, due to various spheres of communication, and there are functional styles.

The following functional styles are distinguished in the modern Russian book literary language: scientific, official-business, journalistic, religious preaching.

The conversational language does not form as definitely on functional styles, which is understandable: the book language is consciously cultivated, society as a whole and its various groups and institutions are interested in the functional flexibility of the book language (without this it is impossible effective development such spheres of social life, as science, lawmaking, office work, mass communication, etc.); The conversational language develops spontaneously, without guide efforts from society. However, here you can observe some differences determined by the scope of application spoken language, (b) Communicative speech objectives, (c) the social characteristics of the speaker and listening and psychological relations between them, as well as some other variables.

So, family conversations and colleagues dialogues differ; conversation with the child and adult communication; Speech acts of condemnation or reproach and speech acts of request or exhortation, etc.

The characteristic properties of the literary language. So, the literary language is characterized by the following properties that distinguish it from other subsystems of the National Language:

1) rationing; In this case, the literary norm is the result of not only the language tradition, but also a targeted codification, fixed in grammar and dictionaries;

2) consistent functional differentiation of funds and the associated continuous trend towards the functional distinction of options;