SERGEY NIKIFOROVICH KRUGLOV

Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov recalls that on one of the summer days in 1953, the inhabitants of the secret facility where the nuclear weapon was being created saw that the plate with the inscription "Beria Street" had been removed. In its place, a cardboard was hung with the inscription "Kruglova Street".

Sergei Nikiforovich Krugloye was Minister of Internal Affairs for ten years: seven years under Stalin, three after him. In the last days of 1945, Krugloye replaced Beria as the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs.

On January 10, 1946, Beria and Krugloye signed an act of acceptance and delivery of cases on the NKVD of the USSR, where it was written: “On the basis of the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of December 29, 1945 on the release of L.P. Beria from the duties of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR and on the appointment People's Commissar Internal Affairs of the USSR S.N.Kruglov, the reception and delivery of cases of the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR took place as of December 30, 1945. Passed cases Marshal Soviet Union LP Beria, took over the affairs of Colonel General S. N. Krugloye. "

With his appearance in the main office of the punitive department, the era of campaigners began. Kruglov and the first chairman of the KGB, Ivan Aleksandrovich Serov, were neither politicians nor professional security officers. They ended up in the NKVD for party recruitment and served, in the army, strictly following all orders.

In a sense, they were lucky. They ended up in the NKVD when the wave of Yezhov's repressions ended and survived the subsequent purges. Both of them were Beria's deputies, but they did not belong to the circle of his devoted assistants and in 1953 did not follow him to the dock. But then they remembered their old sins anyway. Serov, as a person close to Khrushchev, suffered less, Krugloye more.

BERIUM CHANGE

Kruglov was born in 1907 in the Tver province in the family of a hammer-worker. At the age of fourteen he was hired as a shepherd, he studied at school for only a year and a half. At the age of seventeen he was hired as secretary of the Nikiforovsky village council, then made chairman of the village council. In the same place, in the village of Nikiforovka, he was also in charge of the hut-reading room. For three years he was a repair worker and a locksmith at the "Vakhnovo" state farm, then he was hired as a member of the board of the consumer society "Sozvezdie". Here he was accepted into the party.

At the end of 1929, Kruglov was drafted into the army. He served only a year, commanded a squad, then he was appointed an auto mechanic in a tank regiment. The specialty received in the army came in handy. Demobilized, he worked as a mechanical instructor at a training and experimental grain farm in the Kustanai region. Sergei Kruglov is the first head of the department after Menzhinsky to receive a full-fledged education. It means that he wanted to learn and was not without talent.

In November 1931 he was admitted to the Karl Liebknecht Industrial Pedagogical Institute in Moscow. An active student first became the secretary of the party cell of the faculty, and then the secretary of the party committee of the entire institute. True, this hardly helped him to learn. But in any case, he was noticed and in March 1934 he was enrolled as a student in a special Japanese sector of the Institute of Oriental Studies, where he studied for a little over a year. And finally, he got into such a solid educational institution like the Institute of Red Professors.

He could well have turned into a professional teacher. But in the party apparatus there were so many vacancies that he was not allowed to finish his studies: in 1937 he was hired into the apparatus of the Central Committee - the responsible organizer of the department of leading party personnel of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b). A year later, they were transferred to the NKVD - along with a whole group of party workers - to help the new People's Commissar Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria.

December 20, 1938, the day the Chekists celebrate their professional holiday Sergei Nikiforovich Kruglov was appointed as a special plenipotentiary of the NKVD of the USSR, responsible for investigating the cases of the employees of the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs who committed misconduct.

Beria liked Kruglov, and two months later Sergei Nikiforovich was appointed deputy people's commissar and head of the personnel department of the NKVD. Kruglov became Deputy People's Commissar at only thirty-two years old! Careers were quick at that time.

After the division of the NKVD into two people's commissariats at the beginning of 1941, Beria made Kruglov his first deputy and handed over to him what he did not like to do himself: the GULAG and production and construction departments. Kruglov was little involved in operational work, this will save him in 1953.

After the merger of the NKVD and the NKGB in July 1941, Kruglov was appointed not the first, but a simple deputy of Beria, but he practically did not participate in the work. He is sent to the active army as a member of the military council of the Reserve, and then the Western Front. In October 1941, when German troops approached Moscow, he received command of the 4th Sapper Army and the 4th Directorate of the Main Directorate of Defense Construction of the NKVD. For participation in hostilities he received the Order of the Red Star in February 1942.

Another deputy of Beria, sent to the front, Ivan Ivanovich Maslennikov, went to the Red Army altogether, became a general and received the North Caucasian Front under his command. Kruglov remained in the NKVD.

On February 4, 1943, together with other deputies of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs, he received the title of State Security Commissioner of the second rank - this was equated to a colonel-general in the army hierarchy. Two months later, at the end of April, after another division of the NKVD, he was again appointed first deputy commissar of internal affairs.

March 8, 1944 for carrying out operations to evict Karachais, Kalmyks, Chechens and Ingush to eastern regions USSR Kruglov was awarded the Order of Suvorov I degree.

On October 20, 1944, Kruglov received the Order of Kutuzov, II degree, for “clearing the western regions of Ukraine from the OUN members”. The Order of Kutuzov I degree was awarded to him in 1945. These are all commander's orders, which were given at the front only for major military operations.

At the end of 1944, Kruglov was sent to Lithuania to carry out a major purge there. In the first months after the liberation of Lithuania, the NKVD - NKGB authorities arrested 12 449 people, killed 2574 people.

Kruglov will be engaged in deportations and becoming a minister. On November 30, 1948, the Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR, Colonel-General Sergei Kruglov, sent a report to Stalin, Molotov and Beria on the successful completion of the deportation of the German population from the Kaliningrad region to the Soviet occupation zone of Germany: the former Konigsberg was included in the Soviet Union, and the Germans were superfluous there ...

In the spring of 1945, Kruglov, as part of a Soviet delegation headed by the future Minister of Foreign Affairs Andrei Andreevich Gromyko, was sent to San Francisco, where the Charter of the United Nations was being drafted at that time. A trip to a long foreign business trip during the war years was just a gift of fate.

Kruglov was engaged in the protection of Soviet government delegations at the Crimean (in Yalta) and Potsdam conferences. The Americans and the British awarded him with their orders.

On January 15, 1946, Izvestia wrote in the Chronicle section: “The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR granted the request of the Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, Comrade LP Beria, both to release him from the duties of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR due to his overload with other central work. Comrade SN Kruglov was appointed People's Commissar of Internal Affairs. "

Kruglov was thirty-eight years old.

In the spring of 1946, the people's commissars were renamed into ministers.

Professor Vladimir Filippovich Nekrasov, the best expert on the history of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, told me about Kruglov:

Capable, smart, educated, especially against the background of his predecessors. Cool. When he called a meeting at twelve at night, and Lieutenant-General Krivenko, the head of the Chief Directorate for Prisoners of War and Internees, was not found, a formidable order was born: only twelve hours, but the Lieutenant-General was not there! Disorder! When you leave, the deputies and the secretary should know where you are.

When Kruglov became minister, the department was truncated. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Ministry of Internal Affairs transferred to the Ministry of State Security not only all operational units, government communications and the protection of government facilities, but also internal troops, border guards, police, and the criminal investigation department. In essence, the Ministry of Internal Affairs remained a camp ministry.

OWNER OF THE GULAG

The scale of the GULAG becomes clear when you read the decree prepared by Beria in 1953 on the transfer of production departments of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to other ministries:

Main Directorate of Construction of the Far North (Dalstroy);

Main Directorate for Exploration and Exploitation of Deposits and Construction of Nonferrous and Rare Metals Enterprises in the Krasnoyarsk Territory (Yeniseistroy);

Norilsk Combine of Non-Ferrous and Rare Metals;

Refineries № 169 - in Krasnoyarsk, 170 - in Sverdlovsk, 171 - in Novosibirsk;

Vartsila Metallurgical Plant;

Administration for the construction of the Kuibyshevskaya hydroelectric power station (Kuibyshevgidrostroy);

Administration for the construction of the Stalingrad hydroelectric power station (Stalingradgidrostroy);

Department of design, survey and research for hydraulic construction projects (Hydroproject);

Main Directorate for the Construction of Oil Refineries and Artificial Liquid Fuel Enterprises (Glavspets-neftestroy);

Ukhta Oil Extraction and Refining Plant;

Main Directorate of Highways (Gushosdor);

Main Directorate of Railway Construction;

Construction Department of the Main Turkmen Canal (Sredazgidstroy);

Department of the Nizhne-Don construction of irrigation and hydraulic structures;

General Directorate of the Asbestos Industry;

General Directorate of the Mica Industry;

Industrial plants of the Pechora coal basin - the Vorkutugol plant, the Intaugol plant;

Industrial plant for the extraction of apatite-nepheline concentrates ("Apatite");

Construction Department of the Kirov Chemical Plant;

General Directorate of the Forestry Industry;

Main Directorate for the Construction of the Volga-Baltic Waterway (Glavgidrovolgobaltstroy);

Industrial plant for the extraction and processing of amber in the Kaliningrad region (plant No. 9) ...

All these production monsters subsisted on the slave labor of prisoners. The Ministry of Internal Affairs not only provided the construction and production departments with this free and uncomplaining labor force, but itself turned into a production and construction ministry.

For several years the master of this "GULAG archipelago", described by Alexander Isaevich Solzhenitsyn, was Sergei Kruglov.

The archipelago took a long time to build. At first, its owners were not at all going to starve the prisoners.

Professor Nekrasov's book "Thirteen Iron People's Commissars" contains a report to Dzerzhinsky by the head of the secret department of the Cheka T. P. Samsonov, who visited the Lefortovo prison and got acquainted with the conditions of detention of political prisoners. This is 1921:

“In the cells: dirt, dampness, stench, fumes and, most importantly, smoke, which absolutely makes it possible to breathe ... In the cells, smoky iron stoves are primitive, there is no draft in them; those arrested complain of poor food and lack of books. In the corridors there is an impenetrable smoky darkness, water and dirt on the floor ... The political hunger strikes declared here demanding a transfer to Butyrki must be considered correct. It is impossible to treat living people in this way and to keep them in such conditions, it is a crime.

Conclusions: to disperse and prosecute the administration of the Lefortovo prison for the inhuman detention of those arrested, the reason for which is their inactivity and negligence. "

After the revolution, there were people who really opposed the rule of the Bolsheviks and were not afraid of reprisals, although the risk was clear. Many of the political opponents who were not dealt with on the spot were sent into exile for two or three years. Then they were given the same term, but in a camp on Solovki or in a political isolator. Then a link was added to the political isolator and forbidden to live in large cities ("minus"). In general, a kind of conveyor was created: camp - link - "minus". As soon as the political prisoners were released, they were immediately taken again, created a new case and sent back to the camp.

The history of the domestic penitentiary system is described by the authors of the collective work "Bodies and Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia" (1996). After the revolution, control over places of detention was entrusted to local Soviets. The Soviets set up commissions to decide whether a prisoner should be kept behind bars or should be released. In the official statements of the new government, it was said that it was going not so much to punish as to educate, for which, they say, agricultural corrective labor colonies were being organized.

But on September 5, 1918, a resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR "On the Red Terror" appeared. By a decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of March 21 and a decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of May 17, 1919, concentration camps of the All-Russian Cheka and forced labor camps of the NKVD were established. In 1920, the first special-purpose camp for active enemies appeared on the Solovetsky Islands Soviet power.

After the end of the Civil War, all places of detention were subordinate to the NKVD. There were about 70 thousand people in them. Since about 1925, planting has increased. By the end of the 1920s, the idea was ripening to widely use prisoners for creative work. In 1929, a system of forced labor camps was created. They should not only become self-sufficient, but also make a profit. The OGPU received the right to conduct an investigation, pass sentences, imprison and use prisoners' labor.

On June 27, 1929, the Politburo adopted a decree on the use of prison labor. The concentration camps of the OGPU were renamed into correctional labor camps. Everyone who was sentenced to imprisonment for a term of at least three years was transferred there. The rest were left in agricultural or industrial colonies, subordinate to the people's commissariats of internal affairs. union republics.

On July 11, 1929, the government adopted a decree that entrusted the OGPU with the task of developing the economic life of the hard-to-reach, but rich in natural resources of the outskirts of the country by using the labor of dangerous elements. It was proposed to build new camps in Siberia, in the North, on Far East, in Central Asia.

The order, which was signed by the deputy chairman of the OGPU Yagoda, said that the new camps under the leadership of the Chekists should play a transformative role in the economy and culture of the distant outskirts ...

Already in the middle of 1930, the OGPU took an important place in industrial life: prisoners built railways, provided geological exploration, carried out forestry work, erected chemical and pulp and paper plants, were engaged in logging and butchering fish. Prisoners, with whom until recently they did not know what to do, have become a major source of labor.

The first was the administration of the northern special-purpose camps on August 5, 1929. In February 1931, a camp administration was created under the OGPU. And in April it was renamed the General Directorate of Labor Camps and Labor Settlements (GULAG).

In 1937, so-called internal prisons, subordinated to the 10th department of the GUGB NKVD of the USSR, began to be created to contain those under investigation and convicted of counter-revolutionary crimes. The central apparatus of the People's Commissariat used four prisons: an internal prison for 570 prisoners, Butyrskaya - for 3500, Lefortovskaya - for 625 and Sukhanovskaya - for 225 places.

The regulation on the internal prisons of the NKVD, adopted in 1939, forbade notifying relatives of the death of those under investigation and giving them corpses for burial.

In the pre-war years, the GULAG was constantly expanding. The government set the next task for the NKVD, and the next camp was created for it. The prisoners built military factories, laid roads, built airfields and worked in heavy and hazardous industries in the mining and metallurgical, fuel, chemical, pulp and paper industries.

For example, a government decree appears on the construction of the Arkhangelsk and Solikamsk pulp and paper mills, and logging camps for 140 thousand prisoners are being created in the area of ​​upcoming new buildings.

One can only be amazed that people have found the strength to survive in terrible, inhuman conditions. Writer Viktor Petrovich Astafyev said in one of his interviews: “All these kulaks, deported to Igarka, died out, and fought, trying to protect the children with letters. The diploma was everything. There were no textbooks, but everyone was learning eagerly. "

Only in 1947, the Minister of Internal Affairs Kruglov presented to the government a proposal to release those who remained in the special settlement. former kulaks... Released 115 thousand families (320 thousand people). The tragedy of these people has not yet been clearly described. Even when they were released, political distrust persisted.

When the war began, those convicted of domestic crimes and truancy were released and sent to the army. In the first three years, 975 thousand of yesterday's prisoners went to the Red Army. This is about a third of the total number of inhabitants of the Gulag.

Twice as many ended up in camps. In addition, more than two million people were in special settlements, of which one and a half million were Chechens deported during the war, Ingush Balkars, Kalmyks, Crimean Tatars, Germans.

General Alidin, who at one time headed the department dealing with settlers, recalls that “lawlessness, lawlessness and arbitrariness were happening in the places of settlements. Persons of exiled nationalities were ordered to live in new places forever. Any movement out of bounds settlement was considered an escape ... Molotov signed an order stating that all babies whose parents are settlers become settlers after birth and are subject to registration. "

By the end of the war, 850,000 people served in the NKVD. They guarded prisoners instead of fighting at the front.

During the war, the NKVD built several hundred airfields, aircraft factories, blast furnaces, coal mines, chemical plants, laid thousands of kilometers of railways and highways, and extracted all the necessary minerals from gold to oil.

During the war, the internal regulations in the camps and colonies were tightened, the guards were allowed to use weapons even if the prisoners refused to start work. The conditions of detention were such that in 1942 alone, 248,877 people died in the camps from overwork, hunger and disease.

The NKVD and the prosecutor's office twice - on June 22, 1941 and on April 29, 1942 - issued joint directives, on the basis of which prisoners whose term was ending were not released, but continued to work in their former places as civilians. The difference was that they went without an escort and were paid. They could not leave or change jobs.

Both of these directives were secret, and the people covered by them did not even know why they were released only in 1946, when Stalin finally allowed them to go home.

When the Red Army went on the offensive, Soviet citizens began to enter the GULAG, who collaborated with the German authorities in the occupied territories.

Nikolai Konstantinovich Baibakov, who for many years headed the State Planning Committee, recalls how Stalin, at the end of the war, instructed him, as People's Commissar for the oil industry, to build factories for the production of synthetic motor fuel. And he gave the order to send prisoners to these construction sites. “It was a reliable and mobile power,” Baybakov writes with admiration. "People lived in hastily made barracks and insulated tents, in dugouts, worked in any weather, in snow and rain, frost and heat, twelve hours a day."

KOROLEV AND GLUSHKO

The prisoners worked for the right to survive, for an increased ration, for the hope of freeing themselves as soon as possible. At first, in the Gulag, even the most talented and knowledgeable specialists were put on common work, as a result of which they perished one after another. Then the NKVD realized that these future academics could bring glory to the People's Commissariat if they were to create new equipment that could be reported to Stalin.

The fate of Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, the creator of military missiles, who was the first to send a man into space, is characteristic. In 1938, the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court sentenced him to ten years in prison for "participating in anti-Soviet terrorist and sabotage activities."

He was sent to the Kolyma. He could have died there, but the famous pilots Valentina Stepanovna Grizodubova and Mikhail Mikhailovich Gromov stood up for him. Both were Heroes of the Soviet Union and deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

At their deputy request on June 13, 1939, the Supreme Court overturned the sentence against Korolyov, his case was sent for a new trial. Beriev indulgences? Here's their price! On July 10, 1940, a special meeting at the NKVD sentenced him to eight years in forced labor camps.

But they didn’t send me to the camp.

Yezhov in the Lubyanka had already been replaced by Beria, who delighted the leader not only with the numbers of executions, but also with the economic achievements of the NKVD. He created "sharashki", in which arrested specialists worked for free, and Beria got the laurels.

The head of the Main Economic Department of the NKVD, Bogdan Zakharovich Kobulov, ordered the transfer of Korolev to the Special Technical Bureau under the NKVD for use in his specialty. And they were not released, and used for the case.

Korolev worked under the guidance of the convicted aircraft designer Tupolev, the future academician and laureate of all awards. And in the fall of 1942 he was transferred to the Kazan prison, where his former colleague Valentin Petrovich Glushko, also a future academician and laureate, was imprisoned. Convict Glushko was the chief designer of propulsion systems for aircraft, and prisoner Korolev was his deputy.

Glushko did not have a surname, he had a number, he signed the drawings not with his surname, but with a number, a convict number so and so.

Glushko worked without rest, without being distracted by extraneous conversations, not paying attention to what was happening around him, pedantically and successfully. Its rocket engines were installed on airplanes that developed unprecedented speeds.

At the end of July 1944, Glushko was brought to Stalin. The leader was informed that rocket engines are a very promising direction, that the Germans are already creating jet aircraft.

The leader was very friendly with the man he almost killed. He said that Glushko can make a list of employees who deserve early release. Glushko named thirty-five names.

The People's Commissar of Internal Affairs Beria signed an appeal addressed to Stalin, in which he noted the work of the imprisoned specialists and asked for the early release of those who distinguished themselves. On July 27, a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet followed. Glushko, Korolyov, and more than thirty other people were freed.

Glushko and Korolev worked like crazy, not only because work was the essence of their life. For a long time, Korolev and Glushko remained, from a legal point of view, enemies of the people, who were only released early from prison. But they did not forgive and did not acquit.

In 1955, they wrote applications to the Chief Military Prosecutor's Office with a request to rehabilitate them. Glushko received a rehabilitation certificate in the fall of 1956, Korolev - in the spring of 1957, the year he sent the first artificial Earth satellite into space. And even in the halo of his glory, the chief designer of rocketry timidly asked Khrushchev:

Well, do you at least believe that I'm not guilty of anything?

A special technical bureau, renamed in 1941 as the 4th special department of the NKVD, used convicted specialists to create military equipment: aircraft, engines, warships and artillery weapons. Almost 500 prisoners worked there, who were assigned to the most important defense factories and research institutes.

Historians Alexander Kokurin and Nikita Petrov have compiled a long list of what during the war years was created by prisoners of the 4th special department of the NKVD. The list mentioned, in particular, three bombers created under the guidance of designers Tupolev, Petlyakov and Myasishchev, aircraft engines, cannons, a torpedo boat, radio stations ... It is easy to imagine how much these outstanding scientists could have done if they were not kept in camps.

“Before signing the paper, make sure that if they start to go to jail because of it, then you will be at the end of the list” - this motto of the country's chief artilleryman, Marshal Nikolai Dmitrievich Yakovlev, who was once frightened to death by Stalin, recalls in his book “ Secret zone "Grigory Vasilyevich Kisunko, chief designer of anti-missile systems.

Grigory Kisunko himself became famous for the creation of an anti-aircraft missile system, which on May 1, 1960, shot down an American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft. He became an academician, laureate, general, deputy, but spent most of his life in anxiety: will they or will they not recognize in cadres and agencies who his father is?

And the father of the chief designer, a locomotive driver, was shot in April 1938 on a mythical charge - for "participation in a counter-revolutionary insurgent organization." The son hid it. And for many years, the chief designer had nightmarish visions: a vigilant personnel officer discovers a line in his personal file written in other ink, followed by his exposure and his whole life collapses - he is deprived of his job, or even freedom.

And yet he could not forget his uncle's words, spoken much later under cognac:

For your father, one bastard-informer, with the help of two of your uncles, very accidentally and reliably fell under the wheels of a train ...

After the war, young Kisunko was taken to the Special Bureau No. 1 of the USSR Ministry of Armaments. Here, under the leadership of Beria Jr. - Sergo Lavrentyevich - Soviet rocket weapons were created. The main specialists were the German rocket scientists taken out of Germany and our scientists - those who were still in the camps and were brought to work under escort.

The extremely favorable conditions in which the military-industrial complex was located, described by Kisunko, explain why the creators of weapons yearn so much for Soviet times. The foundations for the successful functioning of the military-industrial complex were laid by Stalin. He told the creators of rocket technology: "You will have the right to involve any organization of any ministries and departments in the performance of work, providing this work with material funds and funding as needed, without any restrictions."

They were given everything - a house in the woods, a special dining room, a special hospital, and cars. Need to celebrate a pleasant event at the training ground? We send a plane to Central Asia for watermelons, melons and grapes. And the general secretary, after successful tests, said to the chief designer: “Send to all the capitals of the union republics for food, wine, vodka, beer, cognac, so that there is everything for all tastes. And throw a banquet there, on behalf of the government, such as the world has never seen before. "

One of the ministers addressed the designers with approximately the following words: “They gave you everything that you asked for. I think that even the horses from the Bolshoi Theater would be given to you if asked. Now, let's go. "

As soon as this or that development acquired the status of special importance, unlimited funding was opened for it, for which, like flies for honey, writes Grigory Kisunko, people who wanted to taste the government cake flocked. Therefore, rockets and other equipment turned out to be literally golden, ruinous for the country.

But the customs among the creators of weapons were extremely cruel. Kisunko recalls how Sergey Pavlovich Korolev himself invited him to his car and, lowering the glass partition that separated the passenger compartment from the driver, asked angrily:

How long will we put up with this bandit?

The "bandit" was an equally famous designer, to whom fortune smiled at that moment, because he wisely hired the son of one of the leaders of the party and the people.

The children of the members of the Politburo loved to work in the military-industrial complex empire. Ustinov Jr. built tracked combat lasers, Suslov Jr. headed the closed institute of radio-electronic systems.

The designers mercilessly drowned competitors so as not to share "hay and straw" - as they called orders and other insignia among themselves. And they were madly afraid of the state security officers, who could easily ruin their lives.

They say that Beria once visited the imprisoned aircraft designer Andrei Nikolaevich Tupolev, the future academician, colonel general, winner of the Lenin and five Stalin prizes and three times Hero of Socialist Labor. Tupolev tried to explain to the People's Commissar that he was innocent. Beria interrupted him:

I myself know, dear, that you are not to blame for anything. Your plane will take off in the air, you will be released.

Already under Khrushchev, crowned with all the awards of the country, Academician Tupolev complained to the first secretary that a prison trail was following him and a shadow fell on his children. And Khrushchev reassured the aircraft designer:

Comrade Tupolev, you can go and work in peace. I give you the glory that we will discuss this issue and order to destroy the documents relating to you, so that nowhere and in any questionnaires you would not have to write that you were arrested.

AN ORDER MAN WILL NOT GO TO THE SECRET POLICE

Remembering the history of Tupolev, Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov pondered the fate of those who ruled the Gulag: “I sometimes wondered: what drives such people - ambition? fear? thirst for activity? authorities? conviction? I have no answer. "

Writers, historians and psychologists have been trying to answer this question for half a century.

The writer Lev Emmanuilovich Razgon, who spent many years behind barbed wire, writes about the guards and the Gulag employees in general: “They are not like us. Not what we were, and certainly not what we are now and what we will be. With these people you can not enter into human relations, you cannot treat them as people, they only pretend to be people, and you need to treat them too, pretending that you consider them to be people. But being in full and unshakable confidence that they only pretend to be people ... "

Matthias Rakosi, who worked in Moscow, in the Comintern before the war, and then headed the Communist Party and the Hungarian government for a long time, left interesting memories. In particular, he quotes the words of Academician Varga, a well-known scientist in those years, who told him:

A decent person will not go to work as an investigator or in the secret police. Only the dregs of society go there, and, naturally, such elements do not look at the matter, but follow their own careers, try to suspect as much as possible more people, put them in jail, until finally an atmosphere is created in which everyone seems suspicious, suspicious and suspicious.

Mikhail Fedorovich Nenashev, a professional party worker, writes: “The NKVD appeared in my mind for the first time in the winter of 1937 as something sinister, capable of depriving our family of our father and even of that modest life in which we were. The large wooden house of the district NKVD was located not far from the dugout of my aunt (father's sister), with whom I lived in the district center all the years of my schooling, and every day, passing by its windows, always closed with blackout curtains, I often thought about what secrets were hidden after them. Not much then I could understand, but, as a small animal, instinctively felt that something unkind, dangerous for me, for other people came from this house ... "

The Chekists worked under Stalin on a rotational basis. A group was formed that did their part of the work. At this time, they received everything - material benefits, titles, positions, orders, honor, glory, the right to communicate with the leader. Valuables confiscated from the arrested were transferred to the special stores of the NKVD, where they were sold to the employees of the People's Commissariat. When they completed their task, it was the turn of the next brigade. The previous team was destroyed, and all the benefits went to the new shift.

Somewhere in this terrible empire, sometimes decent people met - an investigator who did not beat, a jailor in a prison who was not evil by nature, a warden in a camp who did not swear. They came across extremely rarely, but meeting with them was happiness.

Basically, the owners of the Lubyanka were divided into two categories. Obvious fanatics selflessly believed in Stalin, shot with his name and died with his name on their lips. And the careerists easily adapted to any turn of the party line: whoever needed was shot. Over time, the first almost disappeared.

But is it worth considering the owners of the GULAG and the entire Lubyanka as supervillains? Devil incarnate, entangling the whole country with their nets? It's tempting to place the blame on one person born with a devilish mark, to say with relief, "It's all about him!"

But after all, each of them was the kind of person who was required by the department that he headed. Another would do the same in his place. Or I would have chosen another place of service ... To some extent, a powerful minister or people's commissar was just one of the cogs of this gigantic system, which existed as if by itself.

But he also tightened up, adjusted and started this whole mechanism, which in fact could only work because many thousands of state security personnel and an even larger number of volunteers deliberately chose this service for themselves and were proud of it.

They turned the country into a police state, a dossier was opened on a huge number of people, and all structures of society were permeated by state security officers.

They corrupted people, achieved the fact that seemingly decent citizens, fleeing from fear or for money, an apartment, travel abroad, or even just in the hope of the favor of their superiors, denounced relatives, neighbors and colleagues.

Fear of arrest, the camp revealed everything that is bad in a person. It began to seem that the proportion of villains was higher than usual. It was difficult to resist because an abyss opened up in front of a man. Fear and mistrust became the main driving forces in Soviet society. The result was a paralysis of all initiative and an unwillingness to take responsibility.

But could a person choose a different fate, without fear of perishing in the Gulag? Is it not too harsh a sentence for the people who lived at that time? After all, the Chekists had to carry out orders or die. If the screw broke, it was immediately replaced with another.

Academician Alexander Mikhailovich Panchenko said in one of his interviews: “The lackeys and lackeys say:“ That was the time. ” The time is always bad, and whether we cope with it or not depends on us. It was permissible to remain a decent person under Soviet rule, although not for everyone. One of my favorite teachers, Boris Viktorovich Tomashevsky, used to say: “Don't worry, in any of the most vile regimes two or three places are reserved for decent people.”

We must also take into account that for a considerable number of people the service in the Gulag and in the Lubyanka not only provided a means of subsistence, but also created a privileged way of life. In those years, about a million people served in the NKVD system, together with their families it is several million, for them there is nothing terrible about the existence of the GULAG. And if we also take into account the party and state apparatus and their families? Why be surprised if in our society there are directly opposite points of view on the Stalinist repressions, the GULAG and the state security organs?

HAPPY CHILDHOOD IN THE STALINSKY FAMILY

How many generals of the NKVD - MGB - KGB were in the country, how many guards were in camps and prisons, how many investigators riveted execution cases! But what happened to their children? What did they grow up to be? How are their fathers treated? Condemn? Cursing? Or, on the contrary, admire them?

There are no such books. Nobody found the "Lubyanka" children and questioned them. It is not fiction that is needed here, but the harsh documentary prose of Svetlana Aleksievich.

Why don't we have such books? Because such prose is scary not only to read, but also to write.

Leonid Maksimovich Leonov, a writer whose talent seems to have not been fully realized, was asked back in Soviet times why he did not write anything else. He replied:

I tried it, dug deeper, gasped, buried it and trampled it underfoot.

Vladimir Alliluyev, the nephew of Stalin's wife, compiled the genealogy of the Alliluyevs - Stalin and wrote the book "Chronicle of one family."

His father was shot when the boy was only three years old. Exactly ten years later, his mother was imprisoned. From his father, whom he hardly remembers, there is only a court case. Mother was released six years later. She returned home a different person, suffering severe mental illness.

But in an amazing way, the boy retained the best memories of childhood and adolescence. The sad years for the memoirist came later, when no one was already shot.

The book contains a lot of interesting things: an assessment of the unsuccessful marriage of Joseph Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva, the attitude of the family to her suicide, the unsuccessful personal life of Svetlana and Vasily Stalin. There is only one thing in the book - sympathy for the unfortunate parents and attempts to understand why the author was first deprived of his father and then his mother.

Vladimir Alliluyev's father is Stanislav Frantsevich Redens, former secretary of Dzerzhinsky. In January 1938, Redens was sent as People's Commissar of Internal Affairs to Kazakhstan, in November he was arrested, accused of spying on Polish Poland, and in January 1940 he was shot.

Vladimir Alliluyev writes: “Mother got to Stalin and asked him to intervene in his father’s business. “Okay,” he said, “I'll invite Molotov, and you come with Sergei Yakovlevich. Redens will be brought here and we will sort it out. " But the grandfather refused to go to Stalin, and his mother went to him alone with her grandmother. The absence of my grandfather annoyed and greatly hurt Stalin, he had a big quarrel with my mother and grandmother, there was no trial, and the fate of my father was a foregone conclusion.

But neither Stalin nor the system under which it is possible to shoot innocent people, according to the author, are not to blame for the death of his father.

The system in general was remarkable: “In those years, trade was working properly, reliably, prices were falling, at one time in canteens, bread was even served free of charge, people saw that their life was constantly improving ... The system provided people with a reliable life, the country was moving forward ... the newspapers were full of materials about the overstocking of shoes, televisions, refrigerators. "

This judgment is backed up personal experience the author. Despite the execution of his father, neither the future author of the book, nor his family deprived either the Kremlin clinic, or the so-called "canteen of medical food", which was usually called a "feeding trough", or cars from the government garage - "Lincolns", "Mercedes", after war - "ZIS-110". We lived in a famous building on the embankment, a five-room apartment, about a hundred square meters, Vladimir Alliluyev recalls with pleasure. We spent the summer at the Stalinist dacha. In graduate school, he was arranged by the adjutant of Vasily Iosifovich Stalin, who popularly explained to the rector of Moscow State University who would be his student.

Stalin left the author without a father, but in return gave an unforgettable feeling of belonging to a great man. If there is a hero in the book, it is Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin. Alliluyev does not even notice how strange this phrase sounds: “After the death of my father, after the war, my mother and I also liked to be in theaters. At the Bolshoi Theater, I remember, they sat in a Stalinist box. "

Well, for such a son you can make peace with you!

The father of this wonderful son has already been shot ...

“Most of all Stalin then paid attention to us, the children, asked about many things, joked, teased. At supper all the time he tossed pieces of cookies, orange peels on my plate. We laughed, squealed with delight. "

The first memoirs about the "Kremlin" childhood were written by Svetlana Iosifovna Alliluyeva. Perhaps her literary experience to this day remains the most successful: the book was frank and serious. True, in our country more success fell to the share of a later book written by Sergei Nikitovich Khrushchev about his father - thanks to a skillfully twisted, almost detective plot.

Khrushchev Jr. laid the foundation for a literature of excuses when the "Kremlin" children undertook to defend the honor of their fathers. Andrei Georgievich Malenkov in the book "About my father Georgy Malenkov" assures that Georgy Maximilianovich Malenkov had nothing to do with repressions, on the contrary, he tried to stop Beria.

Sergo Lavrentievich Beria, who after the execution of his father had to bear his mother's surname, in the book "My Father Lavrentiy Beria" also expresses confidence that his father did nothing but save people.

The desire to ignore the sins of the fathers is humanly understandable. But the book by Vladimir Alliluyev is perhaps the first, written in defense not of the murdered father, but of the one who allowed him to be killed.

SOVIET POWERS OF WAR

Mistrust in the Red Army men who were captured by the enemy formed during Finnish war 1939-1940. After the end of hostilities, the Finns returned 5.5 thousand prisoners. All were tried and sent to the camp.

In 1941, 2 million soldiers and officers of the Red Army were taken prisoner, in 1942 - 1,300 thousand, in 1943 almost half a million and in 1944 - 200 thousand. Of these, about 40 percent survived.

In addition, in the fall of 1941, the German authorities began to export the able-bodied population of the occupied territories to Germany. During the war years, 5 million people were taken out. Of these, about 250 thousand are ethnic Germans who wished to return to their historical homeland.

On June 28, 1941, a joint order was issued by the NKGB, NKVD and the Prosecutor of the USSR "On the procedure for bringing traitors to the Motherland and their families to justice."

Captivity was viewed as a deliberate crime. Those who were captured were tried for treason. Soldiers who were breaking out of the encirclement were greeted as potential traitors.

During the war years, military tribunals convicted about a million servicemen, of whom 157,000 were shot, that is, 15 divisions were destroyed themselves. These were mainly soldiers and officers who came out of the encirclement or escaped from captivity.

On December 27, 1941, the State Defense Committee issued a decree on checking and filtering "former Red Army servicemen." The next day, order No. 001735 of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs Beria "On the creation of special camps for former Red Army servicemen who were in captivity and surrounded by the enemy" appeared, ordering to identify among them "traitors to the Motherland, spies and saboteurs."

Moreover, the captured Red Army men were dealt with by the NKVD department for prisoners of war and internees, that is, they were treated like soldiers of the enemy army. In 1943, the filtration camps were transferred to the GULAG.

Since 1944, the officers released from captivity or released from the encirclement began to be sent as privates to the assault battalions.

After being wounded or awarded with an order, they were returned to the officer rank, but few managed to stay alive in the assault battalions. They were thrown into the attack on the most disastrous directions. 25 thousand officers passed through the assault battalions. This number would be enough to form the officer corps of 22 divisions.

In August 1944, the State Defense Committee decided to create a network of check-filtration points for those returning from Germany. While the prisoners and those taken to work in Germany were checked, they were used in the most difficult jobs.

Pavel Vasilyevich Chistov, who served in the state security bodies since 1923, during the years of Yezhov's purge headed the regional administration in Chelyabinsk, then in Donetsk, received the rank of major of state security, the Order of Lenin and was elected a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, immediately after the start of the war he was appointed deputy chief Main Directorate for the construction of defensive structures.

At the end of August 1941, he was assigned to supervise the construction of defensive structures on the Southwestern Front.

On September 3, when Chistov drove to the city of Konotop, German tanks suddenly appeared at his car. He was wounded and taken prisoner. Chistov himself later said that the Germans tore off the Order of Lenin and the "Badge of Honor" and a belt with a revolver from him. He tore off the badge of the deputy of the Supreme Soviet and threw it away. The German captain who interrogated him did not understand Soviet realities well and returned his party card to him with the words:

Let your personal document be with you for now.

Chistov immediately destroyed his party membership card. He introduced himself as a major in the Red Army, an engineer by profession, so he was sent to a regular camp. But in the newspaper Novoye Slovo, which was published in Berlin, it was written that Chistov during interrogations told everything he knew about the construction of defensive institutions. He was in a camp in East Prussia, where the Germans made him the leader of a team to build barracks, a bathhouse and a laundry.

In December 1943 he was arrested by the Gestapo for anti-fascist agitation and sent to the Stugof concentration camp, and in the summer of 1944 to the Mauthausen extermination camp. He survived, he was freed by the Americans and handed over to the Soviet troops.

For a whole year, from July 1945 to September 1946, he was held in the Podolsk testing and filtration camp. Investigators came to the following conclusion: "In the camp he behaved passively in relation to underground work and only in 1945, shortly before liberation, did he join the underground." A special meeting of the MGB sentenced him to fifteen years in the camps. After Stalin's death, in 1955 he was released ahead of schedule.

After the victory, on August 18, 1945, a resolution of the State Defense Committee was adopted "On the assignment of Red Army servicemen released from German captivity and repatriates of draft age to work in industry." This is how workers appeared in the Pechora coal basin, at the Norilsk and Ukhta combines of the NKVD.

On October 22, 1945, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a secret resolution "On the deprivation of officer ranks of persons who served in the German army, special German formations of" Vlasov "and the police. The camps were waiting for these people - regardless of whether they really committed some crime or just tried to survive in German captivity ...

GERMANS AND JAPANESE

In the NKVD camps for prisoners of war, there were 1,600 thousand German prisoners of war and 600 thousand Japanese.

They were handled by the Main Directorate for Prisoners of War and Internees of the NKVD, created on September 19, 1939 for captured Polish soldiers and officers.

The war with Japan was very short-lived, but almost completely the Kwantung Army, located in the north of China, was captured.

The August 1945 campaign was swift and secured Stalin's military bases in China, control of northern part The Korean Peninsula, the return of South Sakhalin, the receipt of the Kuril Islands and free access to the open ocean for Soviet warships.

Soviet tank wedges rapidly cut through the Kwantung Army, and the Japanese were surrounded. The retreating also had nowhere to go: their homeland remained across the sea, and the Japanese fleet had already ceased to exist.

The Japanese were also captured by the Anglo-Americans, who fought with the imperial army for four years, but after the signing of Japan's surrender, they began to be returned home. By the end of 1947, everyone had returned. Except for those who ended up in Siberia.

The same thing that awaited them with us can be judged by the fate of one of them, a prisoner of war Shigeo Yanagawa.

On December 10, 1948, at five o'clock in the evening, an accident happened to him: he was covered with earth. When Yanagawa was dug up, he was unconscious.

In case history No. 143, the camp doctor wrote down the diagnosis: chest contusion. A day later, Shigeo Yanagawa was operated on. The ribs were resected, the phlegmon was opened: Yanagawa was diagnosed with purulent left-sided pleurisy and myocarditis.

On January 15, as follows from his personal file, "an autopsy of the Japanese Yanagawa Shigeo, who came from the 117 camp," was carried out. There were no complaints about the surgeons.

January 16 inspector for personnel records of the branch of the hospital No. 1339, deputy head of the branch for protection and regime and head; material support services drew up an act: "The corpse of Shigeo Yanagawa is buried in square No. 1, grave No. 4. An identification mark is placed on the grave - a column with a plaque, the inscription on the plate is made with indelible paint."

In the instructions for the paint can, this oily liquid was really called "indelible", but sleet and rain quickly washed off the face of the earth the last mention of a peasant's son from distant Japan.

However, the standard post, set by the usual deathly hands of a soldier of the hospital funeral team, did not rise for long. Thus, Shigeo Yanagawa's parents were forever deprived of the opportunity to find out not only when and under what circumstances their son died, but also to find his grave.

There are more than 60 thousand such graves in Siberia and the Far East. In 1959, the Soviet authorities transferred to the Japanese government data on only 4 thousand dead prisoners, although the fate of each of the sixty-odd thousand is known: for all, without a single exception, personal files were opened, kept in the Main Directorate for Prisoners of War and Internees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs ...

Shigeo Yanagawa was born in the village, did not graduate from school, worked, in 1945 he was called up to military service... He ended up in the Kwantung Army, where he served as a clerk in a separate communications battalion ...

The senior inspector of the camp administration, Lieutenant Burov, who interrogated him, did not hesitate with a verbal portrait: height 165 centimeters, black hair, brown eyes, a flattened nose, a wide face, typically Japanese ...

Yanagawa was one of many young Japanese who became prisoners of war in the August days of 1945. A battalion clerk, he was not one of the war criminals whom the victors decided to roughly punish. Why didn't he and sixty thousand other Japanese return home immediately after Japan's surrender?

The documents that record the point of view of Stalin and his inner circle on this matter are unknown. It can be assumed that Stalin considered the prisoners to be a kind of hostages - a trump card in the preparation of a peace treaty with Japan. Or was he really afraid that the Americans would arm them again and move against the Soviet Union?

The prisoners were used on heavy physical work- in mines, logging, construction, road construction. This labor in Moscow was probably considered a form of compensation for the losses suffered in the war.

During the first three months of 1946, the deputy chief of the Main Directorate for Prisoners of War and Internees of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs, Lieutenant General Petrov, made a large trip to the camps of Siberia and the Far East. What picture did he paint in his multi-page report?

Prisoners of war were delivered to almost a bare place. The authorities decided that the prisoners would build their own homes, but did not give them any funds or materials. The prisoners of war were left for the winter in huts, tents and barracks not adapted for habitation. Due to the lack of rail and road transport, prisoners were driven from Manchuria and Korea on foot. After a two-thousand-kilometer difficult transition, they were put to work in the mines or led to the felling.

The first winter was the hardest. In the absence of warm clothing, with the unsuitability of summer Japanese uniforms and the unsuitability of the Japanese themselves to such cold weather, many fell ill and died. The hospitals were just starting to unfold, the patients went to the doctors not when they got sick, but when the bed was vacated.

Those who dealt with the captured Japanese remembered first of all their efficiency and discipline. If political instructors-educators tried to drive a wedge between Japanese soldiers and officers, then business executives, on the contrary, willingly took advantage of the Japanese soldier's habit of obeying the elder. But the work of the prisoners of war was not effective. Secret calculations of economists show that the camps were unprofitable. The war-torn Soviet Union simply could not afford to keep so many Japanese prisoners.

Prisoner camps were not part of the GULAG. They treated the Japanese, as well as the captured Germans, Italians and others, much better than the Soviet prisoners.

Unlike their colleagues from the GULAG, the staff of the Main Directorate for Prisoners of War Affairs did not specifically kill their prisoners. Another thing is that living standards in the Soviet Union were so low that prisoners died from hard work, cold, and malnutrition. And the very concept of "the value of human life" did not exist.

Nevertheless, the order of the Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR Sergei Kruglov on measures to prevent escapes specifically stated: “The use of weapons against prisoners of war under all circumstances is an extreme measure, and it should be resorted to when all other measures of influence have proved ineffective. In all cases of the use of weapons to carry out a special investigation of the correctness and necessity of its use. "

Nutritional norms were endlessly differentiated - this was the school of the GULAG: to act on the prisoners through the stomach. Privates, officers, generals, dystrophics and the sick, students of anti-fascist schools, who refused to work and were under investigation - each received his own quota, depending on which group of prisoners of war he was assigned to. In 1948, there were ten such norms.

By the standards of the post-war hungry life in the Soviet Union, the norms seemed tolerable (however, of course, only a fraction of what was supposed to be in the norm got into the camp bowl). But this is little consolation for the Japanese soldiers, who have been starving and freezing in Siberia for several years.

It was easier for those who made contact with the Chekists and political officers. Political educators, with the help of translators and propaganda literature in Japanese published in Moscow, had to fulfill their task, which was to "ensure a steady increase in the number of prisoners of war - active supporters of the democratic transformation of their country and strengthening of friendly relations with the USSR."

Schools of anti-fascist activists and amateur performances appeared. Those who mastered Marxism were encouraged to increase the food ration and were sent for 10-12 days to the so-called rest rooms, where the prisoners were given clean linen, pajamas and decent food.

Window dressing flourished in the camps. At the direction of the propaganda officers, the prisoners demonstrated their "reforging" and loyalty to the ideas of Marxism. Photo albums were compiled, where the same photographs were placed: prisoners in the dining room, in the hairdresser, at the dentist's office, during sports. The photographs were accompanied by words about the happy life of the prisoners and oaths of loyalty to Stalin.

The propagandists' expectations did not come true. Even those who were listed in the anti-fascist asset, rather skillfully pretended to try to survive, than take seriously what they were told about the benefits of socialism.

On May 24, 1950, Minister of Internal Affairs Kruglov reported to Stalin, Molotov, Beria, Malenkov, Mikoyan, Kaganovich, Bulganin "on the results of work with prisoners of war and internees in terms of their maintenance, labor use, political and operational work among them and about repatriation":

Since 1945, the massive use of the labor of prisoners of war in the national economy of the USSR began ... A significant number of them were employed in work in the coal industry of the USSR in coal mining, construction and restoration of mines, as well as in the construction of new heavy industry enterprises - the Vladimir Tractor Plant, Chelyabinsk and Transcaucasian metallurgical plants, Amurstal plant ...

The prisoners of war took part in the construction of the Baikal-Amur railway and in the reconstruction and restoration of asphalt-concrete roads in different regions of the USSR. In the construction of a number of hydroelectric power plants, including Sevan, Mingechaur, Dzaudzhikausskaya, Farhad, Sochi, Kurakovskaya and others, prisoners of war accounted for 40 to 90 percent of the total number of workers employed at these construction sites ...

As a result of undercover investigative measures carried out among prisoners of war and internees, 6136 agents and informants of the enemy from among the citizens of the USSR were identified, of which 1554 people were identified and materials on them were transferred to the bodies of the Ministry of State Security of the USSR. Among the prisoners of war, 983 Soviet citizens were identified and convicted - traitors to the Motherland, who served in the Nazi army and, during captivity, pretended to be German citizens.

Interrogations of prisoners of war - former employees of the German intelligence agencies - revealed 819 agents from among citizens of the countries of people's democracies. The authorities of the interested People's Democracies were informed about this agency through the USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs ...

We also obtained data on 553 large German foreign agents, including 18 in the United States, 20 in England, 27 in France, 21 in Yugoslavia, 41 in Turkey, 27 in Spain, 10 in Belgium, 84 in other capitalist countries, 186 in people's democracies, in Russians, Armenian and Georgian White émigré circles 78, among religious leaders different countries 41. Materials about this agency were transferred to the Information Committee and the Ministry of State Security.

The organs of the Ministry of Internal Affairs selected 986 people from among the agents recruited among prisoners of war and internees, promising in terms of their connections and capabilities in Germany and other countries. These agents were transferred to the Information Committee, the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the Soviet Army, the Naval General Staff and the Ministry of State Security ... "

On April 22, 1950, TASS reported on the repatriation of Japanese prisoners of war. And on May 5, about the final repatriation of German prisoners of war.

The Main Directorate for Prisoners of War and Internees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs also included the Operations Directorate. It was headed by the former resident of the Soviet military intelligence in Berlin, the third rank state security commissar (then lieutenant general) Amayak Zakharovich Kobulov.

In 1945 and early 1946, the operational apparatus in the camps dealt with captured gendarmes, police officers, and Japanese intelligence officers. The task was not so much to punish them as war criminals, but to find out whether the Japanese had agents on the territory of the Soviet Union.

It was quickly established that Japanese intelligence could not boast of any success in penetrating Soviet secrets, so Kobulov's operatives two and a half years after the end of the war received a new instruction: to create their own agents among the prisoners.

Former officers of the German and Japanese army, who became informants of the NKVD in the camps, tried to recruit them to work for Soviet intelligence after returning to their homeland. The officers, ready for anything to survive and return to their homeland, agreed.

At the end of the 1950s, Soviet intelligence stations in Germany and Japan were instructed to meet with several dozen of them. We chose the most promising. The results were dire. Some refused to meet at all. Others went to the police. It was already pointless to blackmail them with their information in the Soviet camp with the obligation to work for the NKVD.

AMNESTY WAS INEVITABLE

On the occasion of the victory in the war, an amnesty was declared. By the decree of July 7, 1945, 300 thousand prisoners were released. Since 1947, some indulgences began in the camps: they were allowed to receive food parcels, for Good work began to be released ahead of schedule. But at the same time, under the personal leadership of Stalin, the criminal legislation was tightened, as a result, the number of convicts grew. There was a lot of work for them.

The gulag continued to expand.

How did this happen? The government, for example, made a decision on measures to provide assistance to the mica industry, and immediately the Main Directorate for the extraction and processing of mica was created - the Glavslyud of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Or a decree was adopted to increase the extraction and production of asbestos, and the Main Directorate of Forced Labor Camps of the Asbestos Industry was immediately organized - Glavasbest of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

The government decree on the development of geological exploration was accompanied by a directive on the creation of the Geological Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs.

In January 1948, Minister of State Security Abakumov and Minister of Internal Affairs Kruglov presented to Stalin a plan for organizing prisons and camps for holding especially dangerous state criminals for a total of 100 thousand people. It was decided not to release those whose sentences were ending, but to send them into exile in Siberia and Kazakhstan.

The Ministry of State Security worked with full effort: big trials were being prepared, mass plantings, there might not be enough space behind the barbed wire ...

On February 1, 1948, a resolution of the Council of Ministers appeared on the construction of camps for 180 thousand people. It turned out to be insufficient.

On February 21, the Council of Ministers adopted a resolution "On the organization of camps and prisons for the detention of especially dangerous categories of criminals." Especially dangerous were spies, saboteurs, nationalists, white emigres, Trotskyists, Mensheviks, anarchists, Socialist-Revolutionaries, as well as former prisoners of war and civilian repatriates.

On March 5, 1950, Kruglov wrote a memo to Stalin with a request to increase the capacity of the camps to 250 thousand people. Kruglov created special camps in the Komi ASSR, in Vorkuta, in the Norilsk region, in Mordovia, near Karaganda, in the Kemerovo and Pavlodar regions and in Kolyma. Special prisons, by order of Kruglov, were built in Vladimir, in the Irkutsk region and in Verkhneuralsk.

Ordinary forced labor camps were for those sentenced to criminal charges. Politicians sat in special camps, were used mainly in hard work. Here, instead of wooden fences, there was barbed wire. The prisoners wore numbers on their backs. There are bars on the windows of the barracks. The doors of the barracks were locked at night.

In 1954, special camps of the Ministry of Internal Affairs were transformed into correctional labor camps, prisoners' numbers were removed from their clothes, and when contacting the staff of the camp administration, they could give their last name, and not the number, as described by Solzhenitsyn in One Day of Ivan Denisovich.

In 1949, Kruglov received the Order of Lenin for his participation in the creation nuclear weapons... The Ninth Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which dealt with atomic affairs, was subordinate to him. His deputy, Artemy Zavenyagin, was fully occupied with the atomic project.

At the 19th Party Congress, Kruglov was elected a member of the Central Committee.

He remained the Minister of the Interior until March 5, 1953. On this day, Beria subordinated all special services to himself. Kruglov again became his first deputy - this time one of three, together with Serov and Kobulov.

During the second coming of Beria, Kruglov did not show himself in any particular way. He was a reliable serviceman, Beria relied on him, but did not devote himself to his main plans. Beria instructed Kruglov to head a group to check the cases of former security officers arrested under Ignatiev. Several generals were dismissed and immediately appointed to high positions in the Ministry of the Interior.

Beria managed to get rid of the Gulag and hand it over to the Ministry of Justice. After his arrest, the decision was revised, and by decree of the Council of Ministers of January 21, 1954, the camp system returned to the Ministry of the Interior. Kruglov got his GULAG back.

At the time of Beria's arrest, Sergei Nikiforovich behaved very loyally to the new government, immediately reported his loyalty to Khrushchev and Malenkov. He was made a minister. There was not much to choose from.

The first deputies were appointed personally known to Khrushchev Ivan Aleksandrovich Serov and Secretary of the Central Committee Nikolai Nikolaevich Shatalin - Malenkov's man. Shatalin was like a commissar, he was sitting in the building of the Central Committee on Staraya Square, but without him not a single issue was resolved. Perhaps, it was assumed that Shatalin, having settled a little at the Lubyanka, would quickly become a minister from the first deputies. But Khrushchev's plans changed, and Shatalin did not actually start working in the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

From the Lubyanka, they removed those whom Beria managed to place in key positions, and returned the people of Ignatiev, whom Beria had dispersed. They demanded to cancel Beria's decision to terminate the "case of doctors" and other political developments, insisted that all those released after March 5 should be arrested again. The state security apparatus was sure that with the arrest of Beria, everything would return to normal.

These sentiments were known and worried about the new leadership of the country. Therefore, 4 thousand people were dismissed from the Ministry of Internal Affairs - in accordance with a note prepared by the department of administrative bodies of the Central Committee "On work to eradicate the consequences of Beria's enemy activities."

People came from outside the party apparatus and the armed forces. The heads of the sectors of the department of administrative bodies of the Central Committee of the CPSU were appointed deputy minister for personnel and head of the personnel department. Kruglov was ordered to downsize staff and simplify the structure by merging departments.

ACCIDENT OR SUICIDE?

For only six months, Kruglov held in his hands all the special services, which Beria had pulled together into one fist. The new leadership of the country has not lost interest in these bodies.

After the execution of Beria in 1953, Khrushchev signed a decree of the Central Committee on the creation of the 12th special department under the Second Main Directorate (foreign intelligence) of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs to carry out sabotage at important military strategic facilities and communications of the United States, England and other hostile capitalist countries and acts of terror against the most active enemies of the Soviet regime.

Among such enemies were the leaders of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, starting with Stepan Bandera, and the emigrant National Labor Union. Operational officers were trained to destroy them. One of them, Captain Khokhlov, will be sent to West Germany, where one of the leaders of the NTS Georgy Sergeevich Okolovich lived in Frankfurt am Main. Khokhlova was commanded by Kruglov, and this story will thunder already under Serov, the first chairman of the KGB ...

Almost immediately, in the fall of 1953, an idea arose in the Kremlin that such a monster as the Ministry of Internal Affairs should be shattered. And Kruglov was not the right person to be entrusted with intelligence, counterintelligence, control over the army, and government protection. Only a particularly trusted person is held in such a post.

Various projects were proposed, and as a result, on February 10, 1954, the Presidium of the Central Committee adopted a proposal to create a State Security Committee under the USSR Council of Ministers and to transfer all operational units to it. Colonel-General Ivan Aleksandrovich Serov, first deputy of Kruglov, was appointed chairman of the KGB.

Kruglov was left with the police, fire brigade, border and internal troops.

The "GULAG Archipelago" will collapse in 1956, when the administration itself will be called more decently. But in fact, the camps have been relentlessly vacated since 1953.

The wide amnesty carried out by Beria was of great socio-economic importance, since it reduced the base of the slave system of forced labor. After Beria's arrest, the release of the prisoners continued. This was inevitable, says Professor Vladimir Pavlovich Naumov. And not only for reasons of humanity and justice.

In the early 1950s, Soviet society was on the eve of a social explosion. The patience of millions of people was at the limit. The death of the deified leader eased the fear of the state and raised hopes for a better life. Unrest in the camps began during Stalin's lifetime. In March 1946 prison riots broke out in Kolyma, Komi and Kazakhstan. And since March 1953, their number has increased. The uprisings were suppressed with the use of heavy military equipment, tanks, artillery.

There were so many prisoners that if they had risen, they would have dared the guards of the camp and arranged God knows what. And near the camps lived yesterday's convicts, recently released - either they were not allowed to return home, or they met a woman, got married. A critical mass emerged, dangerous for the authorities. Virtually all large industrial cities were surrounded by prison camps and ex-prisoners, which the industry could not do without. If they rose, they would crush any power.

Don't you overestimate this prospect now? - I asked Professor Naumov. - For decades they kept the country in a steel corset, and suddenly you say that they could all rebel ...

You can keep the country in fear for ten years, twenty, but not always. Stalin was perceived as a supreme being who foresees everything, knows everything. And when other persons appeared in this place, the magic of the supreme power was dispelled. They looked at the new leaders without reverence and thought: "Ha, so I can do it." The fear that fettered the country disappeared.

The Beria amnesty was an attempt to defuse the situation, relieve tension, but the attempt was unsuccessful. They freed the shantrapa, petty criminals who did not know where to go, and therefore a wave of robberies and thefts swept across the country. And those who had long awaited freedom remained in prison, and therefore uprisings began, in which former prisoners of war participated, that is, people who know how to hold weapons in their hands. When they saw that they were bypassed, this further increased the desire to free themselves at any cost ...

The decree of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of October 25, 1956 provided for the liberalization of the system of keeping persons sent to places of imprisonment, shorter terms of imprisonment, more decent conditions of detention, a stake on upbringing, and the separation of prisoners depending on the degree of social danger.

But this has already happened without Kruglov. He ceased to be a minister. Khrushchev was gradually getting rid of the old cadres. People from the Beria NKVD in ministerial posts only compromised him.

He was preparing for the XX Congress. Documents about Stalinist repressions were non-stop put on his table. The name of Kruglov flashed there. And there were also other names of no less noticeable people who retained high positions. Nikita Sergeevich, as a politician, made a cynical choice: he left those who were still needed, and parted with the rest. Kruglov could not boast of a personal relationship with the first secretary of the CPSU Central Committee.

In place of Kruglov, Khrushchev, as Stalin did in similar cases, looked after a party official - head of the construction department of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Nikolai Pavlovich Dudorov.

After ten years of work, in January 1956, Kruglov, having handed over the cases, left the Ministry of the Interior for good. Everything went quietly and imperceptibly.

Professor Nekrasov:

His dismissal took place, I would say, in stages. Not that they immediately chopped off "does not correspond" and fired; he was released relatively gently, although they gave it an extraordinary character: a commission was created to transfer affairs from one minister to another. There was no such thing before. Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev, wishing to free himself from this encavadist bone, decided to arrange an exemplary process of removing Kruglov from office.

Averky Borisovich Aristov, secretary of the Central Committee, headed this commission. Seven subcommissions checked the work of the ministry in different directions ...

Having removed from the post of minister, Kruglov was appointed deputy minister of construction of power plants. But he did not work there for long. The next year he was sent from Moscow as deputy chairman of the economic council to Kirov.

Kruglov became ill, received a disability in 1958, quit his job, and applied for a pension in the summer. For a long time he was not allowed to return to Moscow to his family. He has already come under the gun of the Party Control Committee under the Central Committee of the CPSU, which, on behalf of Khrushchev, considered the cases of former leading employees of the NKVD Ministry of Internal Affairs.

In 1959, he was deprived of his general's pension and was evicted from a large apartment. At first he received sixty rubles in the social security, then forty in general, he became beggars. A year later, on January 6, 1960, he was expelled from the party. The note from the Party Control Committee said:

“Kruglov, being Beria's deputy for a long time, showed himself as a person personally loyal to Beria, grossly violated socialist legality.

Engaged in the evictions of Chechens and Ingush in 1944, he committed arbitrariness in relation to the evicted, used the execution of innocent people, sick old people and women with children.

He deceived the party and the government, reporting on the complete order with the resettlement of the Chechens and Ingush and on the supposedly good conditions created for the resettlers to their new place of residence in the republics of Central Asia. At the direction of Malenkov, he took Active participation in the creation of the so-called "special prison" for leading party and Soviet workers. "

Kruglov asked not to expel him from the party, wrote to the Central Committee: “I took part in the creation of the defense industry, the nuclear industry, please take this into account when considering the question of my party membership. Please send me to the construction of the Bratsk hydroelectric power station. " But his fate was sealed. Once upon a time he also disposed of the lives of other people ...

There were rumors that Kruglov had shot himself. In fact, on June 6, 1977, a former minister, at that time a sick pensioner, while outside the city, was hit by a train and died tragically.

Professor Nekrasov:

And it is not yet known whether he himself was hit by a train, or pushed him. Different versions were ...

10 years at the head of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs

2007 marks the 100th anniversary of his birth and 30 years since the tragic death of Sergei Nikiforovich Kruglov, who was prominent in Soviet times statesman, who held important leadership positions, including for ten years headed the People's Commissariat-Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR. At the same time, the name of Colonel General Kruglov S.N. it is rather little familiar to the general public, since, on the one hand, due to his personal modesty, Sergei Nikiforovich never sought popularity. On the other hand, after it was removed at the whim of Khrushchev N.S. From the post of Minister of Internal Affairs, unjustified deprivation of pension from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and expulsion from the ranks of the Communist Party, this former leading employee, who became disabled at the age of fifty due to excessive, long-term workloads, was practically forgotten. However, it seems interesting to know that it was Colonel-General Kruglov S.N., when he was the People's Commissar-Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR, that full responsibility for the implementation of many Stalinist plans for post-war construction in the most difficult geographical and difficult climatic conditions of industrial enterprises fell, mines for the extraction of minerals, railways and highways, hydraulic structures and water canals, nuclear facilities, residential buildings and buildings for scientific and educational institutions. Everywhere then applied forced labor millions of prisoners and special settlers who were under the jurisdiction of the NKVD-MVD. Not Kruglov S.N. created in the Soviet Union this system of "productive forces of socialism", but, by the will of circumstances, being at the head of the department that carried out numerous construction projects, he applied all his organizational skills, all his skill to achieve the greatest efficiency of the work of this sector of the Soviet economy. It is regrettable that due to the unfair, deliberately biased attitude on the part of the top "Khrushchev-Brezhnev" leadership towards S.N. (and to many of our other talented people) the enormous intellectual potential of this outstanding personality was not fully used to solve the most important state problems.

Kruglov S.N. was born on October 2 (new style), 1907 in the village of Ustye, Zubtsovsky district, Tver province, in the family of a poor peasant. In 1909, due to the inability to feed on their own piece of land, the family moved to St. Petersburg, where father Nikifor Yakovlevich went to work at the plant as a hammer. Here, in 1914, Sergei began to study at school. However, due to the outbreak of famine caused by the events of the First World War, the mother of the family, Lyubov Ignatievna, together with her two sons (Vasily was born in 1912), returned to their native village. Now Sergey worked as a help in various villages and continued his studies at the United Labor school first the 1st and then the 2nd stage. During this period, his social and labor activities began. The minor was elected chairman of the Council of the Poor, at the age of 16 he joined the Komsomol. In 1924, Sergei Kruglov became a member and then chairman of the Nikiforovsky District Village Council of the Pogorel Volost, Tver Province. In 1925 he was sent to the head of the hut-reading room in the village of Pogoreloe-Gorodishche. From the next year he worked as a mechanic, then as a tractor driver at the Vakhnovo state farm in the Pogorel volost. In 1926 he was elected a delegate to the XV and XVI volost congresses of the Soviets of the Pogorel volost. In 1928 he became a member of the board, and then chairman of the United Consumer Society "Constellation", became a member of the CPSU (b). In 1929 he was drafted into the army, and he served mainly in the 3rd tank regiment of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army (RKKA). A year later, after demobilization, at the party call, he went with his colleagues to the Toguzak station of the Kustanai region of Kazakhstan, where he worked as an instructor-mechanic at the Educational Experimental Grain State Farm No. 2. In all cases, he carried out extensive party work.

In 1931, Kruglov S.N. was sent to study at the Moscow Industrial Pedagogical Institute named after K. Liebknecht. In accordance with the decisions of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b), in 1934 he was transferred to the Japanese department of the special sector of the Institute of Oriental Studies, and from 1935 he was sent to the eastern department of the Institute of Red Professors. During the years of study, student S.N. Kruglov. continued to actively engage in party affairs.

In 1934, Sergei Nikiforovich married Taisiya Dmitrievna Ostapova. In 1935 they had a daughter, Irina, and in 1937, a son, Valery.

In October 1937, despite the fact that Kruglov S.N. has not yet completed his studies, he was appointed responsible organizer of the Department of Party Leading Bodies (ORPO) of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b). At the end of 1938, he was sent to the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs as a special commissioner of the NKVD of the USSR, and he was assigned special title"Senior major of state security." In February 1939, he was appointed to the post of Deputy People's Commissar of Internal Affairs for personnel and at the same time became the head of the personnel department of the NKVD of the USSR. Six months later, he was given the special title "State Security Commissioner III rank." In October 1939, at the 18th Party Congress, the communist S.N. Kruglov. was elected a candidate member of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b). In April 1940, among a large group of employees of the internal affairs bodies, he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner "for the successful fulfillment of the government's assignment for the protection of state security."

On February 25, 1941, during the division of the people's commissariats of internal affairs and state security, Kruglov S.N. was appointed to the post of first deputy commissar of internal affairs of the USSR. Immediately after the start of the war, he was inducted into the Evacuation Council under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. On July 5, 1941, he was appointed a member of the Military Council of the Front of the Reserve Armies, in which he took part in the hostilities. When the NKVD and the NKGB were merged, he remained the Deputy People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR. After the inclusion of the Reserve Front in the Western Front under the command of Zhukov G.K. became a member of the Military Council of the Western Front. In October 1941, he was appointed head of the 4th Directorate of the Main Directorate of Defense Work (GUOBR) of the NKVD of the USSR and at the same time - the commander of the 4th Sapper Army. After the defeat of the German troops near Moscow, Kruglov S.N. was recalled from the active army to the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs and took up his direct duties. Now the work was aimed mainly at combating the enemy's parachute assault forces and at identifying the agents abandoned in our rear.

In February 1942, Kruglova S.N. awarded the badge "Honored Worker of the NKVD" and the Order of the Red Star "for the construction of fortified borders." A year later, he was awarded the title of "State Security Commissioner of the II rank". On April 26, 1943, with the next separation of the NKGB from the NKVD, he was again appointed first deputy People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR. In September 1943, among a large group of employees of the internal affairs and state security agencies, he was awarded the Order of Lenin "for the exemplary fulfillment of government assignments during the Patriotic War."

In February-March 1944, Kruglov S.N. took part in the operation to evict Chechens from the North Caucasus to Kazakhstan, for which, among other performers of this action, he was awarded the Order of Suvorov I degree. Then he was sent to fight against armed underground nationalist organizations in Western Ukraine, then in Lithuania. "For exemplary performance in wartime" of this assignment received the Order of Kutuzov II degree. In the same year he was awarded the medals "For the Defense of Moscow" and "For the Defense of the Caucasus".

In January 1945, Kruglov S.N. entrusted with the responsible task of organizing the protection of "special-purpose objects" in the Crimea and providing all-round support to the participants of the conference of the heads of government of the USSR, USA and Great Britain, which had the code name "Argonaut". For the successful fulfillment of this government assignment, he was awarded the Order of Kutuzov, I degree. In April-May, he provided security for the head of the Soviet delegation, V.M. Molotov. during his stay at a conference in San Francisco (USA) dedicated to the creation of the United Nations (UN). After the end of the war he was awarded the medal "For Victory over Germany".

July 9, 1945 in connection with the introduction of the general army into the NKVD and NKGB military ranks Kruglov S.N. was awarded the rank of "Colonel General".

In July-August 1945, Kruglov S.N. provided security and service to the delegations of the three victorious powers at the Potsdam Conference. For the successful completion of this assignment, he was awarded the US Order of Merit (Commander's Degree) and the Excellent Order of the British Empire with the title of Knight Commander of this order. The Soviet government awarded him the Order of Lenin for the work done. In the same period, until October 1945, he was sent on business trips to the Soviet zone of occupation of Germany to resolve issues related to “ nuclear project". He was awarded the medal "For the victory over Japan".

December 29, 1945 Kruglova S.N. was appointed People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR. In March 1946, due to the renaming of the people's commissariats into ministries, he became the Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR. In the ensuing post-war period, in accordance with the grandiose Stalinist plans, the Ministry of Internal Affairs was entrusted, in addition to issues of maintaining public order, maintaining prisons, camps with prisoners and special settlements, with major tasks for the construction of various large facilities. Only in Moscow were the buildings of the Moscow state university on Vorobyovy Gory, the Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences (FIAN), the Hydrotechnical Laboratory of the Academy of Sciences, the Karpov Institute, Goznak on Mytnaya Street, the Central State Archives on Bolshaya Pirogovskaya Street, a high-rise building on Kotelnicheskaya Embankment and a number of residential houses.

The Main Directorate of Railway Construction Camps (GULZhDS) of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs continued the laying begun before the war Baikal-Amur Mainline(BAM), built the Naushki - Ulan Bator railway, put into operation the operating North Pechora railway, carried out the construction of the Chum - Salekhard - Cape Kamenny in the Gulf of Ob, which later, at the behest of I.V. Stalin, was turned towards the city of Igarka on the Yenisei River, prepared for the construction of a railway from Komsomolsk-on-Amur to Pobedino on Sakhalin Island with a tunnel under the Tatar Strait, carried out more than three dozen railways and seaports in Vanino and Naryan- Mare, a river port and a shipyard in the city of Pechora, the Osetrovsky river port on the Lena River, a refrigerator in the city of Salekhard, a naval base in the Yokanga Bay and other facilities.

The Main Directorate for the Construction of the Far North (Dalstroy) of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs carried out the extraction of gold, tin and other minerals in the regions of the Kolyma River and the Chukotka Peninsula, ranking first in the country in the supply of precious metal.

The Main Directorate of Industrial Construction (Glavpromstroy) of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs conducted more than a dozen construction projects for the nuclear industry located in Elektrostal, Dubna, Chelyabinsk, Sarov, Sverdlovsk, Berezniki, Chirchik and other "points". For the construction of nuclear facilities Kruglov S.N. twice, in 1949 and 1951 (after the successful tests of nuclear weapons), he was awarded the Order of Lenin.

The Main Directorate of Highways (GUSHOSDOR) of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs was engaged in the construction and reconstruction of highways, as well as the current repair of roads of Union significance. Among those built in the post-war years are the highways Kharkiv-Rostov-Dzaudzhikau with branches to the cities of Kramatorsk, Stalino, Makeevka, with a total length of 1660 km, Kharkiv-Poltava-Kiev with a length of 464 km, Moscow-Kharkiv-Simferopol with a length of 1399 km, Moscow-Ryazan -Penza-Kuibyshev with a length of 1020 km with a ferry crossing over the Volga, etc.

The Main Hydroconstruction Directorate (Glavgidrostroy) of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs was engaged in the construction of waterways, river and seaports, hydroelectric power plants and other facilities related to the use of hydro resources. As a top priority, this central administration was entrusted with the construction of the Northern Waterworks and the Kuryanovskaya Aeration Station for Moscow. In addition, the construction of the Stalingrad and Kuibyshev hydroelectric power plants, the Main Turkmen irrigation canal was carried out, work continued on the Volga-Baltic waterway, the Moskvoretsk water system, the Shirokovsk hydroelectric station and the Opoksky hydroelectric complex. But one of the greatest Stalinist construction projects was the construction of the Volga-Don waterway and the Tsimlyansk reservoir for watering arid lands in the Lower Don region. After the completion of these works, Kruglov S.N. among many builders was awarded the Order of Lenin.

It is even difficult to imagine that huge amount of the leading activity of the Minister of Internal Affairs S.N. Kruglov. on conducting so many construction projects throughout the territory of the Soviet Union, for which he was fully responsible and constantly reported to the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR I.V. and other leaders of the party and government. Kruglov S.N. visited the Kremlin's cabin of the leader. with reports more than twenty times.

After Stalin's demise, I.V. In March 1953, L.P. Beria became the Minister of the Joint Ministry of Internal Affairs and State Security, and S.N. Kruglova. was appointed one of his first deputies. The Ministry of Internal Affairs was relieved of construction functions. On June 26, 1953, after Beria's arrest, S.N. Kruglov was again appointed Minister of Internal Affairs. Now the Ministry of Internal Affairs was responsible for order in the country, protection state borders and conducting intelligence and counterintelligence. However, gradually the old economic functions began to return to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. In March 1954, the State Security Committee (KGB) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR was separated from the Ministry of Internal Affairs with the appropriate functions. Now the Ministry of Internal Affairs, whose head was SN Kruglov, again began to deal with the system of camps with prisoners and places of exile for special settlers, who were used to solve economic problems in industry and construction.

On January 31, 1956, by decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, S.N. the Minister of Internal Affairs was released from his duties, accusing him of the amnesty announced on his initiative was carried out incorrectly. However, during the transfer of affairs to the new minister, the Government Commission could not find serious shortcomings in the work of S.N. Kruglov. While retaining the rank of colonel-general, he was seconded to the Ministry of Construction of Power Plants of the USSR for the post of deputy minister.

In 1957, after the defeat of the "anti-party group" of Malenkov, Molotov and Kaganovich, NS Khrushchev, who gained political strength. began to disperse old cadres. During this period, Kruglov S.N. was dismissed from the authorities to the reserve, and he was assigned a pension from the Ministry of Internal Affairs for life. At the behest of Khrushchev N.S. he was sent "into exile" to the city of Kirov to the post of deputy chairman of the economic council. However, after some time, Sergei Nikiforovich, as a result of the previous hard work in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, has a sharp deterioration in his health, and after treatment he receives a second group of disability. Having quit his job at the insistence of doctors, Kruglov S.N. wants to return to Moscow, where his family lives, and the children study in higher educational institutions. N.S. Khrushchev, who received news of this. in a completely tactless manner accuses Kruglov S.N. in unwillingness to follow the instructions of the party and gives the order to collect incriminating material on the disgraced communist.

In accordance with the received directive, the Ministry of Internal Affairs accuses S.N. Kruglov. in a number of rather far-fetched "crimes" and deprives his former minister of pensions from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and medical care, and the Party Control Committee under the CPSU Central Committee on January 6, 1960 expelled him from the party "for gross violation of socialist legality during his work in the internal affairs bodies." Attempts by S.N. Kruglova apply to the Central Committee of the CPSU, personally to Khrushchev N.S. with a request to objectively understand his question had no success.

Thus, at the age of 52, the talented Soviet leader Sergei Nikiforovich Kruglov, who became disabled as a result of hard work in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, found himself "out of the game" and fell into "information oblivion", as a result of which the general public knows practically nothing about his multifaceted activities.

June 6, 1977 Kruglov S.N. for some unknown reason, in the area of ​​the Pravda station, where his family's dacha was located, he found himself on railway tracks and was "traumatized by the train," as a result of which he died. He was buried at the Novodevichy cemetery in the grave of his parents.

Born in the village of Ustye, Tver province, into a peasant family. Member of the CPSU (b) since December 1928. Until 1931 worked in agriculture as a shepherd, then a hut, a repair worker, a tractor driver of the "Vakhnovo" state farm. In 1924-1925, secretary and chairman of the Nikiforov village council (Tver province). In 1928-1929 he was a member of the board of the consumer society "Constellation" (Tver province). In 1929-1930 he served in the Red Army, junior auto mechanic. In 1930-1931, senior instructor-mechanic of the training and experimental grain farm (Kustanai region). In 1931-1934. - Student of the Moscow Industrial Pedagogical Institute named after K. Liebknecht. In 1935. student in the Japanese sector of the Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies. In 1935-1937. - a student of the Historical Institute of the Red Professors. Since October 1937. - Responsible organizer of the Department of Party Leading Bodies (ORPO) of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b).

Career in the NKVD and the Ministry of Internal Affairs

Enjoyed the patronage of Beria. After joining the USSR IS, LP Beria Kruglov in November 1938 was sent to the NKVD "for reinforcement."

In 1938, by decision of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), he was sent to work in the NKVD of the USSR. On December 20, 1938, he was specially authorized by the NKVD of the USSR (he was in charge of disciplinary persecution of employees of the NKVD itself); supervised the mass purges among the employees of the organs - Yezhov's nominees. From February 28, 1939, deputy. People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR for personnel and head of the personnel department of the NKVD. From 1939 a candidate, in 1952-1956 a member of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b). From February 26 to July 31, 1941 and from April 26, 1943 to December 29, 1945 1st deputy., July 31, 1941 - April 26, 1943 deputy. People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR. At the same time, the GULAG and the production departments of the NKVD were transferred to his jurisdiction. During the Great Patriotic War he was sent to the front to organize detachments and strengthen discipline in the army; in July - October 1941 he was a member of the Military Council of the Reserve Front. Supervised arrests and executions in the army. In October 1941, commander of the 4th sapper army and head of the 4th department of defensive work. In 1944-1945 he led the mass deportations of the population, incl. eviction of Chechens, Ingush, etc. (for which he received the 1st degree Order of Suvorov). These operations were accompanied by violence against the population, mass executions without trial (including children, women and the elderly). In 1944 he carried out a "cleansing of the OUN members" of the western regions of Ukraine. In 1950, on the instructions of Malenkov (with reference to Stalin), he organized a special prison in Matrosskaya Tishina for party and economic activists.

Kruglov also organized the security of the Soviet delegation at the Crimean and Potsdam conferences, for which he received the British Order of the Bath and an American medal. He spoke English.

On December 29, 1945, Kruglov was appointed People's Commissar (Minister) of Internal Affairs of the USSR instead of Beria. In 1946-1950 and 1954-1958 he was a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. In 1946, with the distribution of duties in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Main Directorate of the Militia remained under the personal subordination of Kruglov (bypassing the Deputy Minister). A special meeting. The secretariat of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Department of Special Assignments, the 4th Special Department (using the labor of prisoners with special technical knowledge - that is, "sharashka") and the Group of Control and Special Assignments. Later, responsibilities were constantly redistributed, but Kruglov always retained the leadership of the Special meeting, which carried out extrajudicial persecution, and the 4th special department. In 1948 he organized the deportation of the entire German population from the Kaliningrad region - East Prussia, annexed to the USSR after World War II - In the late 1940s - early 1950s. all operational divisions, internal troops, border guards, police, and the criminal investigation department were transferred from the Ministry of Internal Affairs to the Ministry of State Security. The Kruglovskoe Ministry of Internal Affairs became, in fact, a "ministry of camps."

Career after the death of I.V. Stalin

After the death of I.V. Stalin, when the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the MGB were united under the leadership of Beria, Kruglov was appointed 1st deputy on March 11, 1953. Minister of the Interior. After the arrest of Beria, Kruglov on June 26, 1953 again became a minister, remaining practically the only associate of Beria who retained his position. During this period, Kruglov directed the arrests or removal from office of the most odious figures of the NKVD, but it was only about a few dozen people. The entire punitive apparatus of the USSR was subordinate to Kruglov, only on March 13, 1954, the KGB of the USSR was separated from the Ministry of Internal Affairs. However, N.S. Khrushchev could not leave such power in the hands of Beria's former henchman, and on January 31, 1956, he was removed from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and transferred to the post of deputy. Minister of Construction of Power Plants of the USSR, especially since he had construction experience since in the GULAG, he was in charge of Glavpromstroy. In August 1957, Kruglov was again demoted to the chairman of the Kirov Soviet National economy, and in July 1958 he was dismissed on a disability pension.

Sunset

In 1959, Kruglov was deprived of his general's pension and evicted from an elite apartment, and on June 6, 1960, Kruglov was expelled from the party for "involvement in political repression." After that, he lived modestly. June 6, 1977 was hit by a train and died.

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Chapter 10 SERGEY NIKIFOROVICH KRUGLOV

SERGEY NIKIFOROVICH KRUGLOV

Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov recalls that on one of the summer days in 1953, the inhabitants of the secret facility where the nuclear weapon was being created saw that the plate with the inscription "Beria Street" had been removed. In its place, a cardboard was hung with the inscription "Kruglova Street".

Sergei Nikiforovich Krugloye was Minister of Internal Affairs for ten years: seven years under Stalin, three after him. In the last days of 1945, Krugloye replaced Beria as the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs.

On January 10, 1946, Beria and Krugloye signed an act of acceptance and delivery of cases on the NKVD of the USSR, where it was written: “On the basis of the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of December 29, 1945 on the release of L.P. Beria from the duties of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR and on the appointment SN Kruglov, People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR, received and handed over the affairs of the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR as of December 30, 1945. Marshal of the Soviet Union LP Beria handed over the cases, Colonel-General SN Krugloye took over the cases.

With his appearance in the main office of the punitive department, the era of campaigners began. Kruglov and the first chairman of the KGB, Ivan Aleksandrovich Serov, were neither politicians nor professional security officers. They ended up in the NKVD for party recruitment and served, in the army, strictly following all orders.

In a sense, they were lucky. They ended up in the NKVD when the wave of Yezhov's repressions ended and survived the subsequent purges. Both of them were Beria's deputies, but they did not belong to the circle of his devoted assistants and in 1953 did not follow him to the dock. But then they remembered their old sins anyway. Serov, as a person close to Khrushchev, suffered less, Krugloye more.

BERIUM CHANGE

Kruglov was born in 1907 in the Tver province in the family of a hammer-worker. At the age of fourteen he was hired as a shepherd, he studied at school for only a year and a half. At the age of seventeen he was hired as secretary of the Nikiforovsky village council, then made chairman of the village council. In the same place, in the village of Nikiforovka, he was also in charge of the hut-reading room. For three years he was a repair worker and a locksmith at the "Vakhnovo" state farm, then he was hired as a member of the board of the consumer society "Sozvezdie". Here he was accepted into the party.

At the end of 1929, Kruglov was drafted into the army. He served only a year, commanded a squad, then he was appointed an auto mechanic in a tank regiment. The specialty received in the army came in handy. Demobilized, he worked as a mechanical instructor at a training and experimental grain farm in the Kustanai region. Sergei Kruglov is the first head of the department after Menzhinsky to receive a full-fledged education. It means that he wanted to learn and was not without talent.

In November 1931 he was admitted to the Karl Liebknecht Industrial Pedagogical Institute in Moscow. An active student first became the secretary of the party cell of the faculty, and then the secretary of the party committee of the entire institute. True, this hardly helped him to learn. But in any case, he was noticed and in March 1934 he was enrolled as a student in a special Japanese sector of the Institute of Oriental Studies, where he studied for a little over a year. And finally, he ended up in such a respectable educational institution as the Institute of the Red Professors.

He could well have turned into a professional teacher. But in the party apparatus there were so many vacancies that he was not allowed to finish his studies: in 1937 he was hired into the apparatus of the Central Committee - the responsible organizer of the department of leading party personnel of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b). A year later, they were transferred to the NKVD - along with a whole group of party workers - to help the new People's Commissar Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria.

On December 20, 1938, on the day when the Chekists celebrate their professional holiday, Sergei Nikiforovich Kruglov was appointed a special commissioner of the NKVD of the USSR, responsible for investigating the cases of the employees of the People's Commissariat for misconduct.

Beria liked Kruglov, and two months later Sergei Nikiforovich was appointed deputy people's commissar and head of the personnel department of the NKVD. Kruglov became Deputy People's Commissar at only thirty-two years old! Careers were quick at that time.

After the division of the NKVD into two people's commissariats at the beginning of 1941, Beria made Kruglov his first deputy and handed over to him what he did not like to do himself: the GULAG and production and construction departments. Kruglov was little involved in operational work, this will save him in 1953.

After the merger of the NKVD and the NKGB in July 1941, Kruglov was appointed not the first, but a simple deputy of Beria, but he practically did not participate in the work. He is sent to the active army as a member of the military council of the Reserve, and then the Western Front. In October 1941, when German troops approached Moscow, he received command of the 4th Sapper Army and the 4th Directorate of the Main Directorate of Defense Construction of the NKVD. For participation in hostilities he received the Order of the Red Star in February 1942.

Another deputy of Beria, sent to the front, Ivan Ivanovich Maslennikov, went to the Red Army altogether, became a general and received the North Caucasian Front under his command. Kruglov remained in the NKVD.

On February 4, 1943, together with other deputies of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs, he received the title of State Security Commissioner of the second rank - this was equated to a colonel-general in the army hierarchy. Two months later, at the end of April, after another division of the NKVD, he was again appointed first deputy commissar of internal affairs.

On March 8, 1944, for carrying out operations to evict Karachais, Kalmyks, Chechens and Ingush to the eastern regions of the USSR, Kruglov was awarded the Order of Suvorov, I degree.

On October 20, 1944, Kruglov received the Order of Kutuzov, II degree, for “clearing the western regions of Ukraine from the OUN members”. The Order of Kutuzov I degree was awarded to him in 1945. These are all commander's orders, which were given at the front only for major military operations.

At the end of 1944, Kruglov was sent to Lithuania to carry out a major purge there. In the first months after the liberation of Lithuania, the NKVD - NKGB authorities arrested 12 449 people, killed 2574 people.

Kruglov will be engaged in deportations and becoming a minister. On November 30, 1948, the Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR, Colonel-General Sergei Kruglov, sent a report to Stalin, Molotov and Beria on the successful completion of the deportation of the German population from the Kaliningrad region to the Soviet occupation zone of Germany: the former Konigsberg was included in the Soviet Union, and the Germans were superfluous there ...

In the spring of 1945, Kruglov, as part of a Soviet delegation headed by the future Minister of Foreign Affairs Andrei Andreevich Gromyko, was sent to San Francisco, where the Charter of the United Nations was being drafted at that time. A trip to a long foreign business trip during the war years was just a gift of fate.

Kruglov was engaged in the protection of Soviet government delegations at the Crimean (in Yalta) and Potsdam conferences. The Americans and the British awarded him with their orders.

On January 15, 1946, Izvestia wrote in the Chronicle section: “The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR granted the request of the Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, Comrade LP Beria, both to release him from the duties of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR due to his overload with other central work. Comrade SN Kruglov was appointed People's Commissar of Internal Affairs. "

Kruglov was thirty-eight years old.

In the spring of 1946, the people's commissars were renamed into ministers.

Professor Vladimir Filippovich Nekrasov, the best expert on the history of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, told me about Kruglov:

Capable, smart, educated, especially against the background of his predecessors. Cool. When he called a meeting at twelve at night, and Lieutenant-General Krivenko, the head of the Chief Directorate for Prisoners of War and Internees, was not found, a formidable order was born: only twelve hours, but the Lieutenant-General was not there! Disorder! When you leave, the deputies and the secretary should know where you are.

When Kruglov became minister, the department was truncated. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Ministry of Internal Affairs transferred to the Ministry of State Security not only all operational units, government communications and the protection of government facilities, but also internal troops, border guards, police, and the criminal investigation department. In essence, the Ministry of Internal Affairs remained a camp ministry.

OWNER OF THE GULAG

The scale of the GULAG becomes clear when you read the decree prepared by Beria in 1953 on the transfer of production departments of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to other ministries:

Main Directorate of Construction of the Far North (Dalstroy);

Main Directorate for Exploration and Exploitation of Deposits and Construction of Nonferrous and Rare Metals Enterprises in the Krasnoyarsk Territory (Yeniseistroy);

Norilsk Combine of Non-Ferrous and Rare Metals;

Refineries № 169 - in Krasnoyarsk, 170 - in Sverdlovsk, 171 - in Novosibirsk;

Vartsila Metallurgical Plant;

Administration for the construction of the Kuibyshevskaya hydroelectric power station (Kuibyshevgidrostroy);

Administration for the construction of the Stalingrad hydroelectric power station (Stalingradgidrostroy);

Department of design, survey and research for hydraulic construction projects (Hydroproject);

Main Directorate for the Construction of Oil Refineries and Artificial Liquid Fuel Enterprises (Glavspets-neftestroy);

Ukhta Oil Extraction and Refining Plant;

Main Directorate of Highways (Gushosdor);

Main Directorate of Railway Construction;

Construction Department of the Main Turkmen Canal (Sredazgidstroy);

Department of the Nizhne-Don construction of irrigation and hydraulic structures;

General Directorate of the Asbestos Industry;

General Directorate of the Mica Industry;

Industrial plants of the Pechora coal basin - the Vorkutugol plant, the Intaugol plant;

Industrial plant for the extraction of apatite-nepheline concentrates ("Apatite");

Construction Department of the Kirov Chemical Plant;

General Directorate of the Forestry Industry;

Main Directorate for the Construction of the Volga-Baltic Waterway (Glavgidrovolgobaltstroy);

Industrial plant for the extraction and processing of amber in the Kaliningrad region (plant No. 9) ...

All these production monsters subsisted on the slave labor of prisoners. The Ministry of Internal Affairs not only provided the construction and production departments with this free and uncomplaining labor force, but itself turned into a production and construction ministry.

For several years the master of this "GULAG archipelago", described by Alexander Isaevich Solzhenitsyn, was Sergei Kruglov.

The archipelago took a long time to build. At first, its owners were not at all going to starve the prisoners.

Professor Nekrasov's book "Thirteen Iron People's Commissars" contains a report to Dzerzhinsky by the head of the secret department of the Cheka T. P. Samsonov, who visited the Lefortovo prison and got acquainted with the conditions of detention of political prisoners. This is 1921:

“In the cells: dirt, dampness, stench, fumes and, most importantly, smoke, which absolutely makes it possible to breathe ... In the cells, smoky iron stoves are primitive, there is no draft in them; those arrested complain of poor food and lack of books. In the corridors there is an impenetrable smoky darkness, water and dirt on the floor ... The political hunger strikes declared here demanding a transfer to Butyrki must be considered correct. It is impossible to treat living people in this way and to keep them in such conditions, it is a crime.

Conclusions: to disperse and prosecute the administration of the Lefortovo prison for the inhuman detention of those arrested, the reason for which is their inactivity and negligence. "

After the revolution, there were people who really opposed the rule of the Bolsheviks and were not afraid of reprisals, although the risk was clear. Many of the political opponents who were not dealt with on the spot were sent into exile for two or three years. Then they were given the same term, but in a camp on Solovki or in a political isolator. Then a link was added to the political isolator and forbidden to live in large cities ("minus"). In general, a kind of conveyor was created: camp - link - "minus". As soon as the political prisoners were released, they were immediately taken again, created a new case and sent back to the camp.

The history of the domestic penitentiary system is described by the authors of the collective work "Bodies and Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia" (1996). After the revolution, control over places of detention was entrusted to local Soviets. The Soviets set up commissions to decide whether a prisoner should be kept behind bars or should be released. In the official statements of the new government, it was said that it was going not so much to punish as to educate, for which, they say, agricultural corrective labor colonies were being organized.

But on September 5, 1918, a resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR "On the Red Terror" appeared. By a decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of March 21 and a decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of May 17, 1919, concentration camps of the All-Russian Cheka and forced labor camps of the NKVD were established. In 1920, the first special-purpose camp for active enemies of Soviet power appeared on the Solovetsky Islands.

After the end of the Civil War, all places of detention were subordinate to the NKVD. There were about 70 thousand people in them. Since about 1925, planting has increased. By the end of the 1920s, the idea was ripening to widely use prisoners for creative work. In 1929, a system of forced labor camps was created. They should not only become self-sufficient, but also make a profit. The OGPU received the right to conduct an investigation, pass sentences, imprison and use prisoners' labor.

On June 27, 1929, the Politburo adopted a decree on the use of prison labor. The concentration camps of the OGPU were renamed into correctional labor camps. Everyone who was sentenced to imprisonment for a term of at least three years was transferred there. The rest were left in agricultural or industrial colonies, subordinate to the people's commissariats of internal affairs of the union republics.

On July 11, 1929, the government adopted a decree that entrusted the OGPU with the task of developing the economic life of the hard-to-reach, but rich in natural resources of the outskirts of the country by using the labor of dangerous elements. It was proposed to build new camps in Siberia, in the North, in the Far East, in Central Asia.

The order, which was signed by the deputy chairman of the OGPU Yagoda, said that the new camps under the leadership of the Chekists should play a transformative role in the economy and culture of the distant outskirts ...

Already in the middle of 1930, the OGPU took an important place in industrial life: prisoners built railways, provided geological exploration, carried out forestry work, erected chemical and pulp and paper mills, were engaged in logging and butchering fish. Prisoners, with whom until recently they did not know what to do, have become a major source of labor.

The first was the administration of the northern special-purpose camps on August 5, 1929. In February 1931, a camp administration was created under the OGPU. And in April it was renamed the General Directorate of Labor Camps and Labor Settlements (GULAG).

In 1937, so-called internal prisons, subordinated to the 10th department of the GUGB NKVD of the USSR, began to be created to contain those under investigation and convicted of counter-revolutionary crimes. The central apparatus of the People's Commissariat used four prisons: an internal prison for 570 prisoners, Butyrskaya - for 3500, Lefortovskaya - for 625 and Sukhanovskaya - for 225 places.

The regulation on the internal prisons of the NKVD, adopted in 1939, forbade notifying relatives of the death of those under investigation and giving them corpses for burial.

In the pre-war years, the GULAG was constantly expanding. The government set the next task for the NKVD, and the next camp was created for it. The prisoners built military factories, laid roads, built airfields and worked in heavy and hazardous industries in the mining and metallurgical, fuel, chemical, pulp and paper industries.

For example, a government decree appears on the construction of the Arkhangelsk and Solikamsk pulp and paper mills, and logging camps for 140 thousand prisoners are being created in the area of ​​upcoming new buildings.

One can only be amazed that people have found the strength to survive in terrible, inhuman conditions. Writer Viktor Petrovich Astafyev said in one of his interviews: “All these kulaks, deported to Igarka, died out, and fought, trying to protect the children with letters. The diploma was everything. There were no textbooks, but everyone was learning eagerly. "

Only in 1947, the Minister of Internal Affairs Kruglov presented to the government a proposal to release the former kulaks who remained in the special settlement. Released 115 thousand families (320 thousand people). The tragedy of these people has not yet been clearly described. Even when they were released, political distrust persisted.

When the war began, those convicted of domestic crimes and truancy were released and sent to the army. In the first three years, 975 thousand of yesterday's prisoners went to the Red Army. This is about a third of the total number of inhabitants of the Gulag.

Twice as many ended up in camps. In addition, more than two million people were in special settlements, of which one and a half million were Chechens deported during the war, Ingush Balkars, Kalmyks, Crimean Tatars, Germans.

General Alidin, who at one time headed the department dealing with settlers, recalls that “lawlessness, lawlessness and arbitrariness were happening in the places of settlements. Persons of exiled nationalities were ordered to live in new places forever. Any movement outside the village was considered an escape ... Molotov signed a decree that all babies whose parents are settlers become settlers after birth and are subject to registration. "

By the end of the war, 850,000 people served in the NKVD. They guarded prisoners instead of fighting at the front.

During the war, the NKVD built several hundred airfields, aircraft factories, blast furnaces, coal mines, chemical plants, laid thousands of kilometers of railways and highways, and extracted all the necessary minerals from gold to oil.

During the war, the internal regulations in the camps and colonies were tightened, the guards were allowed to use weapons even if the prisoners refused to start work. The conditions of detention were such that in 1942 alone, 248,877 people died in the camps from overwork, hunger and disease.

The NKVD and the prosecutor's office twice - on June 22, 1941 and on April 29, 1942 - issued joint directives, on the basis of which prisoners whose term was ending were not released, but continued to work in their former places as civilians. The difference was that they went without an escort and were paid. They could not leave or change jobs.

Both of these directives were secret, and the people covered by them did not even know why they were released only in 1946, when Stalin finally allowed them to go home.

When the Red Army went on the offensive, Soviet citizens began to enter the GULAG, who collaborated with the German authorities in the occupied territories.

Nikolai Konstantinovich Baibakov, who for many years headed the State Planning Committee, recalls how Stalin, at the end of the war, instructed him, as People's Commissar for the oil industry, to build factories for the production of synthetic motor fuel. And he gave the order to send prisoners to these construction sites. “It was a reliable and mobile power,” Baybakov writes with admiration. "People lived in hastily made barracks and insulated tents, in dugouts, worked in any weather, in snow and rain, frost and heat, twelve hours a day."

KOROLEV AND GLUSHKO

The prisoners worked for the right to survive, for an increased ration, for the hope of freeing themselves as soon as possible. At first, in the Gulag, even the most talented and knowledgeable specialists were put on common work, as a result of which they perished one after another. Then the NKVD realized that these future academics could bring glory to the People's Commissariat if they were to create new equipment that could be reported to Stalin.

The fate of Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, the creator of military missiles, who was the first to send a man into space, is characteristic. In 1938, the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court sentenced him to ten years in prison for "participating in anti-Soviet terrorist and sabotage activities."

He was sent to the Kolyma. He could have died there, but the famous pilots Valentina Stepanovna Grizodubova and Mikhail Mikhailovich Gromov stood up for him. Both were Heroes of the Soviet Union and deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

At their deputy request on June 13, 1939, the Supreme Court overturned the sentence against Korolyov, his case was sent for a new trial. Beriev indulgences? Here's their price! On July 10, 1940, a special meeting at the NKVD sentenced him to eight years in forced labor camps.

But they didn’t send me to the camp.

Yezhov in the Lubyanka had already been replaced by Beria, who delighted the leader not only with the numbers of executions, but also with the economic achievements of the NKVD. He created "sharashki", in which arrested specialists worked for free, and Beria got the laurels.

The head of the Main Economic Department of the NKVD, Bogdan Zakharovich Kobulov, ordered the transfer of Korolev to the Special Technical Bureau under the NKVD for use in his specialty. And they were not released, and used for the case.

Korolev worked under the guidance of the convicted aircraft designer Tupolev, the future academician and laureate of all awards. And in the fall of 1942 he was transferred to the Kazan prison, where his former colleague Valentin Petrovich Glushko, also a future academician and laureate, was imprisoned. Convict Glushko was the chief designer of propulsion systems for aircraft, and prisoner Korolev was his deputy.

Glushko did not have a surname, he had a number, he signed the drawings not with his surname, but with a number, a convict number so and so.

Glushko worked without rest, without being distracted by extraneous conversations, not paying attention to what was happening around him, pedantically and successfully. Its rocket engines were installed on airplanes that developed unprecedented speeds.

At the end of July 1944, Glushko was brought to Stalin. The leader was informed that rocket engines are a very promising direction, that the Germans are already creating jet aircraft.

The leader was very friendly with the man he almost killed. He said that Glushko can make a list of employees who deserve early release. Glushko named thirty-five names.

The People's Commissar of Internal Affairs Beria signed an appeal addressed to Stalin, in which he noted the work of the imprisoned specialists and asked for the early release of those who distinguished themselves. On July 27, a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet followed. Glushko, Korolyov, and more than thirty other people were freed.

Glushko and Korolev worked like crazy, not only because work was the essence of their life. For a long time, Korolev and Glushko remained, from a legal point of view, enemies of the people, who were only released early from prison. But they did not forgive and did not acquit.

In 1955, they wrote applications to the Chief Military Prosecutor's Office with a request to rehabilitate them. Glushko received a rehabilitation certificate in the fall of 1956, Korolev - in the spring of 1957, the year he sent the first artificial Earth satellite into space. And even in the halo of his glory, the chief designer of rocketry timidly asked Khrushchev:

Well, do you at least believe that I'm not guilty of anything?

A special technical bureau, renamed in 1941 as the 4th special department of the NKVD, used convicted specialists to create military equipment: aircraft, engines, warships and artillery weapons. Almost 500 prisoners worked there, who were assigned to the most important defense factories and research institutes.

Historians Alexander Kokurin and Nikita Petrov have compiled a long list of what during the war years was created by prisoners of the 4th special department of the NKVD. The list mentioned, in particular, three bombers created under the guidance of designers Tupolev, Petlyakov and Myasishchev, aircraft engines, cannons, a torpedo boat, radio stations ... It is easy to imagine how much these outstanding scientists could have done if they were not kept in camps.

“Before signing the paper, make sure that if they start to go to jail because of it, then you will be at the end of the list” - this motto of the country's chief artilleryman, Marshal Nikolai Dmitrievich Yakovlev, who was once frightened to death by Stalin, recalls in his book “ Secret zone "Grigory Vasilyevich Kisunko, chief designer of anti-missile systems.

Grigory Kisunko himself became famous for the creation of an anti-aircraft missile system, which on May 1, 1960, shot down an American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft. He became an academician, laureate, general, deputy, but spent most of his life in anxiety: will they or will they not recognize in cadres and agencies who his father is?

And the father of the chief designer, a locomotive driver, was shot in April 1938 on a mythical charge - for "participation in a counter-revolutionary insurgent organization." The son hid it. And for many years, the chief designer had nightmarish visions: a vigilant personnel officer discovers a line in his personal file written in other ink, followed by his exposure and his whole life collapses - he is deprived of his job, or even freedom.

And yet he could not forget his uncle's words, spoken much later under cognac:

For your father, one bastard-informer, with the help of two of your uncles, very accidentally and reliably fell under the wheels of a train ...

After the war, young Kisunko was taken to the Special Bureau No. 1 of the USSR Ministry of Armaments. Here, under the leadership of Beria Jr. - Sergo Lavrentyevich - Soviet rocket weapons were created. The main specialists were the German rocket scientists taken out of Germany and our scientists - those who were still in the camps and were brought to work under escort.

The extremely favorable conditions in which the military-industrial complex was located, described by Kisunko, explain why the creators of weapons yearn so much for Soviet times. The foundations for the successful functioning of the military-industrial complex were laid by Stalin. He told the creators of rocket technology: "You will have the right to involve any organization of any ministries and departments in the performance of work, providing this work with material funds and funding as needed, without any restrictions."

They were given everything - a house in the woods, a special dining room, a special hospital, and cars. Need to celebrate a pleasant event at the training ground? We send a plane to Central Asia for watermelons, melons and grapes. And the general secretary, after successful tests, said to the chief designer: “Send to all the capitals of the union republics for food, wine, vodka, beer, cognac, so that there is everything for all tastes. And throw a banquet there, on behalf of the government, such as the world has never seen before. "

One of the ministers addressed the designers with approximately the following words: “They gave you everything that you asked for. I think that even the horses from the Bolshoi Theater would be given to you if asked. Now, let's go. "

As soon as this or that development acquired the status of special importance, unlimited funding was opened for it, for which, like flies for honey, writes Grigory Kisunko, people who wanted to taste the government cake flocked. Therefore, rockets and other equipment turned out to be literally golden, ruinous for the country.

But the customs among the creators of weapons were extremely cruel. Kisunko recalls how Sergey Pavlovich Korolev himself invited him to his car and, lowering the glass partition that separated the passenger compartment from the driver, asked angrily:

How long will we put up with this bandit?

The "bandit" was an equally famous designer, to whom fortune smiled at that moment, because he wisely hired the son of one of the leaders of the party and the people.

The children of the members of the Politburo loved to work in the military-industrial complex empire. Ustinov Jr. built tracked combat lasers, Suslov Jr. headed the closed institute of radio-electronic systems.

The designers mercilessly drowned competitors so as not to share "hay and straw" - as they called orders and other insignia among themselves. And they were madly afraid of the state security officers, who could easily ruin their lives.

They say that Beria once visited the imprisoned aircraft designer Andrei Nikolaevich Tupolev, the future academician, colonel general, winner of the Lenin and five Stalin prizes and three times Hero of Socialist Labor. Tupolev tried to explain to the People's Commissar that he was innocent. Beria interrupted him:

I myself know, dear, that you are not to blame for anything. Your plane will take off in the air, you will be released.

Already under Khrushchev, crowned with all the awards of the country, Academician Tupolev complained to the first secretary that a prison trail was following him and a shadow fell on his children. And Khrushchev reassured the aircraft designer:

Comrade Tupolev, you can go and work in peace. I give you the glory that we will discuss this issue and order to destroy the documents relating to you, so that nowhere and in any questionnaires you would not have to write that you were arrested.

AN ORDER MAN WILL NOT GO TO THE SECRET POLICE

Remembering the history of Tupolev, Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov pondered the fate of those who ruled the Gulag: “I sometimes wondered: what drives such people - ambition? fear? thirst for activity? authorities? conviction? I have no answer. "

Writers, historians and psychologists have been trying to answer this question for half a century.

The writer Lev Emmanuilovich Razgon, who spent many years behind barbed wire, writes about the guards and the Gulag employees in general: “They are not like us. Not what we were, and certainly not what we are now and what we will be. You cannot enter into human relations with these people, you cannot treat them as people, they only pretend to be people, and you need to treat them too, pretending that you consider them to be people. But being in full and unshakable confidence that they only pretend to be people ... "

Matthias Rakosi, who worked in Moscow, in the Comintern before the war, and then headed the Communist Party and the Hungarian government for a long time, left interesting memories. In particular, he quotes the words of Academician Varga, a well-known scientist in those years, who told him:

A decent person will not go to work as an investigator or in the secret police. Only the dregs of society go there, and, naturally, such elements do not look at the matter, but follow their own careers, try to suspect as many people as possible, put them in jail, until finally an atmosphere is created in which everyone will seem suspicious. suspects and suspects.

Mikhail Fedorovich Nenashev, a professional party worker, writes: “The NKVD appeared in my mind for the first time in the winter of 1937 as something sinister, capable of depriving our family of our father and even of that modest life in which we were. The large wooden house of the district NKVD was located not far from the dugout of my aunt (father's sister), with whom I lived in the district center all the years of my schooling, and every day, passing by its windows, always closed with blackout curtains, I often thought about what secrets were hidden after them. Not much then I could understand, but, as a small animal, instinctively felt that something unkind, dangerous for me, for other people came from this house ... "

The Chekists worked under Stalin on a rotational basis. A group was formed that did their part of the work. At this time, they received everything - material benefits, titles, positions, orders, honor, glory, the right to communicate with the leader. Valuables confiscated from the arrested were transferred to the special stores of the NKVD, where they were sold to the employees of the People's Commissariat. When they completed their task, it was the turn of the next brigade. The previous team was destroyed, and all the benefits went to the new shift.

Somewhere in this terrible empire, sometimes decent people met - an investigator who did not beat, a jailor in a prison who was not evil by nature, a warden in a camp who did not swear. They came across extremely rarely, but meeting with them was happiness.

Basically, the owners of the Lubyanka were divided into two categories. Obvious fanatics selflessly believed in Stalin, shot with his name and died with his name on their lips. And the careerists easily adapted to any turn of the party line: whoever needed was shot. Over time, the first almost disappeared.

But is it worth considering the owners of the GULAG and the entire Lubyanka as supervillains? Devil incarnate, entangling the whole country with their nets? It's tempting to place the blame on one person born with a devilish mark, to say with relief, "It's all about him!"

But after all, each of them was the kind of person who was required by the department that he headed. Another would do the same in his place. Or I would have chosen another place of service ... To some extent, a powerful minister or people's commissar was just one of the cogs of this gigantic system, which existed as if by itself.

But he also tightened up, adjusted and started this whole mechanism, which in fact could only work because many thousands of state security personnel and an even larger number of volunteers deliberately chose this service for themselves and were proud of it.

They turned the country into a police state, a dossier was opened on a huge number of people, and all structures of society were permeated by state security officers.

They corrupted people, achieved the fact that seemingly decent citizens, fleeing from fear or for money, an apartment, travel abroad, or even just in the hope of the favor of their superiors, denounced relatives, neighbors and colleagues.

Fear of arrest, the camp revealed everything that is bad in a person. It began to seem that the proportion of villains was higher than usual. It was difficult to resist because an abyss opened up in front of a man. Fear and mistrust became the main driving forces in Soviet society. The result was a paralysis of all initiative and an unwillingness to take responsibility.

But could a person choose a different fate, without fear of perishing in the Gulag? Is it not too harsh a sentence for the people who lived at that time? After all, the Chekists had to carry out orders or die. If the screw broke, it was immediately replaced with another.

Academician Alexander Mikhailovich Panchenko said in one of his interviews: “The lackeys and lackeys say:“ That was the time. ” The time is always bad, and whether we cope with it or not depends on us. It was permissible to remain a decent person under Soviet rule, although not for everyone. One of my favorite teachers, Boris Viktorovich Tomashevsky, used to say: “Don't worry, in any of the most vile regimes two or three places are reserved for decent people.”

We must also take into account that for a considerable number of people the service in the Gulag and in the Lubyanka not only provided a means of subsistence, but also created a privileged way of life. In those years, about a million people served in the NKVD system, together with their families it is several million, for them there is nothing terrible about the existence of the GULAG. And if we also take into account the party and state apparatus and their families? Why be surprised if in our society there are directly opposite points of view on the Stalinist repressions, the GULAG and the state security organs?

HAPPY CHILDHOOD IN THE STALINSKY FAMILY

How many generals of the NKVD - MGB - KGB were in the country, how many guards were in camps and prisons, how many investigators riveted execution cases! But what happened to their children? What did they grow up to be? How are their fathers treated? Condemn? Cursing? Or, on the contrary, admire them?

There are no such books. Nobody found the "Lubyanka" children and questioned them. It is not fiction that is needed here, but the harsh documentary prose of Svetlana Aleksievich.

Why don't we have such books? Because such prose is scary not only to read, but also to write.

Leonid Maksimovich Leonov, a writer whose talent seems to have not been fully realized, was asked back in Soviet times why he did not write anything else. He replied:

I tried it, dug deeper, gasped, buried it and trampled it underfoot.

Vladimir Alliluyev, the nephew of Stalin's wife, compiled the genealogy of the Alliluyevs - Stalin and wrote the book "Chronicle of one family."

His father was shot when the boy was only three years old. Exactly ten years later, his mother was imprisoned. From his father, whom he hardly remembers, there is only a court case. Mother was released six years later. She returned home a different person, suffering severe mental illness.

But in an amazing way, the boy retained the best memories of childhood and adolescence. The sad years for the memoirist came later, when no one was already shot.

The book contains a lot of interesting things: an assessment of the unsuccessful marriage of Joseph Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva, the attitude of the family to her suicide, the unsuccessful personal life of Svetlana and Vasily Stalin. There is only one thing in the book - sympathy for the unfortunate parents and attempts to understand why the author was first deprived of his father and then his mother.

Vladimir Alliluyev's father is Stanislav Frantsevich Redens, former secretary of Dzerzhinsky. In January 1938, Redens was sent as People's Commissar of Internal Affairs to Kazakhstan, in November he was arrested, accused of spying on Polish Poland, and in January 1940 he was shot.

Vladimir Alliluyev writes: “Mother got to Stalin and asked him to intervene in his father’s business. “Okay,” he said, “I'll invite Molotov, and you come with Sergei Yakovlevich. Redens will be brought here and we will sort it out. " But the grandfather refused to go to Stalin, and his mother went to him alone with her grandmother. The absence of my grandfather annoyed and greatly hurt Stalin, he had a big quarrel with my mother and grandmother, there was no trial, and the fate of my father was a foregone conclusion.

But neither Stalin nor the system under which it is possible to shoot innocent people, according to the author, are not to blame for the death of his father.

The system in general was remarkable: “In those years, trade was working properly, reliably, prices were falling, at one time in canteens, bread was even served free of charge, people saw that their life was constantly improving ... The system provided people with a reliable life, the country was moving forward ... the newspapers were full of materials about the overstocking of shoes, televisions, refrigerators. "

This judgment is supported by the personal experience of the author. Despite the execution of his father, neither the future author of the book, nor his family deprived either the Kremlin clinic, or the so-called "canteen of medical food", which was usually called a "feeding trough", or cars from the government garage - "Lincolns", "Mercedes", after war - "ZIS-110". We lived in a famous house on the embankment, a five-room apartment, about one hundred square meters, Vladimir Alliluyev recalls with pleasure. We spent the summer at the Stalinist dacha. In graduate school, he was arranged by the adjutant of Vasily Iosifovich Stalin, who popularly explained to the rector of Moscow State University who would be his student.

Stalin left the author without a father, but in return gave an unforgettable feeling of belonging to a great man. If there is a hero in the book, it is Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin. Alliluyev does not even notice how strange this phrase sounds: “After the death of my father, after the war, my mother and I also liked to be in theaters. At the Bolshoi Theater, I remember, they sat in a Stalinist box. "

Well, for such a son you can make peace with you!

The father of this wonderful son has already been shot ...

“Most of all Stalin then paid attention to us, the children, asked about many things, joked, teased. At supper all the time he tossed pieces of cookies, orange peels on my plate. We laughed, squealed with delight. "

The first memoirs about the "Kremlin" childhood were written by Svetlana Iosifovna Alliluyeva. Perhaps her literary experience to this day remains the most successful: the book was frank and serious. True, in our country more success fell to the share of a later book written by Sergei Nikitovich Khrushchev about his father - thanks to a skillfully twisted, almost detective plot.

Khrushchev Jr. laid the foundation for a literature of excuses when the "Kremlin" children undertook to defend the honor of their fathers. Andrei Georgievich Malenkov in the book "About my father Georgy Malenkov" assures that Georgy Maximilianovich Malenkov had nothing to do with repressions, on the contrary, he tried to stop Beria.

Sergo Lavrentievich Beria, who after the execution of his father had to bear his mother's surname, in the book "My Father Lavrentiy Beria" also expresses confidence that his father did nothing but save people.

The desire to ignore the sins of the fathers is humanly understandable. But the book by Vladimir Alliluyev is perhaps the first, written in defense not of the murdered father, but of the one who allowed him to be killed.

SOVIET POWERS OF WAR

Mistrust in the Red Army men who were captured by the enemy was formed during the Finnish war of 1939-1940. After the end of hostilities, the Finns returned 5.5 thousand prisoners. All were tried and sent to the camp.

In 1941, 2 million soldiers and officers of the Red Army were taken prisoner, in 1942 - 1,300 thousand, in 1943 almost half a million and in 1944 - 200 thousand. Of these, about 40 percent survived.

In addition, in the fall of 1941, the German authorities began to export the able-bodied population of the occupied territories to Germany. During the war years, 5 million people were taken out. Of these, about 250 thousand are ethnic Germans who wished to return to their historical homeland.

On June 28, 1941, a joint order was issued by the NKGB, NKVD and the Prosecutor of the USSR "On the procedure for bringing traitors to the Motherland and their families to justice."

Captivity was viewed as a deliberate crime. Those who were captured were tried for treason. Soldiers who were breaking out of the encirclement were greeted as potential traitors.

During the war years, military tribunals convicted about a million servicemen, of whom 157,000 were shot, that is, 15 divisions were destroyed themselves. These were mainly soldiers and officers who came out of the encirclement or escaped from captivity.

On December 27, 1941, the State Defense Committee issued a decree on checking and filtering "former Red Army servicemen." The next day, order No. 001735 of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs Beria "On the creation of special camps for former Red Army servicemen who were in captivity and surrounded by the enemy" appeared, ordering to identify among them "traitors to the Motherland, spies and saboteurs."

Moreover, the captured Red Army men were dealt with by the NKVD department for prisoners of war and internees, that is, they were treated like soldiers of the enemy army. In 1943, the filtration camps were transferred to the GULAG.

Since 1944, the officers released from captivity or released from the encirclement began to be sent as privates to the assault battalions.

After being wounded or awarded with an order, they were returned to the officer rank, but few managed to stay alive in the assault battalions. They were thrown into the attack on the most disastrous directions. 25 thousand officers passed through the assault battalions. This number would be enough to form the officer corps of 22 divisions.

In August 1944, the State Defense Committee decided to create a network of check-filtration points for those returning from Germany. While the prisoners and those taken to work in Germany were checked, they were used in the most difficult jobs.

Pavel Vasilyevich Chistov, who served in the state security bodies since 1923, during the years of Yezhov's purge headed the regional administration in Chelyabinsk, then in Donetsk, received the rank of major of state security, the Order of Lenin and was elected a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, immediately after the start of the war he was appointed deputy chief Main Directorate for the construction of defensive structures.

At the end of August 1941, he was assigned to supervise the construction of defensive structures on the Southwestern Front.

On September 3, when Chistov drove to the city of Konotop, German tanks suddenly appeared at his car. He was wounded and taken prisoner. Chistov himself later said that the Germans tore off the Order of Lenin and the "Badge of Honor" and a belt with a revolver from him. He tore off the badge of the deputy of the Supreme Soviet and threw it away. The German captain who interrogated him did not understand Soviet realities well and returned his party card to him with the words:

Let your personal document be with you for now.

Chistov immediately destroyed his party membership card. He introduced himself as a major in the Red Army, an engineer by profession, so he was sent to a regular camp. But in the newspaper Novoye Slovo, which was published in Berlin, it was written that Chistov during interrogations told everything he knew about the construction of defensive institutions. He was in a camp in East Prussia, where the Germans made him the leader of a team to build barracks, a bathhouse and a laundry.

In December 1943 he was arrested by the Gestapo for anti-fascist agitation and sent to the Stugof concentration camp, and in the summer of 1944 to the Mauthausen extermination camp. He survived, he was freed by the Americans and handed over to the Soviet troops.

For a whole year, from July 1945 to September 1946, he was held in the Podolsk testing and filtration camp. Investigators came to the following conclusion: "In the camp he behaved passively in relation to underground work and only in 1945, shortly before liberation, did he join the underground." A special meeting of the MGB sentenced him to fifteen years in the camps. After Stalin's death, in 1955 he was released ahead of schedule.

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Position

Professor

Academic degree

Doctor of Philosophy, Professor

Biographical information

Graduated from the Philosophy Faculty of Moscow State University (1996), the History Faculty of Tver State University (1997). Ph.D. thesis "The nature of the transcendental method", IFRAN (1999), doctoral dissertation "I. N. Tetens and discussion of metaphysics in German philosophy in the second half of the 18th century", Russian State University for the Humanities (2005).

Scientific and pedagogical activity

Teaches at the Russian State University for the Humanities since 1999. Visiting Professor at the University of Luxembourg (2007), Baltic Federal University. I. Kant (2012, 2014), University of Trier (Germany) (2015-2016, 2018).

Field of scientific interests and field of scientific activity

Kantian philosophy, philosophy of the German Enlightenment, German idealism, Russian philosophy of the 18th-19th centuries, philosophical questions of Russian literature

Publications

• Kruglov, A. N. Transcendentalism in Philosophy. M .: Research and development center "Voskhod-A", 2000.
• Kruglov, A. N. Fencing in Western Europe and Japan of the XVI-XVIII centuries: spiritual and philosophical foundations. M .: Research and Production Center "Voskhod-A", 2000.
• Kruglov, A. N. Tetens, Kant and a discussion of metaphysics in Germany in the second half of the 18th century. M .: "Phenomenology-Hermeneutics", 2008.
• Kruglov, A. N. Kant's philosophy in Russia at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. M .: "Canon +" ROOI "Rehabilitation", 2009.
• Kruglov, A.N. (2012). Kant and Kantian philosophy in Russian fiction. M .: "Canon +" ROOI "Rehabilitation", 2012.
• Polemiki z Janem Śniadeckim. Opracowanie naukowe A. Krouglov, T. Kupś. Przekład tekstów rosyjskich A. Kondrat. Redakcja R. Specht. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uni-wersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2016.
• Tolstoj, L. N. Gedanken Immanuel Kants. Anhand der Originalvorlagen aus dem Russischen zurückübertragen, eingeleitet und hrsg. von A. N. Krouglov. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: frommann-holzboog, 2016.
• Tetens, J. N. Über die allgemeine speculativische Philosophie, neue kritische Ausgabe, hrsg. von A. N. Krouglov, H. P. Delfosse in Zusammenarbeit mit K. Probst. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: frommann-holzboog, 2017.

Translations

• Tetens, IN About general speculative philosophy / Introduction, translation and notes by A. N. Kruglov, foreword by N. Hinske. M .: "Canon +" ROOI "Rehabilitation" 2013.

Member of the editorial board of the journals Historical and Philosophical Yearbook (IFRAN, Moscow), History of Philosophy (IFRAN, Moscow), Kant's Collection (Baltic federal university them. I. Kant, Kaliningrad), “Quaestio. Yearbook of the History of Metaphysics "(Brepols, Turnhout)," CON-TEXTOS KANTIANOS. International Journal of Philosophy ".
Updated: 20.02.2019 15:03:55