American nuclear project. Manhattan project

Manhattan project

In September 1942, immediately after entering a new position and obtaining the title of Brigade General, Lesli Groves went with the inspection on enterprises involved in the atomic project. What he saw the order disappointed him.

He made the first stop in Pittsburgh, where they were research laboratoriesowned by Westingaz Corporation. Before them there was a task to construct volumetric high-speed centrifuges to highlight uranium-235. It was definitely not the best place to start checking. Scientists have accumulated technical problems, the project balancing at the limit. And on the recommendation of Groves, these studies were soon closed.

From Pittsburgh, Groves headed to Columbia University of New York, where the gas diffusion method was studied. Controlled the work of Chemik Harold Yuri. Scientists with whom Grows met here, more optimally spoke about the method studied by them. The only serious problem was corrosion caused by uranium hexafluoride. In the gas-diffusion unit, it was necessary to mount countless porous membranes from the corrosion resistant substance. While such a substance was not known. Groves found that work should continue, but doubted that they would give a positive result.

From Columbia University, Leslie Groves lay to the West. On October 5, the general arrived in the Chicago "Metlab". He came to the conclusion that the construction of an experimental reactor, which was led by Enrico Fermi, confidently moves forward. However, Groves struck as vaguely scientists imagined the details of the work, which were considered fundamental from the engineering point of view. If the bomb is planned to be constructed on time, the program has already had to give answers to key questions. How much will uranium need? What size will be a bomb? How long will work continue? Physics, it seemed, delivered pleasure to assume and pretend. Groves noticed to physicists that if the task was to organize a wedding banquet, then the conversations like "we can expect from ten to a thousand guests" would not be at all for competent planning.

Groves, convinced that some "nerds" surround him, he considered it necessary to once again give to understand his subordinates (among whom, by the way, there were several Nobel laureates): he does not feel the pitue before their scholarship. Grovers argued that his ten-year secondary education was two doctoral degrees. After that, the general gave a scientist time to think about the importance of this approval. But Leo Sorrade of Time on reflections was almost not needed. "How can you work with such people?!" - He was written his colleagues. However, the dislike between Silad and Groves was mutual: the general almost immediately found the Hungarian immigrants-physics "A perturbator of calm" and made a lot of effort to interne it as a "hostile foreigner".

From Chicago Leslie Groves moved on to the west, to Berkeley's radiation laboratory, where arrived on October 8. Ernest Lawrence, masterfully turned inspection on an excursion, produced a very pleasant impression on Groves. Groves hoped that at least here in California, he was waiting for good news. Lawrence promised to demonstrate to him the new car. At that time, he moved from working with a 93-centimeter cyclotron to the use of 467-centimeter supercyclotron, which was already ready. Lawrence sat for a remote control of a huge car and explained how it works. Impressed Grovers asked how much time it would be necessary to proceed to practically significant separation. Lawrence admitted that so far no serious experiments were carried out; The car has never worked longer than 10-15 minutes in a row. So that the required vacuum is installed in the cyclotron, it must work from 14 to 24 hours.

General, feeling deceived, headed to the laboratory Robert Oppenheimer in Berkeley. Surprisingly, this meeting took place at all as it was possible to assume, knowing the characters described. Oppenheimer is thin, ascetic, witty intellectual with left-wing glances. Groves - white, continued, conservative son of Presbyterian pastor, impregnated with pragmatism Military engineer, with contempt for "botany." But with all the obvious nursing, these two immediately penetrated the sympathy to each other.

Later Lesley Groves responded to physics, which became famous thanks to the atomic project:

From the point of view of today, the candidacy of Oppenheimer seems to be the most suitable because it fully justified our expectations. Working directly under the leadership of Compton, he led research on the creation of a bomb and, no doubt, knew absolutely everything that was then known in this area. However, its studies were of theoretical nature and reduced essentially to the competent estimation of the explosion power as a result of the reaction of the nuclei of atoms. In the same practical areas as the development of the structures of the fuse and bombs, providing its effective explosion, nothing was done. <…>

He is a man of great mental abilities, has a brilliant education, enjoys well-deserved respect among scientists, and I was increasingly leaning towards the idea that he would cope with the upcoming work, because in his search, I could not find any candidacy, at least some more suitable for solutions to the tasks.

Another Groves struck the ability of Oppenheimer to explain complex scientific problems with an intelligible language. But, more importantly, physics managed to encourage Groves. "There are no experts in this area," Oppenheimer said. - She is too Nova. " However, if all scientists studying the physics of the bomb and its design, to gather in one special laboratory, they will be able to solve all the problems that had to come across.

Groves thought in the same direction and planned to create a special laboratory in "Zone Y". On October 15, he suggested the Oppenheimer to head her.

Many specialists engaged in the project, such an appointment seemed unthinkable. That was a lot of reasons. First, Oppenheimer is a theorist with peculiar theorists inevitable to conduct experiments. Secondly, he has no Nobel Prize, and in fact, many Nobel laureates have already been involved in the project, which would be more likely to offer a post corresponding to their status. And thirdly, Opönheimer is friendly with the Communists, which means that the project under his leadership may be in danger. But all the arguments were ignored. Groves found a "his person" and quickly made a decision through a variety of committees. Robert Oppenheimer received an appointment on October 19, 1942.

Now it was to find a place for the "zone Y", where the new central laboratory was supposed to be accommodated. Remote wooded wood canyon Chemis Springs in New Mexico Oppenheimer rejected as too "gloomy and depressing space." The search group moved from Hemes Springs to the plateau on the other side of the HEMES Mountains, on which was located private school For boys, which was called "Los Alamosky Rancho." Among her graduates, William Berrowza can be called and Mount Vidal. In addition, James Concenta knew this school well - he was thinking to give her youngest son there. There were buildings, water supply and electricity. The only problem is the dirt road, laid to the plateau from Santa Fe, located 50 kilometers southeast, looked like a path, drowning in the mud. Nevertheless, General Grovsu liked that the complex is in such an isolated place.

At the first stage, Oppenheimer believed that the laboratory would need to place no more than thirty leading scientists plus auxiliary personnel. Groves immediately began negotiations on the acquisition of the site, which ended quickly and successfully: the school was not restored after the Great Depression, so its last graduates received diplomas on January 21, 1943.

Oppenheimer began an unofficial set of scientists for a laboratory a few days after appointing a head. Now, when they found the "zone Y", he and Lawrence took the case seriously. Many scientists tried to evade work in a remote place, some complained about the difficulties with relocation. Leo Silad, for example, said: "There is no one can think clearly. All who go there will come crazy. "

But most of the scientists who were offered to move to Los Alamos, worried mostly that they would have to work in a military laboratory, which means to serve in the army, which they did not want at all. The physics Isisidor Raby and Robert Bacher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology convinced Oppenheimer that the laboratories need to maintain "scientific autonomy", and the transformation into a purely army structure is not at all necessary. General Groves agreed to this reluctantly, having noticed that the military would retain their hierarchy and would be responsible for the safety of the complex.

So, Los Alamos scientists got the opportunity to work on an atomic project as civilians. However, due to unprecedented safety measures, the laboratory soon began to resemble a concentration camp.

In order to hide the appointment of the newly created structure, the MANHETTEN engineering district was formed as part of the military engineering troops (Manhattan Engineering District), and Groves (until the colonel) was produced in brigadier generals and was appointed commander of this district.

More than 130,000 people took part in the Manhattan project, and its cost was almost 2 billion US dollars (about $ 22 billion in 2016). More than 90% of the costs accounted for the construction of factories and production of a splitting material, and less than 10% - on the development and production of weapons. Research and production were conducted on more than 30 sites in the United States, Great Britain and Canada. The project was also accused of collecting intelligent German projects nuclear weapons. As part of the Mission "ALCOS", the personnel of the Manhattan project worked in Europe, sometimes in the rear of the enemy, where nuclear materials and documents collected, and also collected German scientists. Despite strict safety inside the Manhattan project, Soviet " atomic spies»Successfully penetrated him and collected intelligence.

Start

Basic information

To the secret project, which started in 1939, many large scientists were connected, emigrated in 1933 from Germany (Frish, Bethe, Silad, Fuchs, Teller, Bloch and others), as well as Nils Bor exported from the Denmark occupied Germany. Within the framework of the project, his employees worked at the European Theater of Military Activities, conducting a collection of valuable information about the German nuclear program (see the Mission "ALCOS").

By the summer of 1945, the US military unit managed to obtain atomic weapons, the action of which was based on the use of two species of the dividing material - uranium-235 isotope ("Uranium Bomb"), or Plutonium-239 isotope ("Plutonium Bomb"). The main complexity in the creation of an explosive device based on uranium-235 was to enrich uranium - that is, in an increase in the mass fraction of the isotope 235 U in the material (in natural uranium, the main isotope is 238 U, the share of isotope 235 U is approximately 0.7%) to Make a possible chain nuclear reaction (in natural and low-enriched uranium isotope 238 U prevents the development of the chain reaction). The production of plutonium-239 for plutonium charge was not associated directly with difficulties in obtaining uranium-235, since in this case uranium-238 and a special nuclear reactor are used.

The first test of the nuclear explosive device "Trinity" based on plutonium-239 (during the test, the implosive bomb was tested) was held in New Mexico on July 16, 1945 (Polygon Alamogordo). After this explosion, Groves very much indicatively answered Oppenheimer's words: "Conquented War," he said: "Yes, but after we reset two more bombs in Japan."

Groves proposed the originally four objects for atomic bombing: Cockur, Hiroshima, Niigata, and, most importantly, - Center ancient culture, the former capital of Japan - Kyoto. When appointing these objects, Groves was guided by considerations, very far from humanity. When those present arose against Kyoto, he led two arguments to the proof of his right: first, the population of this city has more than a million inhabitants, which, therefore, promises a good effect of the explosion; Secondly, it occupies a huge area at which the estimated diameter of the zone of destruction will be fully maintained, and therefore the picture of the explosion will be very significant for experts.

When, as a result, Kyoto was still rejected by politicians as a goal, and Hiroshima and Nagasaki were approved by the goals, it turned out that the camps of the prisoners of the Americans and their allies were near, but then Groves, not hesitating, gave an indication not to take into account this factor .

On August 6, 1945, the Japanese city of Hiroshima was reset the Uranium bomb "Baby" (English Little Boy). As a result of the bombardment, about 140 thousand people died. The world first encountered nuclear threat. On August 9, a discharge of a plutonium bomb "Tolstik" (English Fat Man) was planned for the city of Kokura, but due to severe cloud, the goal was changed. There was a bombardment of the second Japanese city of Nagasaki, about 74 thousand people died.

Participants

In June 1944, about 129,000 employees were involved in the Manhattan project, of which 84,500 were involved in construction work, 40 500 were operators (?) And 1800 military. Later, the number of servicemen increased to 5600. People-calculator played an important role in the project.

Manhattan project united scientists from the UK, Europe, Canada, USA, to a single international team that has solved the task as soon as possible. However, the Manhattan project was accompanied by voltage in the US and the UK relationship. The United Kingdom considered herself offended by the United States, as the United States took advantage of the knowledge of scientists from the UK (Committee "Maud Committee"), but refused to share the results with the Great Britain.

Development of uranium bombs

Natural uranium by 99.3% consists of uranium-238 and 0.7% uranium-235, but only the latter is cleaved. Chemically identical uranium-235 should be physically separated from more common isotope. Various methods of uranium enrichment were considered, most of which were conducted in the National Ok-Ridge laboratory.

The use of the most obvious technology, centrifuges failed, but electromagnetic separation, gas diffusion and thermal diffusion were successfully applied in the project.

Separation of isotopes

Centrifuga

Electromagnetic separation

Gas diffusion

The first atomic explosion brought not too much memorable statements. Only one fell into the Oxford collection of quotes ( Oxford Dictionary Of QUotations ). After successful testing of the plutonium bomb on July 16, 1945 in Hardwo del Mereto, near the city of Alamogordo in New Mexico, scientific director The Los Alamos Laboratory Robert Oppenheimer quoted, several reinstabilities, verse from Bhagavat-Gita: "Now I am death, crusher of worlds!" . He should be forever to remember other words spoken responsible for testing by a specialist Kenneth Bainbird. I barely sorted off the explosion, he turned to the Oppenheimer and said: "Now we are all bitchy children ..." Later, the Oppenheimer himself believed that there was nothing more precisely and expressive at that moment.

In general, in connection with the explosion there was a lot of nonsense. When Samuel Allison uttered his "two, one, zero - went!" The general standing nearby remarked: "I am striking that you can read in the reverse order at such a time!". Allyson recalled later that he flashed: "We must, survived! The atmosphere was not built ... ". Chemist George Kistyakovsky rushed to Oppenheimer with the words: "OPPI, you must do I ten dollars!" (They argued about the test results). General Director of the Project Manhattan. General Leslie Grozu immediately appreciated the meaning of what he saw: "The explosion was what it is necessary ... the war is over."

If scientists and engineers said something at all immediately after the explosion, then for the most part these were the exclamations of surprise. Some fell out - too were absorbed by the counts of the power of the explosion; Others on different frets were amazed by the color of the mushroom, the power of the flashes and the crash. Physicist Edwin McMillan later wrote that the observers were rather shocked by horror than the success of success. After the explosion, silence reigned for several minutes, then followed the comments like: "Well, this thing worked ...". Something similar, if you believe his brother Frank, muttered and the Oppenheimer himself, barely crash is so much so that it was possible to say: "Worked!"

Another reaction was not expected. Above the creation atomic bombs Scientists and engineers worked for more than two years. The test had to show, they came out something or not. Looking at the past from the height of our time, we want to see the expression of flour on their faces, we are waiting for the repentance of Tirad about the terrible consequences of what they did, but with most of them nothing like this happens. The moral and political condemnation was later - and not to everyone appeared. More than anyone, a public challenge indulged Oppenheimer. It was especially remembered to all his statement: "Physics knew sin. This knowledge is not inserted ... ". But repentance began later. When the question of the use of an atomic bomb against civilian population Japan, unlike some of his scientists, not only did not objection, but insisted on this, - and only a few months after Hiroshima and Nagasaki, told the President of Truman: "It seems to me on our hands." Truman answered the scientist: "Nothing terrible. Everything disks ... ", And with your assistants, it punished strictly:" So that this saluntaya here is no longer there! ". Oppenheimer continued to suffer conscience to the end of his days. Among other things, he was pursued by the question: why these remrections were almost no then , in that time? This is what the answer he suggested himself and the other in 1954: "When you are an exciting scientific problem, you go to her with your head, and the question of what to do with the decision, subject to the future, for the time when it technical solution will be found. So it was with an atomic bomb ... "

Both author, and Silvan Chwebrie and Mary Palevsky, are concerned about the gap between moral ideals and moral reality in the environment of those scientists who have been constructed to the world atomic era and lived in its atmosphere in post-war years. Both - moralists; Both were pushed to take the pen of the prompting of a very personal character. Schwberi - a physicist who became a historian of science. In the 1950s, he worked at the Cornell University together with Gansa Bethe, who in the war years was the director of the theoretical department of the Los Alamos laboratory. Book Under the shadow of the bomb The current and not yet completed teacher's biography and not yet completed biography of the teacher, there are, in essence, the extension of the "decency" of Bethe, manifested during the settlement of not an easy relationship between science and the Pentagon in after war time, in mitigating tensions between science and politics in the era of McCarthyism. The impeccable behavior of Bethe is opposed to the ambiguous behavior of Oppenheimer. As for Mary Polevski, she is the daughter of an electrician engineer who worked in the Los Alamos laboratory over the descent mechanism of the bomb, whose bad premonitions in connection with Hiroshima and work on the bomb was part of the "moral heritage" of the daughter. Atomic fragments - The collection is not too closely connected between any interview with the participants of the project who lived to this day Manhattan. . The author is interested in their experiences and political considerations, in the past, in Los Alamos, and subsequently. What did they think about their brainchild when they worked on the bomb? What did they think about her after her creation?

One of the immediate consequences of Hiroshima was the fact that American nuclear scientists, primarily physicists, have become a kind of court republics of the United States. Already during the project Manhattan. The corridors of power were always open to some of them. After the end of the war, the overwhelming majority dreamed of getting back to universities as soon as possible, to research work- But now everything went to them in a different way. The bomb cost America two billion dollars, and America believed that the money was perfect. At the beginning of work in Los Alamos, physics pledged just a few bombs, "now the government wanted a large nuclear arsenal, and Edward Teller has already unfolded public campaigning for the creation sumbomb - Hydrogen bombs. The Japanese were defeated, however, from March 1944, General Clazzu was attributed to the words that the real purpose of creating a bomb - tool tips. In 1954, he stated this in all. Cold War It was a golden bottom for American physicists, but she also set up difficult political and moral problems before some of them.

Although Oppenheimer returned to his academic career months after Hiroshima, his activity as the most important government adviser on weapons all began. He began in the Pentagon committees, he presided over the General Advisory Committee (GAC) of the US Atomic Energy Commission, which generated plan scientific developments nuclear weapons. It is this kind of conciliation and complicity that means Chwberridge, speaking about the moral superiority of Bethe above Oppenheimer. In front of the Cabinet Oppenheimer in the Princeton Institute of Fundamental Research, guards were on duty. When he was called on secret cases, guests had to leave the Cabinet. All these visible signs of power and privileges, according to many, liked the Oppenheimer - in any case, as long as they suddenly stopped. On the contrary, the participation of Bethe in government developments of nuclear weapons was indirect and episodic. Unlike his Los Alamos, he remained faithful to research work, which became for him, says (as many as four times!) Square, saving "perfectness anchor".

With this black and white picture, it is not possible to disagree. In assessing the morality of the positions of Oppenheimer and the Bethe naturally would be resorted to halftons. The General Advisory Committee headed by Oppenheimer, in principle, without rejecting the ideas of creating hydrogen bombs, objected to the urgent development. The same committee, witted with the gray board, was convened in 1954 in order to release Oppenheimer from the permanent presence of guards. When, in 1950, Truman decided to create a bomb in an urgent basis, he closed with special orders to Oppenheimer to publicly speak out on this topic. Forced silence was painful for Oppenheimer, as it is clear from the words that have been said later: "What to do to us with civilization, which has always considered ethics as an important part of human life and was unable to argue almost about the magnitude of everyone and everyone, except in Refinitive and theoretical gaming terms? "

Bethe, unlike Oppenheimer, was at that time just a consultant in Los Alamos. He could talk and said that he suggested conscience: "The hydrogen bomb is no longer a weapon, but the means of destroying entire peoples. Its use would be a change in common sense and the very nature of Christian civilization. " Even the creation of a hydrogen bomb "would be a terrible mistake." And, however, he overcame himself so much that he worked hard on creating this bomb herself, justifying that if such weapons are in principle feasible, it means that it will be soon or later. The threat coming from them must be balanced. Then, one thing is to develop weapons in peacetime, and the other in the military. The second, by the thought of Bethe, was a moral thing, so the disclosure of the Korean War contributed to his spiritual world. But this is not all: starting working on a hydrogen bomb, he, it turned out, hoped that the upcoming technical difficulties of insurpose (the "somewhat naive" judgment, according to his project colleagues Manhattan. Herbert York). There was such an argument: "If not me, then there is always someone else." Finally, in the environment of scientists looking at the moral side of the case, the judgment was suggested: "Be closer to Los Alamos, I could contribute to disarmament." Years later, Bethe will write that then all these considerations "seemed very logical," but will add that now "at times" is concerned: "I would like to be a more consistent idealist ... to this day I do not leave the feeling that I did wrong. But so I entered ... ".

Further, Chwerbier tries to show that Bethe has led himself properly and decently in response to McCarthy attacks on scientists who held left, internationalist and pacifist views. In fact, not a single scientist who had a weight sufficient to resist these attacks, did not come out of this episode unparalleled. Opönheimer, obviously saving his own skin, condemned his own graduate students, moreover, so that she caught a fear on the former colleagues in Los Alamos, including Bethe. Bethe, at first glance, he behaved much better. When his colleague in the Cornell University Filip Morrison turned out to defend him, he rushed to defend him, - but, first, not forget that he was incomparably lighter to respond to the university commission to investigate, it was incomparably easier than the Oppenheimer - before throwing thunder and lightning by the Commission activities; Secondly, and itself this intercession of Bethe for a colleague, inspired and effective, was by no means unconditional. He first stated temporarily acting to the president of the Cornell University, that His, Bethe, annoyed "the complacent attitude" of Morrison to the Soviet approach to disarmament, and then agreed with the university administration that it was necessary to curb him, Morrison, political statements.

Another consequence of Hiroshima was the fact that, no matter how complicated their role of the court atomic state, some of the scientists who worked on the project Manhattan. , Passed public moralists. They were encouraged by considerations and personal, and purely technical. First of all, they felt that they had a unique knowledge about the bomb created by them: the bomb is under power; about what should be expected in connection with her; about how the bomb can affect political structures and military strategy. Fearing that the politicians, in whose authorities are scientists, and the public is poorly understood (if they understand) the transformed reality, some physicists assumed the work of moral understanding not only what should be done in the world, which has become a nuclear arsenal, but also the very nature of moral nuclear arsenal Acts in this world. Then, they remembered that they were exactly they, and not someone, they handed people a monstrous weapon, - and if some treated this memory calmly, others crushed about the deed. Movable conscience remorse, they wanted to explain to Massively why they did what they did, and why it was right or at least excuse.

Like many in Los Alamos, Oppenheimer initially believed that the bomb was made for the sake of salvation from Nazism of the century-old conquests of Western civilization and culture, "in the following he had to bother with the idea that the celebration of science threatens these conquests. The generation of scientists who believed (as sewberi writes about this) that "scientific knowledge carries a good start to the world that it is apolitical, openly everything belongs to everyone, finally, that it is a progress engine," this generation was among the builders of the new world Stepping fed to his faith.

Oppenheimer's moral reflections took more philosophical directionthan all others. Its worried about the properties of an open society created by science: "Waving to light from the village westing the field of human activity, in which violence was presented, perhaps, less than any other; From the region of the region, his celebration and its own existence of the ability to open discussion and free research, - the atomic bomb appeared in front of us as a strange paradox: first, because everything, with her bound, shroudedly mystery, that is, closed from society Secondly, because she herself became an unprecedented violence tool ... ". Then, he was concerned about the public consequences of an excessive faith in the infinity of opportunity and accuracy scientific knowledge: "Vera in the fact that all societies are in fact a single society that all truths are coordinated to one, and every experience is comparable and consistent with the other, finally, that full knowledge is achievable, - maybe this faith foreshadows the most planning end ... " Oppenheimer warned society from a unwealing adoption on the faith of judgments of scientists in areas of activity not related to science: "Science does not exhaust all the activities of the mind, but is only part of it ... research in the field of physics and in other areas of science (I hope my colleagues working In these areas, they will allow me to say this and on their behalf) do not supply the world of the rulers of philosophers. Until now, these studies have not given rulers at all. They almost never allowed the real philosophers ... ".

To this day they lived a few of the scientists who worked on the project Manhattan. . The younger - exceeded eighty, Bethe - 94 years. They were more than once due to the moral side of what they did; They are not survived and new books. The approach of Mary Polevsky is serious and respectful. Scientists, whom she managed to interview, hardly told many more things that they repeatedly talked before. Bethe prepared two handwritten leaf to his first interview, which built their major arguments in a convenient order for him. He was not indifferent to the court of history - and insulusively tried to promote her writing. Mary Polevski listened to his interlocutors, hopping his breath with respect; questions they asked them with the naiveness of the heroine Peace Sofia - and, however, Atomic fragments They recreate (moreover, better than a more professional and intellectual attitude to a greater claiming book of Chovebrah) spirit and the essence of a live moral issue, with all its uncertainties and inconsistencies.

Palevsky asks nuclear physicists, why they took up the manufacture of this terrible weapon and what they felt after the bomb was reset to Japanese cities. Most of the respondents justified their actions with the principles, as rooted in civilization, as the moral question raised by it, or indicated on the circumstances that forced them to work on creating a bomb. Apologetics of physicists did not shake the position of the author, however, Mary Polevski finishes the book, and there was no chance to consistently justify his deep conviction that the bomb did not follow.

Why did you agree to participate in the project Manhattan. ? - Nazi bomb would mean the destruction of all countries with open and tolerant society; At first, it was not supposed to use a bomb: it was needed only to keep the Germans from using their use. "Why didn't you come out of the project, when by the end of 1944 it became clear that the Nazis had no bomb?" - On the agenda was the creation of the UN, the organization with which he had high hopes for the establishment of a lasting world, and the UN had to know that such a weapon exists and that his destructive power is enormous. This is what I mean such a righteous as Nils Bohr, when, having heard about the successful bomb test, asked: "Is the explosion enough?" - Why so many of you justify Hiroshima? - a demonstration explosion proposed in June 1945 in the franc report, could fail - and entail for his catastrophic consequences during the Pacific; Even if such an explosion was successful, Hirohito's emperor could not report him; Only the use of a bomb against living force could provide unconditional surrender; Do not be bombs, would have died much more people both from Japan and the Allies; Moreover, some of the respondents believed that Soviet participation in japanese war It is necessary to make as short as possible, and at the same time show the Communists, what power is America. - Why didn't you put more strength to express your concern possible application bombs? - It was not our business. Scientists are responsible for conducting research, and not for how the results of their research are used. In a democratic society, the law, common sense and the most virtue prescribe to obey orders expressing the will of the people. What right of physics would be a democratic chosen government? It is true that it was easier to obey the order of Roosevelt than not to obey the order of Hitler, "but the meaning of this disobedience would be completely different, and the most comparison of democracy with totalitarianism is unacceptable.

Not all scientists spoke in such a spirit, but most of the hot protected some of these provisions. Only one physicist left Los Alamos, when it became clear that the Nazis bomb did not create, - Briton [Polish origin] Joseph Rotblat. Later he wrote: "The destruction of Hiroshima seemed to me the act of irresponsibility and barbarism. I was out of herself ... " The experimenter Robert Wilson regrets that he did not follow the example of the Rotblata, from the others only very few spoke in this spirit. Subsequently, several people - among them Wilson, Rotblat, Morrison and Viktor Vaiskopf - came to work on creating weapons, but most of the calm conscience continued to receive crazy money, which so thoroughly changed the nature of studies in physics in the post-war years.

This majority did not feel any need to justify. Herbert York, who devoted most of his post-war career to the struggle for the nuclear disarmament, was very believable characterized by the arrogance that prevailed at the time: "The first thing you know about the Second World War, this is how it broke out. For me, it was the last thing that I learned about her ... The first thing that you became aware of the atomic bomb was known, this is that we have been killed with it many people in Hiroshima. For me, it was the last thing I found out about the bomb ... " The more uncertainty fog dismissal, wiping the issue of developing weapons in wartime, the harder it is to find the soil in order to blame concrete people whose motives and opinions, influence and attitude to what happened not remained unchanged in those years when they were developing a bomb . Let the world be better if atomic weapons were not created and put into move. Having accepted it, you are confronted with difficulty to specify a scientist or a group of scientists who could be accurate to reliably guilty.

Nevertheless, there is still something that can be said due to the experience of the project Manhattan. : Something as anxious, how intuitive and even seductive. For most scientists, it was an exciting, exciting game. They themselves recognized this, and more than once. Bethe wrote that for all Los Alamos scientists spent there time "was a wonderful time of their lives." English physicist James so directly calls him "golden time." There were all outstanding scientists of that time; They enjoyed each other's society; They worked together over the general and urgent task, the execution of which broke the artificial partitions between adjacent university disciplines. The problems were from a scientific point of view interesting, financing - inexhaustible. According to Teller, the scientists of Los Alamos accounted for "one big happy family." After Hiroshima, when Oppenheimer left Los Alamos and returned to Berkeley, scientists in a farewell address thanked him for a wonderful time spent under his leadership: "We received much more satisfaction from our work than our conscience would have to let us ..." they were so good together that some in the joke called the fence around the object not tool to keep the inhabitants inside and the protective wall from external worldnot allowing a stranger to join their happiness. And you have to say: it is all this happy work of work, this complete absorption generously funded by the "scientific pector", just prevented the reflections of moral nature.

In addition, the best minds of the scientist of the world for the most part did not remain indifferent to the temptation to join power. The physicist Azdor Rabai notes how his friend Oppenheimer changed after the first test of the bomb: " Noon - that's what brought him to mind; In my opinion, you can't say more precisely. He achieved his! .. "It was that power that not only gets along with moral flour, but also feeds on her, even bangs at her expense. Stanislav Yulham wrote that Oppenheimer, "perhaps, exaggerated his role when I saw the prince of Darkness, crushers of the worlds ...". Johnny von Neuman repeated more than once: "Some love to repent. On sinfulness can be a reputation ... ". But the wines of scientists who created a bombuit lies not in the bomb itself. Upon closer examination, their fault was that they dragged the true pleasure in their work.

Translator notes

5. Edwin Mattison McMillan (1907-1991), American Nuclear Physicist nobel laureate (1951, together with Glen Siforg) in chemistry for the synthesis of the first transuranone element of neptune. The creator of the sync cyclotron (at the same time with the Soviet scientist V. I. Veksler developed the principle of autophazing). Chairman of the US National Academy from 1968 to 1971.

6. Hans Albrecht Bethe (Bethe, 1906), American Physicist theoretics, originally from Germany, laureate nobel Prize (1967) For research in astrophysics. He studied in Frankfurt and Munich, in 1931 he worked with Enrico Fermi in Rome, lectured in Tubingen (before 1933), since 1934 he worked at the University of Cornell University in Ithak, USA, in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in the Los Alamos Lab. After the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, among those who were aware of their responsibility for a catastrophe. In 1955 he was awarded the medal. Max Planck, in 1961 - the premium. Enrico Fermi, Golden Medal. Lomonosova (1990).

7. This was the name of the US government project to create the first atomic bomb (1942-45).

8. Edward (Edward) Teller (1908-2003), an American physicist, originally from Hungary, participated in the development of an atomic bomb, led the creation of a hydrogen bomb. He studied in Karlsruhe and Munich, where he got under the car and lost his feet. He worked at Niels Bora in Copenhagen, taught in Göttingen (1931-33). In the USA since 1935. Together with the Soviet physicist who fled to the West, George Gamov (1904-68) developed a new classification of subatomic particles during the radioactive decay of molecules. In 1939, in response to the appeal of President Franklin Roosevelt to scientists, to help protect the United States from Nazi aggression - began to create nuclear weapons. Since 1941 he worked with Enrico Fermi to Chicago, then with Openerheimer at the University of California and in the Los Alamos laboratory. After the end of the war was among those who encouraged the US government to create a hydrogen bomb, especially after the first Soviet nuclear test In 1946. When it became known that the physicist and the communist Emil Claus Julius Fuchs (1911-88) for seven years (1943-50) passed Moscow American and British nuclear secrets, President Truman challenged all the forces on the development of a hydrogen bomb, and Teller, together with Stanislav Yulem, suggested (1951) the so-called teller-yulema configuration, giving theoretical Foundation Explosion. During the hearing of Oppenheimer's business in 1954, Teller spoke not in his favor than contributed to the end of the administrative career of his former leader. In 1954-58, he was deputy director of the Livermous Nuclear Laboratory. Ernest Louurenza in California, the second nuclear laboratory of the Pentagon. In 1983, he convinced President Reagan in the need for a strategic defense initiative ("Star Wars").

9. Joseph Raymond McCarthy (1908-1957), US Senator; I achieved an extreme influence in the early 1950s due to the sensational, but remaining not proven charges of many government officials in subversive communist activities. In 1952-54, the Chairman of the Senate Commission of the Congress on the activities of government agencies, since 1953, the Chairman of its Standing Investigation Commission. In 1954, it was convicted (practically unprecedented) act of the Senate for the inappropriate behavior.

10. World of Sofia - The Book of the Norwegian writer Yosten Gordera, who became a bestseller in the mid-1990s, in shape - a magic fairy tale, essentially - the presentation in the persons history of European philosophy for adolescents; The fullness and clarity of this presentation made it popular among adults. Heroine, Girl Sofia, lives in the world, full wonders: passes through the dense surface, it turns out in parallel spaces, communicates with speaking animals. Her countertime, Arno Knoks, obsessed the idea to teach the girl philosophy.

11. James Franck, 1882-1964), American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate for 1925 (together with Gustav, Herz). Born in Germany, in 1933 emigrated to Denmark, since 1935 in the United States. Participated in the development of an atomic bomb. He objected to her military application: he offered to demonstrate the enemy the power of the atomic explosion in an admountable place.

12. Hirohito (at the birth of a Hirohito Mitinomy, the posthumous name of Syov ("Enlightened World"), 1901-1989), the Emperor of Japan from 1926 to 1989 (the longest reign in the history of Japan). The author of several books in the sea fauna. It was nominally before the surrender of Japan was a fatal monarch, in fact, more often approved the policies of his ministers. According to some information, he objected to the Union with Nazi Germany and foresaw defeated in the war against the United States. In August 1945, he turned to the people on the radio (violating the custom of the silence of Japanese emperors) with a report on the adoption of the capitulation conditions in front of the allies. In 1946 he canceled the dogma of the holiness of Japanese emperors. In 1975, he was visiting in Europe, violating another (half-and-half-year-old) custom that prescribed the Japanese emperors does not leave the country.

13. Joseph Rotblat (1908), a physicist, an active fighter against nuclear weapons, one of the founders (1957), Secretary General (1957-73) and the President (since 1988) of the Pugvoshsky Scientific and Political Conference, the World Organization of Scientists with Headquarters in London . The organization studies the way national Development and international security. The first meeting of scientists took place in July 1957, on the initiative of Berran Russell, Albert Einstein, Frederica Jolios Curie and others, in the village of Pugvosha Canadian province of New Scotia, in the estate of the American philanthropist of Cyrus ITON. Subsequent meetings were conducted in many countries, including in the USSR. In 1995, Rotblat and his organization were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for a long-term struggle for disarmament, especially for organizing and financing meetings between American and Soviet scientists.

14. Victor Frederick Waiskopf, American Physicist, whose name is a well-known formula for calculating the theoretical proton speed (Single-Proton Theoretical Rate).

15. Aizek Rabai Azidor (1898-1988), American Physicist, Nobel Prize (1944) Laureate (1944) for the method of studying atomic spectrum developed in 1937 using a nuclear magnetic resonance. Professor of Columbia University (1937-1940) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1940-45). Member of the General Advisory Committee of the US Atomic Energy Commission (1946-56), Chairman of this Committee (Oppenheimer's successor) from 1952 to 1956.

16. Apparently, the hint of the Hollywood film Noon Stanley Kramer (1952) with actor Gary Cooper.

17. Stanislav Marsin Yulham (Ulam, 1909-1984), American mathematician, originally from Lviv (at the time of Polish), which has proven the principled possibility of creating a hydrogen bomb (Teller-Yulema configuration). Graduate Lviv polytechnic Institute. At the invitation, von Neumann worked at Princeton Institute of Fundamental Studies (1936), lectured at Harvard University (1939-40) and at the University of Wisconsin (1941-43). In Los Alamos from 1943 to 1965.

18. John (Johann, Janos) von Neumann (Neumann, 1903-57), American mathematician and physicist, originally from Hungary. In the US since 1930. Engaged functional analysis, logic, meteorology, game theory, quantum mechanics. Passed the road to create the first computers. His theoretical and gaming models have had a significant impact on the economy. Since 1931, Professor of Princeton University, since 1933 and until the end of the life - Princeton Institute of Fundamental Research.

Translation of Yuri Kolccher, 2001,
Borrowwood, Hartfordshire;
placed in the network January 22, 2010

magazine Intellectual Forum(Sanphrasco / Moscow) No. 6, 2001 (with distortions).

Start

Basic information

Trinity "based on Plutonium-239 (during the test, the Implosive type plutonium bomb was tested) was held in New Mexico on July 16, 1945 (Polygon Alamogordo). After this explosion, Groves very much indicatively answered Oppenheimer's words: "Conquented War," he said: "Yes, but after we reset two more bombs in Japan."

Development of uranium bombs

The use of the most obvious technology, centrifuges failed, but electromagnetic separation, gas diffusion and thermal diffusion were successfully applied in the project.

Separation of isotopes

Centrifuges Electromagnetic separation Gas diffusion

The first test of the nuclear explosive device "Trinity" based on Plutonium-239 was held in the state of New Mexico on July 16, 1945 (Polygon Alamogordo).

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Excerpt characterizing Manhattan project

Oxifications Color, as a beautiful bright flower, absorbing the vital power of light Mary. It seemed that no strength could not resist this powerful flow of knowledge and bright, universal love. People still worshiped here with their Magdalene, baiting her. As if she still lived in each of them ... she lived in every pebble, in every flower, each grain of this amazing, clean land ...
Once, walking through the familiar caves, Svetar raked to a new one, who shook him to the very depths of the soul ... There, in a calm quiet corner, his wonderful mother stood - Favorite Maria Magdalene! .. It seemed, Nature could not forget this wonderful, strong woman And contrary to everything, created her image of his almighty, generous hand.

Cave Mary. In the corner of the cave stands, the nature created, the high statue of an excellent woman,
shrouded very long hair. Local catars said that the statue appeared there immediately after
The death of Magdalene and after each fall of a new drop of water became more and more and more like it ...
This cave is now called the "Cave Mary". And everyone can see the Magdalene standing there.

Turning, a little bit, the Svetar saw another miracle - in the other corner of the cave stood the statue of his sister! She obviously reminded a curly girl standing over something lying ... (Vesta standing over his mother's body? ..) The hair moved at the Svetar! .. it seemed to him that he began to go crazy. Quickly turning, he jumped out of the cave.

Stamp Vesta - Sisters of Lamor. Oxifications did not want to forget them ...
And he created his monument - a drop dropped by the expensive her heart of the face.
They stand there for centuries, and water continues their magic work, making
They are closer and more similar to real ...

Later, slightly leaving the shock, the Svetar asked Martille, whether she knows what he saw. And when he heard a positive answer, his soul literally "buried" tears of happiness - in this earth, and his mother was still alive - Golden Maria! The Earth Oxifications herself recreated this beautiful woman in himself - "revived" his Magdalene in stone ... It was a real creation of love ... Only a loving architect was Nature.

In my eyes glittered tears ... And completely was not ashamed for it. I would have given a lot to meet someone of them alive! .. especially Magdalene. What a wonderful, the ancient magic of the burned in the soul of this amazing woman when she created her magic kingdom?! The kingdom in which the rule of knowledge and understanding, and the bones of which was love. Only not the love that the Church screaming about which "Holy" shouted, causing this wondrous word before he did not want to hear it, and that beautiful and clean, real and courageous, the only and amazing love, with the name of which the powers were born ... And with the name of which the ancient warriors rushed into battle ... With the name of which a new life was born ... the name of which was changing and became better than our world ... This love was made by the Golden Maria. And it was this Mary that I would like to worship ... For everything that she carried, for her pure light life, for her courage and courage, and for love.
But, unfortunately, it was impossible to do it ... She lived a century ago. And I could not be the one who knew her. Incredibly deep, light sadness suddenly overwhelmed me with his head, and bitter tears were poured by a stream ...
- Well, my friend! .. You are waiting for other sorrow! - I surprised exclaimed the north. - I ask you, calm down ...
He affectionately touched my hand and gradually sorrow disappeared. Only bitterness remained, as if I lost something bright and expensive ...
"You can't relax ... War, Isidorea waiting for you."
- Tell me, the north, the doctrine of Katar called the teachings of love because of Magdalene?
- Here you are not completely right, Isidor. The teaching of his love was called not dedicated. For those who understood, it carried a completely different meaning. Listen to the sound of words, Isidore: Love in French sounds - Amor (Amour) - isn't it? And now we stripped this word, separating from it the letter "A" ... It turns out the Airl (and "Mort) - without death ... So it turns out the true meaning of the teachings of Magdalene - the teaching of the immortal. How I have already told you - everything Simply, Isidor, if only to look and listen to and listen ... Well, for those who do not hear - let him go to love ... it is also beautiful. Yes, and the truth of Tolik in this still remains.
I stood completely toolbhenev. The teaching of the immortal! .. Daaria ... So, that was the teachings of Radomir and Magdalene! .. The north surprised me many times, but I have never felt so shocked! .. The doctrine of Qatar attracted me with its powerful, magical strength, and I could not forgive myself that I did not talk about it from the north before.
- Tell me, the north, is something left from Qatar records? Should there be something to preserve? Even if not perfect themselves, then at least just disciples? I mean something about their of real life and teaching?
- Unfortunately - no, Isidor. The Inquisition destroyed everything and everywhere. Her vassals, by order of Pope, were sent even to other countries to destroy each manuscript, each remaining piece of Berestle, which could only find ... We were looking for anything, but I could not save anything.
- Well, and the people themselves? Could something be left for people who would preserve it through the century?
- I do not know, Isidor ... I think even if someone had some kind of record, then it was changed during the time. After all, it is typical of everything in his own way ... And especially without understanding. So it is hardly preserved as it was. It is a pity ... True, we have preserved the diaries of Radomir and Magdalene, but it was before the creation of Qatar. Although, I think the doctrine has not changed.
- Sorry, for my messy thoughts and questions, north. I see that I lost a lot without coming to you. But still, I'm still alive. And while I breathe, I can still ask you, isn't it? Will we tell me how the life of the Svetar end? Sorry for interrupted.
North sincerely smiled. He liked my impatience and thirst "Have time" to learn. And he was happy to continue.
After his return, Svetar lived and taught in oxidation of only two years, Isidor. But these years became the most expensive and happy years of his Skalic life. His days illuminated by the cheerful laugh of Beloyar took place in the beloved Montshegre, surrounded by the perfect Svetrar honestly and sincerely tried to convey what many years taught his distant wanderer.
They were going to the Temple of the Sun, who did the living force they needed themselves. And also defended them from unwanted "guests", when someone was going to penetrate there secretly, not wanting to appear openly.
The sunshine was called the tower specially built in Montshegre, which at a certain time passed the direct sun rays into the window, which made the temple in that moment truly magical. And this tower concentrated and increased energy that for those who work there at that moment, the Qatar facilitated stress and did not require too much recoil forces.

Soon there was an unforeseen and quite a funny case, after which the coming perfect (and then the rest of the Qatar) began to call the Light Light. It started after during one of the usual Lamodar classes, forgetting, completely revealed his high energy entity in front of them ... As you know, all the perfect perfect were seeing. And the appearance of a flaming fire of the Essence of the Lamodar caused a real shock from the perfect ... thousands of questions were sprinkled, many of which even at the Svetar himself had no answers. You could have answered, probably only a wanderer, but he was unattainable and distant. Therefore, the Svetor was forced to be somehow explained with his friends himself ... he managed to him or not - unknown. Only from that day, all Qatars began to call him a fiery teacher.
(On the existence of a fiery teacher and the truth is mentioned in some modern books About Qatar, only, unfortunately, not about the fact that was real ... Apparently the right was the north, saying that people, not understanding, alieve everything on their own way ... As they say: "Heard the ringing, but do not know where He "... For example, did I find the memories of the" last Qatar "Daude Rocher, who says that a fiery teacher was a certain Steiner (?!) ... Again, the people of Israel, the people of Israel, were allowed to be pure and brighter. which has never been among the real Qatar).
Two years have passed. The world and peace reigned in the tired soul of the Svetra. The days fled in the days, carrying out more and farthers ... The baby Beloyar, seemed to be grew by no days, and by the hour, becoming everything intelligently and clever, distilling all his older friends, than heavily pleased the Svetra's grandfather. But here is one of those happy, calm days, the Svetvar suddenly felt a strange, leaning alarm ... His gift was told him - the trouble was knocking in his peaceful door ... nothing seemed to have changed, nothing happened. But the alarm of the Lamodar grew, poisoning the pleasant moments of full rest.
Once, the Svetar walked around the surroundings with a small Beloyar (whose world name was - franc) near the cave, in which almost his family died. The weather was wonderful - the day stood solar and warm - and the legs themselves suffered the Lamor to spend a sad cave ... Little Beloyar, as always, narrowing the growing wildflowers, and grandparents came to bow the place of the dead.
Probably someone once put the curse on this cave for his family, otherwise it was impossible to understand how they were, such unusually gifted, suddenly, for some reason completely lost their sensitivity, it was how to get into this cave, and like blind kittens , directed straight into someone precipitated drone.
A fun twitter his favorite song Beloyar suddenly fell silent, as it always happened, it was worth it to enter the familiar cave. The boy did not understand that he made him behave this way, but as soon as they came insid - all his merry mood was evaporated somewhere, and only sadness remained in the heart ...
- Tell me, grandfather, why did you always kill here? This place is very sad, I "I hear" ... Let's leave the grandfather! I really don't like it ... It always smells of trouble.
The kid fearfully froked her shoulders, as if, and though he had felt some trouble. The Svetrier smiled sadly and hugging a boy tightly, he wanted to go outside, like a four-story people unexpectedly appeared at the entrance to the cave.
- You were not invited here, uninvited. This is a family sadness, and the entrance is prohibited here. Leave with the world, Svetodar said softly. He immediately regretted Gorky that he took Beloyar with him. The baby frightened to his grandfather, apparently feeling no good.
- Well, just that is appropriate place! .. - Begrooko stood one of the strangers. - There is no need to look for anything ...
They began to surround a unarmed couple, clearly trying not to approach.
- Well, the Devil's Devil, show us your Silenka! - "Holy War" were brave. - What, does your horned gentleman help?
The strangers deliberately angry themselves, trying not to succumb to fear, since about the incredible power of the fiery teacher, they were probably heard enough.
The left hand of the Svetar easily padded the baby behind his back, and the right handed it to the next, as if to light up the entrance to the cave.
"I warned you, the rest of your business ..." he said sternly. - Leave and nothing bad will happen to you.
Four defiantly burned. One of them, the highest, pulling out a narrow knife, brazenly hitting them on the Lamor ... And then Beloyar, frightened, turned out from those who kept his grandfather's hands, and rebuilding the bullet to a man with a knife, began to sneak on his knees Run to the pebble. The stranger roared from pain and, like a fly, swept away the boy away from himself. But the trouble was that "those who came" still standing at the very entrance to the cave ... And the stranger threw Beloyar in the direction of the entrance ... Slim shouting, the boy turned over his head, and flew into the abyss with a light ball. . It took only a few short seconds, and the Svetar did not have time ... blinded from pain, he extended a hand to the man who had hit the Beloyar - he, without making no sound, flew in the air a couple of steps and crashing her head against the wall, a heavy bag came to the stone floor. His "partners", seeing such a sad end of his leader, baked in the inside of the cave. And then, the Svetar made one-sole mistake ... Want to see whether Beloyar was alive, he stood too close to the cliff and only for a moment he turned away from the murderers. Immediately, one of them, zipper jumper from behind, hit him in his back a sharp kick foot ... The body of the Svetar flew into the abyss after the little Beloyar ... Everything was over. Not what was more watching. Grass "Men" pushing each other, quickly removed from the cave ...

Since ancient times, humanity has interested new, increasingly destructive types of weapons. Bows and crossbows changed firearms, together with the development of aviation, bombs appeared. Then chemical and bacteriological weapons were invented. And in 1945, scientists were able to create something fundamentally new: weapons that can destroy all human civilization. Work on the creation nuclear bombs held in many countries - Germany, Great Britain, Soviet Union. But the first to succeed the Americans were able to achieve. The program for the development of nuclear weapons was called Manhattan project.

Project Manhattan - how it all started

The Manhattan project started on September 17, 1942, but the works related to the study of radioactive substances were led long before that. In particular, since 1939, the experiments were conducted in the Uranov Committee. The works of this kind from the very beginning were classified and remained secret for a long time after the end of the war.

The main reason is that the creation of a nuclear bomb has become one of the priority scientific directions, was the interest of Nazi Germany to create the latest weapons of mass lesion. 1939, April 24 - the authorities of this country received a letter from Professor of the University of Paul Hartek, the University of Hamburg. The letter was about the principal possibility of creating a new type of highly efficient explosive. At the end of Hartech writes: "The country that the first will be able to practically master the achievements of nuclear physics will acquire absolute superiority over others."

The main tasks of the project

Absolute superiority - it was exactly what she was striving for. So before the project participants, two tasks fell simultaneously. It was necessary not only to create their own nuclear weapons, but, if possible, prevent the Nazis to develop the same.

To solve the first task, the efforts of the most talented nuclear physicists were needed. The project was attracted by the best of the best. List of participants of the Manhattan Project Any specialist in nuclear physics reads with respect, to such an extent there is a lot of outstanding scientists with world name: Rudolf Pyerles, Otto Frish, Edward Teller, Enrico Fermi, Nils Bor, Claus Fuchs, Leo Sorud, John von Neuman, Richard Feynman, Joseph Rotblat, Isidore Rabbi, Stanislav Ule (Yule), Robert Wilson, Victor Waiskopf, Herbert York, Kenneth Bainbridge, Samuel Allison, Edwin McMilllan, Robert Oppenheimer, John Lawrence, Georgy Chistyakovsky, Hans Bize, Ernest Lawrence, R. Roberts, F. Maker, Alexander Saks, Hans Bethe, Schwberrid, Bush, Ecker, Halban, Simon, E. Wagner, Philip Hauga Abelson, John Cocroft, Ernest Walton, Robert Serber, John Kemeni.

Regarding the second task, only the military could solve it. That is why the project management was double. He was headed by American physicist Robert Oppenheimer and General Lesli Groves. The task that stood in front of Groves was not the lungs: so far scientists conducted sleepless nights, trying to develop a "capable" model of the new weapon, he was needed not only to figure out the achievements of the enemy, but to seize and deliver the leading German scientists to America, the reserves Material and belonging to the splitting of the nucleus of the atom documents and equipment.

Mission "ALSOS"

1943 - Groves was formed a special scientific intelligence unit. His leader, General Strong, suggested sending a small group of scientists to Italy, accompanied by the necessary military personnel. " This unit entered the history of the Manhattan project under the code name of the Mission "ALCOS".

The Italian group of the Mission "Alcos I" included 4 officers led by Boris Pashche. She arrived in Italy on June 17, 1943. Meetings with the officers of the Italian military fleet, who knew about German studies, were given the opportunity to receive valuable information: the Germans showed a huge interest in heavy water produced in Norway. To slow down the works of German researchers, a ferry with heavy water blew up (local partisans distinguished themselves), and the plant for its production was subjected to bombardment of British aviation.

Scouts sought to control any sources of raw materials for nuclear weapons. They conducted close observation of the largest plants in Germany, making up a list of those that could be involved in the German nuclear project.

After disembarking the allies in Normandy in August 1944, the Mission "ALCOS II" arrived in Paris, in which there was a self-scientific unit, headed by the Dutch Samuel Gooudsmith. The powers of the Officers of the Mission "ALSOS" were extremely high. They could count on unlimited assistance of troops if the case concerned the nuclear program.

When it became known that german city Hehingen is about to take French units, at the request of Boris Pasha, American troops changed the direction of the offensive and were the first to enter the city. Thanks to this, the maneuver managed to take a large German nuclear laboratory from the city and send abroad of the outstanding German physics of Max von Laue.

Then the Americans learned that the city of Oranienbaum enters the Soviet zone. Soviet Union There was a possible competitor in the struggle for the creation of atomic weapons. Therefore, at the request of General Groves, General Marshall bombed the plant in this city with all equipment. The mission also was also searching for raw materials: during the work, more than 70 tons of uranium and radium were captured and exported.

True, the leadership of Groves many of the scientists were unhappy. His attitude to scientists was extremely negligible. In addition, physicists annoyed methods by which Groves sought to prevent information leakage. Each scientist did his part of the work. They could only exchange thoughts on the course of experiments with their employees of their department. If there was a need to transfer information from the department to the department, a special permission was necessary. It cannot be said that these measures were unnecessary: \u200b\u200bin the memoirs of Soviet intelligence officers, many employees were introduced into the Manhattan project. And the Americans sought not only to create a nuclear bomb, but also to preserving a monopoly on it.

The process of creating an atomic bomb

In the meantime, scientists worked out various versions and experimented. 1942, December 1 - after 17 days of round-the-clock work, the Fermi Group has completed the creation of a CP-1 reactor capable of carrying out a chain reaction. This reactor contained 36.6 tons of uranium oxide; 5.6 tons of metallic uranium and 350 tons of graphite. The next day, the first was successfully implemented. chain reaction, the thermal power of which was 0.5 watt.

A serious problem was obtaining radioactive substances with the necessary qualities. For its solution in Hanford, reactors for the production of plutonium and enterprise for enrichment are beginning. And in Ok-Ridge there is a construction of a large research reactor X-10, on which it is assumed to have further studies to synthesize plutonium.

From March 1943, the research center in Los Alamos began active. By 1944, three directions were developed: the creation of an atomic bomb, uranium-235 production and plutonium-239 on an industrial scale and preparation for combat use of weapons. The last wording is hiding the creation of an army unit, which is able to ensure combat use of nuclear weapons. From the very beginning it was clear that nuclear bombs would reset the aircraft. It was necessary to change the design of bombers, prepare crews. For example, when a bomb was created, 17 bombers were upgraded in America, ready to deliver a terrible "gift" to any point of the globe.

The process of creating an atomic bomb moved not as fast as the military would like. 1944, September - there were two main schemes for creating a bomb: one - on the basis of uranium, the other is on the basis of plutonium. But before the participants of the project stood an almost insurmountable obstacle. In a detailed version of the uranium bomb, they could not make, because the total number of highly enriched uranium-235 at that time was only a few grams, and the industrial methods had not yet had. With plutonium, the situation was directly opposite: it was able to mine in the right quantities, but there was no plutonium-based bomb scheme.

By mid-1945, most of the technical problems were solved. Gradually accumulated the desired number of radioactive substances. Along with this, there is a potential list of targets for nuclear bombardments - all of them were in Japan. Initially, this list included Tokyo Bay (for demonstration), Yokohama, Osaka, Osaka, Kobe, Hiroshima, Kokura, Fukuoka, Nagasaki, Sazebo. Later, this list changed several times: a part of the Japanese cities was destroyed as a result of ordinary bombing.

Test of the first nuclear bomb

Atomic bomb "Trinity"

1945 - July became a turning point in the history of the Manhattan project. Scientists were looking forward to testing the world's first nuclear bomb. Initially, they were going to arrange an explosion in a closed metal thick-walled container so that in case of failure, it is possible to save as much plutonium as possible. But, fortunately, they refused this idea. Scientists could not precisely predict how the brainchild will behave. Too little was known at the time about the possibilities of the atom. Finally, they decided to blow up Trinity ("Trinity") on an open polygon, away from populated areas. Having considered several options, the Committee stopped in the end in the Alamogordo region. It was located on the territory of the aviation base, although the airfield himself was located at some distance.

The day of testing has come. The bomb was prepared and hoisted at a 33-meter steel tower. Around it at a high distance, the recording equipment was located. In 9 km south, the north and east of the tower deeply under the ground were equipped with three observation points. In 16 km from the steel tower, a team point was located, from where the last team was supposed. because of bad weather The explosion was transferred twice. Finally decided to blow up a bomb at 5 h 30 min on July 16, 1945

In the consequence of Grove, who was personally present on the tests, described his impressions: "My first impression was a feeling of very bright light that fastened everything around, and when I turned around, then I saw a familiar picture of the Fiery Bowl. My first, as well as Bush and Conanity by the reaction, while we were still on Earth, following this sight, there was a silent exchange of handshakes. Soon, literally in 50 seconds after the explosion, a shock wave has come to us. I was surprised by her comparative weakness. In fact, the shock wave was not so weak. Just a flash of light was so strong and so unexpected that the reaction to it lowered at our susceptibility. "

After the test, the head of the Los Alamos laboratory Robert Oppenheimer quoted the changed verse from Bhagavadgitis: "Now I am death, crusher of the worlds!". Kenneth Bainbridge, a specialist of the laboratory responsible for the test responded to his words. His words were not as poetic: "Now we are all - Sukina children."

In general, the atmosphere at the polygon reigned strange. Some viewers (from among the military) simply could not understand the essence of what was happening, others frankly rejoiced that they were survived, the third was plunged into calculations. The spectacle of the nuclear mushroom turned out to be so frightening that many of the scientists first thought about what strength was released by them to freedom.

After some time after the explosion, the epicenter examined several Sherman tanks laid out from the inside lead slabs. The spectacle was terrible: dead, scorched land, on which all living things were destroyed within the radius of one and a half kilometers. Sand shook in a vitreous greenish crust that covered the earth. In a huge funnel lay fastened remnants of the steel tower. Aside, I freckled, inverted on the side of the steel box - the one, from which at first wanted to make a test container.

The explosion power was estimated at 20,000 tons of trinitrotroluola. It was the most powerful explosion that ever thundered on Earth. In order to imagine his strength, it suffices to say that this kind of destructive effect could cause 2000 most powerful bombs of the Second World War. But Trinity was only the first brainchild of the Manhattan project. Already prepared for the fulfillment of their terrible task "fat man" and "kid".

Military and politicians were initially just rejoiced by the emergence of a new weapon and were looking forward to when it can be applied. Ethics issues have been worried about. It was much more frequently discussed whether it is worth using bombs as it is made or accumulated from several bombs to carry out a mass bombardment of Japan. Having received a report on the successful trial test, President Truman presented Japan an ultimatum, which demanded immediate cessation of war.

Why did the target for the use of the bomb selected Hiroshima? The project manager explained this as follows: "Hiroshima was the most important military facility of Japan.

In the room of the castle was the headquarters of the army. The garrison of the city numbered 25,000 people. Port Hiroshima was the main center for all communications between Honshu and Kyusu Islands. This city was the largest of the cities that were not affected by American aviation raids, except for Kyoto. The population, which, according to our data, was more than 300,000 people, almost entirely occupied in military production, carried out at the enterprises of a small and very small scale and even at home. "

The first nuclear explosions. Effects

Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

1945, August 6 - at 9 h 15 min Bomb was dropped at Hiroshima. B-29 bomber who gave a terrible cargo, managed Colonel Tibbets. Major Firmedi was a scorer, captain Parsons - a specialist in arms, and Lieutenant Jepson responded for electronic equipment.

The height of a huge white cloud, who busted Hiroshima after the explosion, was estimated to be 13 km away. The bomb, discarded on Hiroshima, corresponded by the strength of the explosion to the charge of 20,000 tons of trinitrotoloolet. The diameter of the fiery ball was 17 m, the temperature inside it rose to 300,000 ° C.

It was impossible to photograph what was happening in Hiroshima. Only the next day the military was able to see the results of the bombing: almost 60% of the city was destroyed, fires were gone, the zone of destruction stretched 1,800 meters from the epicenter and covered the area of \u200b\u200b4.5 square kilometers. Of the 250,000 residents of Hiroshima, 160,000 were killed and injured. The bomb that caused these grandiose destruction was called "Baby" ...

After the bombardment of Hiroshima decided to extend the leaflets in Japan with an appeal to the people and the report that America became the owner of the most powerful weapons on Earth. They had the requirement of immediate surrender and said that the Japanese would better show prudence, until the United States gave an order to apply another bomb. Why didn't Americans stopped? Why did they drop the second atomic bomb? Perhaps because the decision to use it was taken before Japan came the first party of leaflets. Most likely the government and the military and did not think to be limited to one bomb.

On August 9, the turn of another "brainchild" of the Manhattan project - the bomb "Tolstik" came. It was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. At the time of the explosion, about 73,000 people died, another 35,000 died after a long torment. After that, Japan capitulated.

Manhattan project was one of the most expensive in the history of mankind. Many participants were involved in it: from 1942 to 1945, up to 130,000 people worked on various facilities. The cost of creating nuclear weapons has reached two billion dollars (in today's prices - about 20 billion). At first, the participants of the project were sincerely confident that the creation of such powerful weapons would put an end to all wars. But his appearance led to a racing of nuclear weapons and attempts to invent even more powerful bombs.

American nuclear project. Manhattan project

Start

Basic information

Participants

Development of uranium bombs

Separation of isotopes

Translator notes

Start

Basic information

Development of uranium bombs

Separation of isotopes

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Literature

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Excerpt characterizing Manhattan project

Project Manhattan - how it all started

The main tasks of the project

Mission "ALSOS"

The process of creating an atomic bomb

Test of the first nuclear bomb

The first nuclear explosions. Effects