Photographic images of the Earth from space began to be received from research rockets even before the launch of artificial earth satellites (AES). The Earth was surveyed from heights of 100-150 km. The shots were highly perspective and had an image of the horizon. At the same time, the survey programs already included experiments on choosing the optimal parameters of space photographic systems.

Already in the first space images, mountain ranges, bedrock outcrops, valleys and river beds, snow cover and woodlands were clearly visible.

Shooting from rockets did not lose their significance even with the launch of the satellite. And at present, Belarusian scientists use images obtained during filming from rockets. These images are valuable not only for their information, but also for the fact that they provide a series of different-scale images on the same territory.

Space exploration, which began in the sixties of the last century, has been and is being carried out with such intensity that it has made it possible to accumulate a rich fund of space images (CS).

A large, if not huge, number of operational and meteorological satellites, manned spacecraft and orbital stations carried and are carrying a scientific watch. Many of these space objects were or are currently equipped with imaging equipment. The images obtained and received in them are extremely diverse depending on the choice of recorded characteristics, the technology of obtaining images and transmitting them to the Earth, the scale of the survey, the type and height of the orbit, etc.

Space images are carried out in three main shooting ranges: visible and near infrared (light) range, infrared thermal and radio range.

The first group is the most significant - in the visible and near infrared range, it is subdivided according to the methods of receiving and transmitting information to the Earth into three subgroups: photographic, television and scanner, photo-television pictures. The variety of images by groups, more or less equivalent in content and volume of transmitted information and image quality, expands the possibilities of using images in certain areas of geographic research.

Geological exploration Is one of the areas where space images are most actively used. Already the first images from spacecraft were widely used in the study of stratigraphy and lithological and petrographic properties of rocks; structural and tectonic study of the territory; prospecting for mineral deposits; studying geothermal zones and volcanism.

One of the important advantages of space images - the ability to see new features of the structure of the territory, imperceptible on large-scale images - refers primarily to the study of large geological structures, the filtration of small details as a result of "optical generalization" of the image creates the possibility of spatial linking of scattered fragments of large geological formations into a single whole.

Not a large number of information obtained during the interpretation of space images belongs precisely to the field of structural geology. Plicative structures and discontinuities of different orders are well distinguished.

Linear faults are especially well reflected, both with displacement and without displacement of adjacent blocks. In the platform areas, they are expressed by slight differences in relief, curvature of river channels and erosional forms; in mountain-folded - they are deciphered due to the shifts of rocks of various lithological composition.

Plicative disturbances - folded structures, complex anticlinoria, ring structures - are also well deciphered on satellite images.

Space images open up fundamentally new opportunities for understanding the deep structure of the lithosphere, making it possible to identify structures of different depths by a set of features and compare them with each other. This direction of using space images is of great importance in connection with the search for hidden mineral deposits and the tasks of identifying deep seismogenic structures.

On satellite images, the relief does not find a sufficiently complete direct reflection; stereoscopically in stereopairs, only the forms of foothill and mountainous relief with amplitudes of several tens to hundreds of meters are perceived. However, a good transfer of various indicators of relief, mainly soil and vegetation cover, makes it possible to study the relief in morphological, morphometric and genetic relations.

Various genetic types of relief have their own characteristics of the image on the SC, their own deciphering signs and indicators of deciphering. For example, the fluvial topography is clearly reflected on the CS in the visible range with a darker background than the surrounding area, and proluvial alluvial cones of temporary streams are clearly traced.

KS also make it possible to study ancient fluvial forms, for example, ancient erosional tributaries and deltas.

The images clearly reflect not only individual valleys, but also the entire system of erosional dissection, although the identification of individual ravines and ravines is possible only on the images of the largest scale. In general, the erosion network is revealed with great completeness. In terms of the completeness of the mapping of the erosion network, the CSs at a scale of 1: 2,000,000 are comparable to topographic maps at a scale of 1: 200,000 and 1: 100,000.

The CS of modern and ancient aeolian relief allows one to study the features of the formation and evolution of various forms of relief, expressed in their figure, and to reveal the dependence of the orientation of forms on the wind regime. At the same time, the images testified to the imperfection of the image of the sands on the maps of many regions of the world and the need to involve the KS in the compilation of maps of desert regions. In addition, the work has shown that the spacecraft can be used to study not only open, but also closed areas.

On the CS, karst and subsidence-suffusion relief forms are well displayed, and on large-scale images of mountainous areas, even individual landslide alluvial fans and deluvial trails are distinguished. Some forms of glacial relief are recognized on the KS: trough valleys with their parallel lines of "shoulders" on the slopes, terminal moraines blocking large valleys, glacial lakes. Ancient finite-moraine relief is often reflected. The coastal form is well displayed on the CS with a characteristic sharpness of the coastlines of the abrasive coast and smooth lines - accumulative.

A thorough geomorphological analysis of the KS shows the feasibility of using them for geomorphological mapping on a medium scale. Images with a scale of 1: 2,000,000 can serve as a good basis for field work and drawing geomorphological contours, i.e. drawing up a map on a scale of 1: 1,000,000 and smaller.

COPs are also useful for compiling other relief maps, for example, relief maps, orographic line and point maps. When compiling the latter, according to the images, the nodes of convergence of ridges (nodal points), the separation of characteristic lines of the first and subsequent orders and the entire network of dissection of mountainous regions, the boundaries of mountainous and lowland territories, etc. are specified.

KS made at a low position of the sun, giving a plastic picture of the relief due to the cut-off mosaic, can be used in the manufacture of hypsometric maps.

Concluding the theoretical part of the discipline "Geomorphology and Geology", it is necessary to remind the students of the words of Academician, Professor of St. Petersburg University I. Lehman: "A surveyor who draws relief and does not know geomorphology is like a surgeon who does operations and does not know anatomy."

Self-test questions

1. What disciplines is geomorphology divided into?

2. What elements of the shape and types of relief do you know?

3. Tell us about the classification of the relief by genesis.

4. Tell us about the classification of landforms according to their quantitative characteristics.

5. Give a general description of the types of relief.

6. What types of plains do you know by origin?

7. Describe the hilly-moraine relief.

8. Describe the valley-girder relief.

9. Describe the mountainous terrain.

10. Describe the structural relief.

11. Describe the karst topography.

12. Describe the volcanic topography.

13. Describe the aeolian relief.

14. What kind of aircraft are used in space surveys?

15. In what survey ranges are satellite images carried out?

16. What is the diversity of the use of imaging ranges in space imagery and what is this range?

17. What are the results of using space images in geological research?

18. What are the results of using space images in geomorphological research?

Spacecrafts in all their diversity are both the pride and concern of mankind. Their creation was preceded by a centuries-old history of the development of science and technology. The space era, which allowed people to look from the outside at the world in which they live, lifted us to a new stage of development. A rocket in space today is not a dream, but a matter of concern for highly qualified specialists who are faced with the task of improving existing technologies... What types of spacecraft are distinguished and how they differ from each other will be discussed in the article.

Definition

Spacecraft is a generic name for any device designed to operate in space. There are several options for classifying them. In the simplest case, manned and automatic spacecraft are distinguished. The former, in turn, are subdivided into spaceships and stations. Different in their capabilities and purpose, they are similar in many respects in structure and equipment used.

Flight features

After launch, any spacecraft goes through three main stages: launch into orbit, flight itself, and landing. The first stage presupposes the development by the vehicle of the speed required to enter space. In order to get into orbit, its value must be 7.9 km / s. Complete overcoming of gravity assumes the development of the second equal to 11.2 km / s. This is how a rocket moves in space when its target is the distant parts of the space of the Universe.

After release from attraction, the second stage follows. In the process of orbital flight, the movement of spacecraft occurs by inertia, due to the acceleration imparted to them. Finally, the landing stage involves reducing the speed of a ship, satellite or station to almost zero.

"Filling"

Each spacecraft is equipped with equipment to match the tasks that it is designed to solve. However, the main discrepancy is associated with the so-called target equipment, which is necessary just for obtaining data and various scientific research. The rest of the equipment of the spacecraft is similar. It includes the following systems:

• power supply - most often solar or radioisotope batteries, chemical accumulators, nuclear reactors supply spacecraft with the necessary energy;
• communication - carried out using a radio wave signal, with a significant distance from the Earth, accurate antenna pointing becomes especially important;
• life support - the system is typical for manned spacecraft, thanks to it it becomes possible for people to stay on board;
• orientation - like any other spacecraft, spacecraft are equipped with equipment to constantly determine their own position in space;
• motion - spacecraft engines allow changes in flight speed as well as direction.

Classification

One of the main criteria for dividing spacecraft into types is the operating mode that determines their capabilities. On this basis, devices are distinguished:

• located in geocentric orbit, or artificial satellites of the Earth;
• those whose purpose is to study remote areas of space - automatic interplanetary stations;
• used to deliver people or necessary cargo to the orbit of our planet, they are called spaceships, can be automatic or manned;
• created for people to stay in space for a long period - this;
• those involved in the delivery of people and goods from orbit to the surface of the planet, they are called descent;
• able to explore the planet, directly located on its surface, and move around it, are planetary rovers.

Let's dwell on some types in more detail.

AES (artificial earth satellites)

The first spacecraft launched into space were artificial earth satellites. Physics and its laws make putting any such device into orbit a daunting task. Any apparatus must overcome the gravity of the planet and then not fall on it. To do this, the satellite needs to move with or a little faster. Above our planet, a conditional lower boundary of the possible location of the satellite is distinguished (passes at an altitude of 300 km). Closer placement will lead to a fairly rapid deceleration of the vehicle in atmospheric conditions.

Initially, only launch vehicles could deliver artificial earth satellites into orbit. Physics, however, does not stand still, and today new methods are being developed. Thus, one of the most frequently used methods lately is launching from another satellite. There are plans to use other options as well.

The orbits of spacecraft revolving around the Earth can run at different heights. Naturally, the time required for one lap also depends on this. Satellites, whose orbital period is equal to days, are placed on the so-called It is considered the most valuable, since the vehicles on it seem to be motionless for the terrestrial observer, which means that there is no need to create mechanisms for rotating the antennas.

AMS (automatic interplanetary stations)

Scientists receive a huge amount of information about various objects in the solar system using spacecraft directed outside the geocentric orbit. AMC objects are planets, asteroids, comets, and even galaxies available for observation. The tasks that are set for such devices require tremendous knowledge and efforts from engineers and researchers. AMC missions are the embodiment of technological progress and are at the same time its stimulus.

Manned spaceship

The devices created to deliver people to the designated target and return them back are technologically in no way inferior to the described types. It is to this type that Vostok-1 belongs, on which Yuri Gagarin made his flight.

The most difficult task for the creators of a manned spacecraft is to ensure the safety of the crew during their return to Earth. Also, an important part of such devices is the emergency rescue system, which may become necessary during the launch of a spacecraft into space using a launch vehicle.

Space vehicles, like all astronautics, are constantly being improved. Recently, in the media, one could often see reports about the activities of the Rosetta probe and the Phila lander. They embody all the latest achievements in the field of space shipbuilding, calculating the movement of the device, and so on. The landing of the Philae probe on a comet is considered an event comparable to Gagarin's flight. The most interesting thing is that this is not the crown of humanity's possibilities. We are still waiting for new discoveries and achievements in terms of both space exploration and construction.

Ryde Julia

The abstract reflects the history of Earth exploration from space, describes the experience of using artificial satellites for research natural resources Earth.

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Municipal budgetary educational institution

basic secondary school number 15

Municipal Formation Uspensky District

Raid Yulia Alexandrovna

Grade 8, 06/30/1997

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Starikova Tatiana Vasilievna

Tel. 8861067251

Fax: 886104067226

2012 r.

I. Introduction

History of Earth exploration from space

II. The use of artificial satellites for the study of the natural resources of the Earth:

1. Cartography

2. Agriculture

3. Forest fires

4. Oceanography

5. Fishing

6. Ice exploration

7. Oil pollution

8. Air pollution

III. Conclusion. Conclusions.

IV. Used Books:

annotation

Several blocks can be distinguished among the various space technologies. These are the creation of rocket and space systems and the manufacture of onboard equipment for them; telecommunication (communications, television, etc.) and navigation technologies (precise determination of the coordinates of all kinds of ground objects); and also - Earth remote sensing (ERS) - surveying our planet from satellites in near-Earth orbits. at present, as evidenced, in particular, by foreign analysts, the first place in terms of profitability is taken by the block of Earth exploration from space. Their results are used in a wide variety of sectors of the economy. Only from space can one simultaneously collect global information about the state of the atmosphere and oceans, agriculture and geology, about the results of human activities that continuously change the conditions of life on Earth (alas, not always for the better!).

The staff of the Climatic Research Laboratory of the Department of Earth Research from Space of the IKI RAS has accumulated and is constantly updating the database of satellite monitoring of the Earth, obtained within the framework of the programDMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program)with radiometric instruments on board.
The DMSP is a long-term Earth monitoring program providing operational global meteorological, oceanographic and solar geophysical information. Surveillance satellites are especially effective for exploring natural resources that change and renew over time.

I. History of Earth exploration from space

Man first appreciated the role of satellites for monitoring the state of agricultural land, forests and researching other natural resources of the Earth only a few years after the onset of the space age. The beginning was laid in 1960, when with the help of meteorological satellites, map-like outlines of the globe lying under the clouds were obtained. These first black-and-white television images provided very little insight into human activity, yet one showed faint patches of snow in northern Canada that were evidence of forest clearing.

In May 1963, an American astronaut during a flight on the Mercury spacecraft struck ground personnel with the message that he could see roads, buildings, and even smoke from chimneys. Ground Control mistook this for hallucinations! Subsequent space flights confirmed Cooper's observations. Color images taken by the astronauts showed changes in urban development and progress in building new roads during the six-month interval between flights, and clear images of wheat fields were brought from space. On some satellite images, it was possible to distinguish the places where the rain fell the night before, and not by the type of wet earth, but by different color shades associated with the "development of curls" of vegetation. Soon, new technical means were developed that made it possible to improve the quality of observations, achievements in the field of military research were used to expand the capabilities of the survey from reconnaissance aircraft. Information was extracted from multispectral images in the visible and infrared (IR) regions of the spectrum, which made it possible to distinguish between minor changes in infrared radiation on Earth, not perceived by the human eye, but containing important information.

Observation equipment was of two main types: cameras charged with a film sensitive only to infrared radiation, and radiometers, which are special radio receivers tuned only to the wavelengths of the infrared range. For example, in the first infrared photographs taken from research aircraft, it was possible to distinguish between fields with normally developing and diseased crops. Areas of healthy crops were bright pink or red-white in photographs, and areas of affected crops were blue-black. Moreover, the onset of the disease was often detected earlier than the farmer on the land. Multispectral sensors, currently widely used on observation satellites, are based on a single principle: objects and phenomena on the earth's surface can generally be recognized by the energy of the radiation they emit or reflect. The spectral characteristics of vegetation are different from those of rocks, soil or water. The images are digitized and transmitted to the parabolic antennas of ground receiving stations, where they are recorded on tape.

II. The use of artificial satellites for the study of the natural resources of the Earth

1. Cartography

Cartography was one of the earliest areas of application for images of the earth's surface obtained in accordance with the natural resource exploration program. In the pre-satellite era, maps of many areas, even in developed parts of the world, were inaccurate. Satellite images have made it possible to correct and update some existing maps at a scale of 1: 250,000 or less. The latest information has revealed the development of cities since the release of the latest maps, changes in roads and railway tracks.

Satellite images were also used to plot detailed maps required for road construction, railway construction and irrigation canals. Now it is possible to draw up maps of underwater relief, for example, coral reefs, which are a potential hazard to navigation. The main factor in reducing the cost of mapping is the high speed of satellite imagery compared to other methods.

2. Agriculture

Using satellite data, researchers can identify individual crops in the fields. The distinguished crops include cereals, corn, soybeans, sorghum, oats, herbs (four types), lettuce, mustard, tomatoes, carrots and onions. Scientists distinguish between wet sown fields and bare ground on large areas... These capabilities enable global surveillance of food production to help humanity avoid the danger of food shortages. The researchers also focused on the possibilities for achieving better use of crop and forest resources. With regular satellite observations, you can determine the best planting and harvest times to maximize yield by monitoring soil conditions and moisture content; during the growing season, crop inventories can be taken and early warning of drought, flooding and erosion can be made.

This type of agricultural inspection would provide an inventory of potentially arable land after clearing in the tropics and provide information on fertile and arid areas that can be made fertile through irrigation. WITH The system of observation of natural lands from space allowed to establish the best terms for pasture of cattle on pastures.

3. Forest fires

The use of information from satellites has revealed its indisputable advantages when assessing the volume of timber in the vast territories of any country. It became possible to manage the process of deforestation and, if necessary, make recommendations on changing the contours of the deforestation area in terms of the best forest preservation.

Satellite imagery has also made it possible to quickly estimate the boundaries of forest fires. During the survey of the territory of Canada, 42 fires were registered in the northern part of one of the provinces, which made it possible to assess the scale of the danger

4. Oceanography

In addition to photographing the oceans, various satellite systems provide information directly from the sea. Automatic ocean buoys can measure local air and water surface temperatures, temperature, pressure and salt content at depth, wave heights and surface currents. This information, transmitted on command to the satellite, is recorded and relayed to one of the ground stations for operational dissemination. Currently, it is possible to receive information about the state of the sea directly from the satellite using microwave radar (backscatter) methods.

5. Fishing

Pacific fishermen use information from satellites to locate thermal boundaries in the ocean, which tend to congregate salmon and tuna due to their high food content. Thanks to satellites providing information on the ever-changing path of the Gulf Stream, fishermen used it to select rational routes. As for deep-sea observations, modern sensitive satellite instruments are able to "see" in clear water at a depth of up to 20 m. In the Caribbean, this, for example, made it possible to map previously unknown shoals. Oceans are being researched from the stations, as well as from satellites that measure the electromagnetic radiation of the sea surface in the visible, infrared and microwave ranges.

These devices will provide information on
1) coastal pollution,
2) conservation and use of fish stocks,
3) laying the routes of ships, taking into account ocean currents,
4) taking into account the force effect of waves in the design of structures in the open sea and power plants using wave energy,
5) mapping of polar caps, ocean temperatures and winds in order to better predict climate and weather changes.

6. Ice exploration

The use of satellites for survey purposes made it easier to plot the course of ships. During the operation of the Soviet nuclear-powered icebreaker Siberia, information from four types of satellites was used to draw up the safest and most economical routes in the northern seas. In one of these voyages, the icebreaker traveled from Murmansk to the Bering Strait. The information received from the Kosmos-1000 navigation satellite was used in the spacecraft's computer to determine the exact location. Images of the cloud cover and forecasts of snow and ice conditions were received from the Meteor satellites, which made it possible to choose best rate... With the help of the Molniya satellite, regular communication between the ship and the base was maintained.

Navigation of ships in cold seas depends entirely on knowledge of the properties, distribution, variety and behavior of ice and icebergs. To make forecasts, information is needed on air and sea temperatures, precipitation, winds and currents. Information about the thickness of ice on lakes and rivers, as well as about ice conditions at sea, can be obtained from satellites using infrared sensors in the absence of clouds. Passive microwave radiometry is likely to become the basis of all-weather systems, and high-resolution photography will be a means of monitoring the state of the coast and coastal waters. One of the most impressive images of the giant iceberg was taken from a satellite during its flight over Antarctica on January 31, 1977. Similar in shape to a boot, and similar in size to Rode Island, the iceberg appears to be resting in the bay, but in reality it is in the open water and temporarily ran aground north of James Ross Island.

7. Oil pollution

The captain of the tanker, who considers it possible to wash tanks in coastal waters, in the future, is likely to enter into a fight with satellites that closely monitor his antisocial activities. In contrast to the poor visibility of oil spills from aircraft, the view from which is in any case limited to narrow strips of the ocean due to low altitude, these spots are effectively detected by satellites on a global scale, with the exception of areas with persistent low clouds. For this purpose, satellite sensors measure the streams of sunlight reflected from the ocean's surface. Radiation from spilled oil differs sharply from radiation from ordinary ocean water in the near ultraviolet wavelength range and close to the red range. Polarization in reflected light from oil slicks also indicates a dramatic difference.

It is possible not only to distinguish between light and heavy oil fractions in one spot (the light ones have a lighter shade), but also to estimate the volume of oil on the basis of repeated observations; knowledge of the type and quality of oil will help determine its field.

Multispectral deployment device (MRU)such a device gave four synchronous images in different wavelength ranges: band 4 (green) - 0.5-0.6 microns; lane 5 (lower red) - 0.6-0.7 microns; band 6 (upper red / lower infrared) - 0.7-0.8 microns; band 7 (infrared) - 0.8-1.1 microns. On the Landsat-3 satellite, in band 7, the distribution of land and water is best perceived; in lane 5 - topographic features; in lane 4, the depth and turbidity of standing water are qualitatively distinguishable; in band 6, tonal contrasts are best perceived, reflecting the nature of land use, as well as the maximum difference between land and water

8. Air pollution

Air pollution is closely related to changes in atmospheric circulation (and, accordingly, meteorological observations from satellites). Emissions from industrial plants, car exhaust and other sources generate hundreds of millions of tons of toxic gases every year. Clouds of smog over Los Angeles and other cities are clearly visible in photographs taken from space.

The surprising thing is that, despite the annual release of huge masses of carbon monoxide, there is no stable increase in its concentration. Therefore, there must be some natural mechanism to remove the resulting gas.

Global mapping of areas of the atmosphere with high, low and medium gas concentration is carried out by a correlation interferometer - an optical instrument capable of detecting small amounts of gaseous components. It is assumed that by monotonous scanning over long periods of time, the instrument will reveal the mechanism of gas composition change.

Until this mechanism is understood, it is impossible to predict whether the concentration of carbon monoxide will increase in the future, and if so, by how much.

There is also concern about the widespread increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the global scale of burning of fossil fuels, this has the effect of covering the Earth with an increasingly thick blanket that continues to transmit sunlight, but reduces the reflection of thermal radiation back into space and, thus, contributes to the accumulation heat at the surface. If we extrapolate the current rate of burning of fossil fuels, then by 2025 the temperature of the Earth could theoretically rise by 5.5 ° C. This cannot but cause concern, since even a fraction of a degree increase in temperature leads to climate changes. The most fertile lands can turn into deserts, and barren areas become sources of agricultural production. Contrary to expectations, not all research results are discouraging. For example, some of them indicate that carbon monoxide initiates a complex combination chemical reactions, which can lead to the formation of life-giving ozone in the lower atmosphere, more precisely in the troposphere at altitudes of 10-15 km.

One of the most important areas of research with satellites is the portion of the stratosphere containing a layer of ozone, which protects the Earth and its inhabitants from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The stratosphere, extending from the cloud top to an altitude of about 50 km, also contains a layer of dusty particles and small liquid droplets (aerosols), which is located below the zone of maximum ozone concentration. Jet aircraft are a constant source of aerosols and gases directly into the atmosphere; even the hydrofluorocarbons, used as the propellant gas in aerosol dispensers, end up there.

Thus, it is important that scientists are constantly monitoring the wide variety of effects of pollutants on the atmosphere on a global scale, and in this case, the key to solving problems is helping to find satellites.

III. Conclusion. conclusions

TO When it became necessary to look at our planet in a new way in terms of problems associated with depletion of natural resources, population growth and environmental pollution, scientists found a way out in creating satellites to study the natural resources of the Earth. Only from space can one simultaneously collect global information about the state of the atmosphere and oceans, agriculture and geology, about the results of human activities that continuously change the conditions of life on Earth (alas, not always for the better!).

Surveillance satellites are particularly effective for exploring natural resources that change and renew over time, such as arable land, forests, rivers, eroded coastal areas, snow and floodplains.

The importance of research into the natural resources of the Earth is widely recognized. Countries began to develop satellites for similar tasks, which marked the beginning of a permanent system. considerable research experience has been accumulated, the results of which contribute to solving problems in ecology, geology, the development of agriculture and other industries. The long-term goal of this project is to take an inventory of non-renewable and slowly renewable resources such as minerals and fossil fuels, water reserves, monitoring the conditionagriculture and atmosphere. The program is focused on the ability to identify, predict and, in some cases, control some processes related to oceanography, climatology, soil erosion and water pollution, as well as monitor potentially dangerous natural phenomena such as floods, droughts, storms, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Now in world space activities, as a rule, they are guided not so much by individual national satellites as by their groupings. The prospect of exploring the Earth from space is to expand and develop international cooperation.

Used Books:

1. Zheleznyakov. Soviet cosmonautics, 1998

2. Magazine "Kommersant-Vlast", №№ from 10 and 17. 04. 2001.

3. Use of materials from the Internet

Introduction 3
Earth professions of cosmonautics
The main stages of the development of cosmonautics in the USSR and its significance for the study of the Earth 6

Chapter I. Earth - planet of the solar system 11
The shape, size and orbit of the Earth. Comparing it with other planets of the solar system. A general look at the structure of the Earth 18
Methods for studying the earth's interior 21
Features of radiation radiation of the earth's surface 23

Chapter II. Geological survey from orbit 26
Types of spacecraft Features of geological information from different orbits
Characteristics of research methods 29
Colored Earth Outfit 37
Earth in the invisible range of the electromagnetic spectrum 42

Chapter III. What space information gives for geology 49
How space images are handled
Lineaments 53
Ring structures 55
Is it possible to discover ore and oil resources from space 63
Space exploration and environmental protection 65
Comparative Planetology 66
Conclusion 76
Literature 78

EARTH SPACE PROFESSIONS
The tasks that the Soviet people, led by the Communist Party, are solving in the sphere of economic development are immense.
Much is being done here for the first time, much is being done on a scale unprecedented in the history of mankind. Each step forward is a meeting with new problems, a creative squeak, fraught with great responsibility, and sometimes even risk. Science is confidently paving the way for the future, making a qualitative leap in the knowledge of nature. The main feature of the modern scientific and technological revolution is its all-embracing, all-embracing nature. So, for example, the development of astronautics has caused the progress of many "earthly" branches of science and technology.
The idea of ​​creating spacecraft was initially associated only with the study of the planets of the solar system and distant worlds. Physicists and astronomers strove to deliver their instruments and observers to the objects under study, to overcome the influence of the atmosphere, which always complicated and sometimes made impossible many experiments. And their hopes were not in vain. Extra-atmospheric astronomy and physics have opened completely new horizons for science. It became possible to study the sources of ultraviolet and x-ray absorbed by the atmosphere. New opportunities. opened before gamma astronomy. The placement of radio telescopes into space makes it possible to further develop radio astronomy research.
An important feature of the development of cosmonautics today is its use for solving national economic problems. Currently, space research methods are used. in meteorology, geology, geography, water, forestry and agriculture, oceanology, fishing industry, for environmental protection and in many other areas of science and national economy.
In terms of the volume of space information used, meteorology ranks first. Meteorologists are studying the upper shell of our planet - the atmosphere - with the help of artificial earth satellites. Having received the first photographs of cloudiness, scientists became convinced of the correctness of many of their hypotheses about the physical state of the atmosphere. compiled from data from conventional meteorological stations. In addition, satellites provided extensive information about the global structure of the atmosphere. It turned out that depending on the character
air currents in its lower envelopes (tropo- and stratosphere) there are large convective cells with an upward and downward current of air masses. Huge information was brought by satellites about cumulonimbus clouds, the main culprits of heavy rainfall, causing so much harm to people. Tropical vortices have been detected from space. It is known what impact meteorological phenomena have on human life and economic activity, therefore, a wide range of programs is now being carried out that study various processes that "control" the weather and climate.
Thanks to the use of satellites, scientists are now on the verge of solving one of the most difficult problems in meteorology today - the compilation of a two-three-week weather forecast.
Space methods provide great information for many branches of geology: geotectonics, geomorphology, seismology,
engineering geology, hydrogeology, permafrost studies, prospecting for minerals, etc. As the range of our information about the Earth expands, knowledge of the general planetary features of its structure becomes essential. Space vehicles help in this science. On the images obtained from space, it is possible to distinguish areas with different tectonic structures, and everything that was known to the data of ground research can be seen in a generalized form in one image. Depending on the scale of the image, we can study continents as a whole, platforms and geosynclinal regions, individual folds and breaks. A survey from space heights allows us to draw conclusions about the conjugation of individual structures and the general tectonic structure of the region. Moreover, in many cases it is possible to objectively show the position and clarify the structure of the surface and deep structure buried under the cover of younger deposits. This means that when analyzing space images, new information appears about the structural features of the region, which will significantly clarify the existing or compile new geological and tectonic maps and thereby improve and make more targeted the search for minerals, give reasonable forecasts of seismicity, engineering geological conditions, and etc. Space images make it possible to establish the nature and direction of young tectonic movements, the nature and intensity of modern geological processes. From the images, you can clearly trace the connection between the relief and the hydraulic network with the geological features of the object under study. Information from space allows you to assess the impact economic activity man on the state of the natural environment.
Spacecraft can be used to study the relief, material composition, tectonic structures of the upper shells of other planets. This is very important for geology, as it allows you to compare the structure of the planets, find their common and distinctive features.
Space methods are also widely used in geography. The main tasks of space geography are to study the composition, structure
niya, dynamics, rhythm of the natural environment and regularities around us. its changes. With the help of space technology, we have the opportunity to judge the dynamics of the relief of the earth's surface, to reveal the main relief-forming factors, to assess the destructive effect of river, sea waters and other exogenous forces. It is equally important to study the vegetation cover from space, both inhabited and inaccessible areas. Space surveys provide an opportunity to find out the state of snow cover and glaciers to determine snow reserves. On the basis of these data, the water content of rivers, the possibility of snow falls and avalanches in the mountains is predicted, an inventory of glaciers is compiled, the dynamics of their movement is studied, the rainfall runoff in arid zones is estimated, and the areas of flooding by flood waters are determined. All this data is applied to photomaps assembled from satellite images in the desired projection. Maps based on space information have many advantages, the most important of which is objectivity.
Our agriculture is also actively using space information. Observations from space allow agricultural specialists to receive operational information about weather conditions. Space information makes it possible to keep records and assess land, monitor the state of agricultural land, assess the activity and impact of exogenous processes, determine areas of land affected by agricultural pests, and select the most suitable areas for pastures.
One of the problems facing the country's forestry - the development of an accounting method and the compilation of forest maps - is already being solved with the help of space surveys. They allow you to receive operational information about forest resources. With the help of space technology, foci of forest fires are detected, which is especially important for hard-to-reach areas. The task, solved on the basis of space images, is also very urgent - timely mapping of damaged forest areas.
Large-scale work with the use of satellites is also being carried out on the study of the World Ocean. At the same time, the temperature of the ocean surface is measured, sea waves are investigated, the speed of movement of ocean waters is determined, ice cover and pollution of the World Ocean are studied.
With an accuracy of the order of a degree, the temperature of the sea surface can be measured using infrared radiometers installed on board artificial earth satellites. In this case, measurements can be made almost simultaneously throughout the entire water area of ​​the World Ocean. Space information also provides a solution applied tasks in navigation. These include the prevention of natural disasters, which makes it possible to ensure the safety of maritime navigation, predict ice conditions, and determine the coordinates of the vessel with high accuracy. Satellite 'information can be used to search for commercial fish accumulations in the water area of ​​the World Ocean.
We have considered only some examples of the use of space information related to the study of the natural resources of the Earth. Of course, the scope of application of space methods and space technology in the national economy is much wider. For example, special communication satellites make it possible to broadcast and receive television broadcasts from the most remote corners of the planet, tens of millions of television viewers watch television broadcasts via the Orbita system. The results of space research and development related to the preparation and conduct of experiments in space (in the field of electronics, computers, energy, materials science, medicine, etc.) are already being used in the national economy.
Is it by chance that space methods have gained such popularity? Even a brief overview of the applications of space technology in the earth sciences allows us to answer - no. Indeed, we now have detailed information about the structure of this or that region and the processes taking place there. But we can objectively consider these processes as a whole, in interconnection, at the global level only with the use of space information. This allows us to study our planet as a single mechanism and move on to describing the local features of its structure, based on a new level of our knowledge. The main advantages of space methods are system analysis, globality, efficiency and effectiveness. The process of widespread introduction of space research methods is natural, it is prepared historical development of all science. We are witnessing the emergence of a new direction in the earth sciences - space geosciences, part of which is space geology. She studies the material composition, the deep and surface structure of the earth's crust, the patterns of distribution of minerals, using information from spacecraft.

MAIN STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF COSMONAUTICS IN THE USSR AND ITS IMPORTANCE FOR STUDYING THE EARTH
The world's first artificial Earth satellite was launched in the USSR on October 4, 1957. On this day, our Motherland raised the flag of a new era in the scientific and technological progress of mankind. In the same year, we celebrated the 40th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution. These events and dates are associated with the logic of history. In a short time, an agrarian, industrially backward country turned into an industrial power capable of making the most daring dreams of mankind come true. Since then, a large number of spacecraft of various types have been created in our country - artificial earth satellites (AES), manned spacecraft (PSC), orbital stations (OS), interplanetary automatic stations (MAC). A wide front has been deployed for scientific research in near-earth space. The Moon, Mars, Venus became available for direct study. Depending on the tasks to be solved, artificial earth satellites are subdivided into scientific, meteorological, navigation, communications, oceanographic, researching natural resources, etc. ... France x became the third space power (November 26, 1965, satellite "Asterix-1"); the fourth is Japan i (February 11, 1970, the Osumi satellite); the fifth - China (April 24, 1970, satellite "Dongfanhun"); sixth - Great Britain (October 28, 1971, satellite "Prospero"); seventh - India (July 18, 1980, satellite "Rohini"). Each of the aforementioned satellites was launched into orbit by a domestic launch vehicle.
The first artificial satellite was a ball 58 cm in diameter and weighing 83.6 kg. It had an elongated elliptical orbit with an altitude of 228 km at perigee and 947 km at apogee and existed as a space body for about three months. In addition to verifying the correctness of the basic calculations and technical solutions, it was the first to measure the density of the upper atmosphere and obtain data on the propagation of radio signals in the ionosphere.
The second Soviet satellite was launched on November 3, 1957. The dog Laika was on it, and biological and astrophysical studies were carried out. The third Soviet satellite (the world's first scientific geophysical laboratory) was launched into orbit on May 15, 1958, an extensive scientific research program was carried out, and the outer zone of the radiation belts was discovered. Subsequently, satellites were developed and launched in our country. for various purposes... Satellites of the "Cosmos" series are launched ( Scientific research in the field of astrophysics, geophysics, medicine and biology, the study of natural resources, etc.), meteorological satellites of the "Meteor" series, communications satellites, scientific stations and for the study of solar activity (satellites "Forecast"), etc.
Just three and a half years after the launch of the first satellite, a man, a citizen of the USSR, Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin, flew into outer space. April 12, 1961 in the USSR was brought to near-earth orbit spaceship "Vostok", piloted by cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. Its flight lasted 108 minutes. Yuri Gagarin was the first person to carry out visual observations of the earth's surface from space. The Vostok manned spacecraft flight program became the foundation on which the development of domestic manned astronautics was based. On August 6, 1961, the pilot-cosmonaut G. Titov first photographed the Earth from space. This date can be considered the beginning of systematic space photography of the Earth. In the USSR, the first television image of the Earth * was obtained from the Molniya-1 satellite in 1966 from a distance of 40 thousand km.
The next steps in space exploration were dictated by the logic of the development of cosmonautics. The new Soyuz manned spacecraft was created. Long-term manned orbital stations (OS) made it possible to systematically and purposefully explore near-earth space. The long-term orbital station "Salyut" is a spacecraft of a new type.
the stump of automation of its on-board equipment and all systems makes it possible to conduct a varied program of research on the natural resources of the Earth. The first OS Salyut was launched in April 1971. In June 1971, the pilots-cosmonauts G. Dobrovolsky, V. Volkov and V. Patsaev carried out the first multi-day watch at the Salyut station. In 1975, on board the Salyut-4 station, cosmonauts P. Kli-muk and V. Sevastyanov made a 63-day flight, they delivered extensive materials on the study of natural resources to Earth. The complex survey covered the territory of the USSR in the middle and southern latitudes.
The Soyuz-22 spacecraft (1976, cosmonauts V. Bykovsky and V. Aksenov) surveyed the earth's surface with the MKF-6 camera developed in the GDR and the USSR and manufactured in the GDR. The camera made it possible to shoot in 6 ranges of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves. The cosmonauts delivered over 2000 images to Earth, each of which covers an area of ​​165X115 km. The main feature of photographs taken with the MKF-6 camera is the ability to obtain combinations of images taken in different parts of the spectrum. In such images, the light transmission does not correspond to the real colors of natural objects, but is used to increase the contrast between objects of different brightness, that is, a combination of filters allows the studied objects to be shaded in the desired color gamut.
A large amount of work in the field of Earth exploration from space was carried out from the second-generation orbital station Salyut-6, launched in September 1977. This station had two docking stations. With the help of the Progress transport cargo vehicle (created on the basis of the Soyuz spacecraft), it was delivered fuel, food, scientific equipment, etc. This made it possible to increase the duration of flights. For the first time, the complex "Salyut-6" - "Soyuz" - "Progress" worked in near-earth space. At the Salyut-6 station, the flight of which lasted 4 years 11 months (and in manned mode 676 days), 5 long flights were made (96, 140, 175, 185 and 75 days). In addition to long-term flights (expeditions), participants of short-term (one week) visiting expeditions worked together with the main crews at the Salyut-6 station. On board the Salyut-6 orbital station and the Soyuz spacecraft from March 1978 to May 1981, international crews from the citizens of the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Poland, GDR, NRB, Hungary, Vietnam, Cuba, Mongolia, SRR were flown ... These flights were carried out in accordance with the program of joint work in the field of exploration and use of outer space, within the framework of multilateral cooperation of the countries of the socialist community, which was named "Interkosmos".
On April 19, 1982, the Salyut-7 long-term orbital station, which is a modernized version of the Salyut-6 station, was launched into orbit. The Soyuz PSC was replaced by new, more modern spacecraft of the Soyuz-T series (the first manned test flight of the Soyuz-T series was completed in 1980).
On May 13, 1982, the Soyuz T-5 spacecraft was launched with cosmonauts V. Lebedev and A. Berezov. This flight became the longest in the history of astronautics, it lasted 211 days. A significant place in the work was devoted to the study of the natural resources of the Earth. For this purpose, the cosmonauts regularly observed and photographed the earth's surface and the water area of ​​the World Ocean. About 20 thousand images of the earth's surface were received. During their flight, V. Lebedev and A. Berezovoy twice met the cosmonauts from Earth. On July 25, 1982, an international crew consisting of pilots-cosmonauts V. Dzhanibekov, A. Ivanchenkov and French citizen Jean-Loup Chretien arrived at the Salyut-7 - Soyuz T-5 orbital complex. From 20 to 27 August 1982 cosmonauts L. Popov, A. Serebrov and the world's second woman, cosmonaut-researcher S. Savitskaya worked at the station. The materials obtained during the 211-day flight are being processed and are already being widely used in various areas of the national economy of our country.
In addition to studying the Earth, the study of the terrestrial planets and other celestial bodies of the Galaxy became an important area of ​​Soviet cosmonautics. On September 14, 1959, the Soviet automatic station Luna-2 reached the lunar surface for the first time; in the same year, the survey of the far side of the Moon was carried out from the Luna-3 station for the first time. The lunar surface was subsequently photographed many times by our stations. The soil of the Moon was delivered to the Earth (station "Luna-16, 20, 24"), its chemical composition was determined.
Automatic interplanetary stations (AMS) have explored Venus and Mars.
7 AMS of the "Mars" series were launched to the planet Mars. On December 2, 1971, the first soft landing on the surface of Mars in the history of astronautics (the Mars-3 descent vehicle) was carried out. The equipment installed at the Mars stations transmitted information about the temperature and pressure in the atmosphere, its structure and chemical composition. Television images of the planet's surface were obtained.
To the planet Venus was launched 16 AMS of the "Venus" series. In 1967, for the first time in the history of cosmonautics, direct direct scientific measurements were carried out in the atmosphere of Venus (pressure, temperature, density, chemical composition) during the descent of the descent vehicle "Venera-4" by parachute, and the measurement results were transmitted to Earth. In 1970, the Venera-7 descent vehicle for the first time in the world made a soft landing and transmission of scientific information to Earth, and in 1975 the Venera-9 and Venera-10 descent vehicles, which descended to the planet's surface from with an interval of 3 days, panoramic images of the surface of Venus were transmitted to Earth (their landing sites were 2200 km apart from one another). The stations themselves became the first artificial satellites of Venus.
In accordance with the further research program, on October 30 and November 4, 1981, the spacecraft Venera-13 and Venera-14 were launched, they reached Venus in early March 1983. Two days before entering the atmosphere from the Venera- 13 "the descent vehicle separated, and the station itself passed at a distance of 36 thousand km from the planet's surface. The lander made a soft landing; during the descent, experiments were carried out to study the atmosphere of Venus. The drilling soil sampling device installed on the device for 2 minutes. went deep into the soil of the planet's surface, its analysis was carried out and the data was transmitted to Earth. Telephotometers transmitted a panoramic image of the planet to the Earth (shooting was carried out through color filters), and a color image of the planet's surface was obtained. The descent vehicle of the Venera-14 station made a soft landing approximately 1000 km from the previous one. With the help of the installed equipment, a soil sample was also taken and an image of the planet was transmitted. The Venera-13 and Venera-14 stations continue their flight in a heliocentric orbit.
The Soviet-American flight "Soyuz" - "Apollo" entered the history of cosmonautics. In July 1975 g. Soviet cosmonauts A. Leonov and V. Kubasov and American astronauts T. Stafford, V. Brand and D. Slayton carried out the first joint flight of the Soviet and American spacecraft Soyuz and Apollo in the history of cosmonautics.
Soviet-French scientific cooperation has been successfully developing (for more than 15 years) - joint experiments are being carried out, scientific equipment and a program of experiments are being developed jointly by Soviet and French specialists. In 1972, one Soviet rocket launched the communication satellites "Molniya-1" and the French satellites "MAS", and in 1975 - the satellites "Molniya-1" and the satellites "MAS-2". Currently, this cooperation continues successfully.
Two Indian artificial earth satellites were launched from the territory of the USSR into orbit.
From a small and relatively simple first satellite to modern Earth satellites, the most complex automatic interplanetary stations, manned spacecraft and orbital stations - this is the path of cosmonautics in twenty-five years.
Now space exploration is at a new stage. The XXVI Congress of the CPSU has put forward an important task of further knowledge and practical exploration of outer space.

CHAPTER 1. EARTH - A PLANET OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Even in ancient times, among the stars, people noticed five heavenly bodies, outwardly very similar to stars, but differing from the latter in that they do not maintain a constant position in the constellations, but wander across the sky, like the Sun and the Moon. These luminaries were given the names of the gods - Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In the last two centuries, three more such celestial bodies have been discovered: Uranus (1781), Neptune (1846) and Pluto (1930). Celestial bodies revolving around the Sun and shining with reflected light are called planets. Thus, in addition to the Earth, 8 more planets revolve around the Sun.

FORM, DIMENSIONS AND ORBIT OF THE EARTH.
COMPARING IT WITH OTHER PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Over the past 20-25 years, we have learned more about the Earth than in previous centuries. New data were obtained as a result of the application of geophysical methods, ultra-deep drilling, spacecraft, with the help of which not only the Earth, but also other planets of the solar system were studied. The planets of the solar system are divided into two groups - the Earth-type planets and the giant Jupiter-type planets. The terrestrial planets are Earth, Mars, Venus, Mercury. Pluto is often referred to this group, based on its small size. These planets are characterized by relatively small size, high density, significant rotation speed around the axis, small mass .. They are similar to each other as in chemical composition, and on the internal structure. The giant planets include the planets most distant from the Sun - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Their sizes are many times larger than those of the terrestrial planets, and their density is much lower (Table 1). Among the planets of the solar system in terms of distance from the sun, the Earth takes the third place (Fig. 1). It is at a distance (average) of 149 106 km from it. The Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit, moving away during the year as much as possible (in aphelion) at a distance of 152.1 10® km and approaching (at perihelion) by 147.1 10® km.
The issues of determining the shape and size of the Earth are inextricably linked with each other and were solved by scientists in parallel. It is known that as early as 530 BC. NS. Pythagoras came to the conclusion about the sphericity of the Earth, and since the time of Ptolemy this idea has become widespread. In the years 1669-1676. French scientist Picard measured the arc of the Parisian meridian and determined the value of the Earth's radius - 6372 km. In reality, the shape of the Earth is more complex and does not correspond to any regular geometric figure. It is determined by the size of the planet, rotation speed, density, and many other factors. The following constants of the Earth are accepted: the polar radius is 6356.863 km, the equatorial radius is 6378.245 km, the average radius of the Earth is 6371 h 11 km. The average arc of 1 ° along the meridian is assumed to be 111 km. Based on this, scientists believe that the surface area of ​​the Earth is 510 million km, its volume is 1.083-1012 km3, and its mass is 6-1027 g. From geometric figures, the Earth is close to a biaxial ellipsoid of revolution, called Krasovsky's ellipsoid ( by the name of the Soviet geodesist Professor F.N.Krasovsky). But the real shape of the Earth is different from any geometric shape, because only the unevenness of the relief on the Earth has an amplitude of about 20 km (the highest mountains - 8-9 km, deep-water depressions - 10-11 km). The geoid is somewhat closer to the geometrically complex figure of the Earth. The surface of the ocean is taken as the surface of the geoid, mentally extended under the continents in such a way that at any point of it the direction of gravity (plumb line) will be perpendicular to this surface. The greatest coincidence of the shape of the Earth with the geoid we have in the ocean. True, recent changes have shown that there are deviations of up to 20 m in the water area (on land, deviations reach ± ​​100-150 m).
As a rule, when studying the position of the Earth, the environment of other planets of the Solar System and its structure, the planet is considered together with the Moon and the Earth-Moon system is called a double planet, because of the relatively large mass of the Moon.
The Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth, moving around our planet in an elliptical orbit at a distance of 384-103 km on average. It is much closer to the Earth than other celestial bodies, so the first steps in comparative planetary science are related to the study of the Moon. In recent years, thanks to the successes of space research, considerable material has been accumulated on its relief and structure. Soviet robotic stations and American astronauts delivered lunar soil to Earth. We have detailed photographs of both the visible and invisible sides of the Moon, on the basis of which its tectonic map was compiled. On the lunar surface, there are relatively low areas, the so-called "seas", filled with igneous rocks such as basalts. Areas of mountainous ("continental") relief are widely developed, which especially prevails on the far side of the moon. The main features of its surface are created by magmatic processes. The lunar relief is dotted with craters, many of which were the result of falling meteorites. In general, the face of the Moon is characterized by asymmetry in the location of the "seas" and "continents", which is also observed on Earth. The relief of the Moon is affected by meteorites, temperature fluctuations during the lunar day, and cosmic radiation. Seismic data showed that the Moon has a layered structure. It contains a crust with a thickness of 50-60 km, below it to a depth of 1000 km is the mantle. The age of the lunar rocks is 4.5-109 years, which allows us to consider it the same age as our planet. The composition of the lunar soil is dominated by minerals: pyroxenes, plagioclases, olivine, ilmenite, and the “land” is characterized by rocks of the anorthosite type. All of these components are found on Earth. The diameter of the Moon is 3476 km, its mass is 81 times less than the mass of the Earth. There are no heavy elements in the bowels of the Moon - its average density is equal to 3.34 g / cm3, the acceleration of gravity is 6 times less than on Earth. There is no hydrosphere and atmosphere on the Moon.
Having become acquainted with the Moon, we move on to the story of Mercury. It is the closest planet to the Sun and has a highly elongated elliptical orbit. The diameter of Mercury is 2.6 times smaller than that of the Earth, 1.4 times larger than the lunar and is 4880 km. The density of the planet - 5.44 g / cm3 - is close to the density of the Earth. Mercury rotates around its axis in 58.65 Earth days at a speed of 12 km per hour at the equator, and the period of rotation around the Sun is 88 of our days. The temperature on the planet's surface reaches + 415 ° С in areas illuminated by the sun and drops to -123 ° С on the shady side. Due to its high rotational speed, Mercury has an extremely rarefied atmosphere. The planet is a bright star, but it is not so easy to see it in the sky. The fact is that, being near the Sun,
Rice. 2. Photographs of the terrestrial planets and their satellites, obtained from interplanetary automatic stations of the Zond, Mariner, Venus, Voyager types: I - Earth; 2 - Deimos; 3 - Phobos; 4 - Mercury; 5 - Mars; 6 - Venus; 7 - Luia.
Mercury is always visible near the solar disk. Only 6-7 years ago, very little was known about the surface of Mercury, since telescopic observations from Earth made it possible to distinguish on it only individual ring objects with a diameter of up to 300 km. New data on the surface of Mercury was obtained using the American space station "Mariner-10", which flew near Mercury and transmitted a television image of the planet to Earth. The station has photographed more than half of the planet's surface. Based on these images, a geological map of Mercury was compiled in the USSR. It shows the distribution of structural formations, their relative age and makes it possible to restore the sequence of the development of the relief of Mercury. Studying images of the surface of this planet, you can find an analogy in the structure of the Moon and Mercury. The most numerous landforms of Mercury are craters, circuses, large oval-shaped depressions, "bays" and "seas". For example, the "sea" of Zhara has a diameter of 1300 km. In ring structures with a diameter of more than 130 km, the structure of the inner slopes and bottom is clearly visible. Some of them are inundated with younger volcanic lava flows. In addition to ring structures of meteorite origin, volcanoes have been found on Mercury. The largest of them - Mauna Loa - has a base diameter of 110 km, and the diameter of the summit caldera is 60 km. Systems of deep faults are developed on Mercury - cracks
us. In the relief, they are often expressed by ledges stretching for tens and hundreds of kilometers. The height of the ledges is from several meters to three kilometers. As a rule, they have a curved and sinuous shape, reminiscent of the earth's thrusts. Thrusts are known to occur under compression, so it is quite possible that Mercury is under strong compression. Compressive forces are likely to play a role in the direction of these ledges. Similar geodynamic conditions existed in the past on Earth.
The second planet in order from the Sun is Venus, located at a distance of 108.2-10 km. The orbit is almost circular, the radius of the planet is 6050 km, the average density is 5.24 g / cm3. In contrast to Mercury, it is very easy to find it. In terms of brightness, Venus is the third luminary of the sky, if the Sun is considered the first, and the Moon is the second. This is the closest to us large heavenly body after the moon. Therefore, it would seem that we should know in detail the structure of the planet's surface. In fact, this is not the case. The dense atmosphere of Venus, about 100 km thick, hides its surface from us, so it is inaccessible for direct observation. What is under this cloud cover? Scientists have always been interested in these questions. Over the past decade, scientists have answered many of the questions. Investigations of the surface of Venus were carried out in two ways - with the help of descent vehicles to the surface of the planet and with the help of radar methods (from artificial satellites of Venus and using ground-based radio telescopes). On October 22 and 25, the Venera-9 and Venera-10 descent vehicles for the first time transmitted panoramic images of the surface of Venus. AMS "Venera-9, 10" became artificial satellites of Venus. Radar mapping was carried out by the American Pioneer-Venus spacecraft. It turned out that the structure of Venus is approximately the same as the structure of the Moon, Mars. Similar ring structures and cracks have been found on Venus. The relief is highly dissected, which indicates the activity of the processes; the rocks are close to basalts. Venus practically does not have a magnetic field, it is 3000 times weaker than the earth's.
The closest neighbor of the Earth on the side opposite to the Sun is Mars. It can easily be found in the sky due to its red color. Mars is located at a distance of 206.7-10 ° km from the Sun at perigee and 227.9-106 km at apogee, has an elongated orbit. The distance from Earth to Mars varies greatly from 400-10 ° km to 101.2-106 km during the great oppositions. Mars passes its way around the Sun in 687 days, and its day lasts 24 hours 33 minutes 22 seconds. The axis of the planet is inclined to the orbital plane by 23.5 °, therefore, like on Earth, there is climatic zoning on Mars. Mars is half the size of Earth, its equatorial radius is 3394 km, its polar radius is 30-50 km less. The density of the planet is 3.99 g / cm3, the force of gravity is 2.5 times less than on Earth. The climate is colder than the earth: the temperature is almost always below 0 °, with the exception of the equatorial zone, where it reaches + 220C. On Mars, like on Earth, there are two poles: north and south. When one is summer, the other is winter.
Despite its remoteness, Mars approaches the Moon in terms of the degree of study. With the help of the Soviet automatic stations "Mars" and the American stations "Mariner" and "Viking", a systematic study of the playet was carried out. Geomorphological and tectonic maps of the planet were compiled from photographs of the surface of Mars. On them, areas of "continents" and "oceans" are distinguished, differing not only in the morphology of the relief, but, as on Earth, in the structure of the crust. In general, the surface of Mars has an asymmetric structure, most of it is occupied by "seas", like other terrestrial planets, it is replete with craters. The origin of these craters is associated with intense meteorite bombardment of the surface. Large volcanoes were discovered on it, the largest of which - Olympus - has a height of 27 km. Among the linear structures, the most expressive are rift valleys, which stretch for many thousands of kilometers. Large faults, like deep ditches, tear apart the structures of "continents" and "oceans." The planet's upper shell is complicated by a system of orthogonal and diagonal faults that form a block structure. The youngest formations in the relief of Mars are erosional valleys and dumpy forms. Weathering processes are intense on the surface.
Discovered in 1930, the planet Pluto is the most distant planet in the solar system. It is the maximum distance from the Sun at 5912-106 km. and is approaching at 4425 - 10 km. Pluto differs sharply from giant planets and is close in size to terrestrial planets. Information about it is incomplete, and even the most powerful telescopes do not give an idea of ​​the structure of its surface (see Table 1).
We have considered some of the characteristics of the terrestrial planets. Even a cursory overview reveals the similarities and differences between them. Facts say that Mercury evolved according to the same laws as our Moon. Many features of the relief structure of Mercury are characteristic of Mars, Venus and Earth. Interestingly, looking at the Earth from space also indicates the widespread development of ring and linear structures on our planet. The nature of some ring structures is associated with meteorite "scars". Of course, the stages of the structural development of the planets are not the same. But this is what makes comparative planetology interesting, that by studying the relief, material composition, tectonic structures of the upper shells of other planets, we can reveal the pages of the ancient history of our planet and trace its development. Along with the terrestrial planets, the giant planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are also being studied. They are in many respects similar to each other and are very different from the terrestrial planets (see Table 1). Their masses are much higher than that of the Earth, and their average densities, on the contrary, are less. These planets have large radii and rotate rapidly on their axis. The giant planets are still poorly understood. The difficulty in studying them is associated with the gigantic distance from the Earth. The most interesting results in the study of giant planets
give automatic interplanetary stations. It turned out that these planets are very active. Recently, detailed photographs of Jupiter and its moons were obtained from the American Voyager station. Exploration of the planets continues.

GENERAL VIEW ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
One of the most characteristic properties of the globe is its heterogeneity. It consists of concentric shells. The shells of the Earth are subdivided into outer and inner. External ones include the atmosphere and hydrosphere; internal - the earth's crust, various layers of the mantle and core. The Earth's crust is the most studied and is a thin, very fragile shell. It has three layers. The upper, sedimentary, is composed of sands, sandstones, clays, limestones that have arisen as a result of mechanical, chemical destruction of older rocks, or as a result of the vital activity of organisms. Then comes the granite layer, and the basalt layer lies at the base of the crust. The names of the second and third layers are always given in quotation marks, since they indicate only the predominance of rocks in them, the physical properties of which are close to basalts and granites.
The most characteristic feature of the modern structure of the Earth is its asymmetry: one hemisphere of the planet is oceanic, the other is continental. Continents and ocean depressions are the largest tectonic elements of the earth's crust. They are delimited by a continental slope. Under the oceans, the earth's crust is thin, there is no “granite” layer, and behind thin sediments there is a “basalt” layer up to 10 km thick.
Under the continents, the thickness of the earth's crust increases due to the "granite" layer, as well as the growth of the thickness of the "basalt" and sedimentary layers. The greatest thickness - 50-70 km - it reaches in places of modern mountain systems. In flat areas, the earth's crust rarely exceeds 40 km. The continents have a more complex structure. They can be divided into ancient cores - platforms with the Archean-Lower Proterozoic basement - and the fold belts surrounding them, which differ both in structure and in the time of formation of the earth's crust (Fig. 3). Ancient platforms are stable and inactive areas of the earth's crust, where the leveled surface of the basement is covered with sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Ten ancient platforms are distinguished on the continents. The largest is African, covering almost the entire continent and located in the center of the continental hemisphere. There are six platforms in Eurasia: East European, Siberian, Hindustan, Sino-Korean, South China and Indo-Sinai. The core of the North American continent is the North American Plate, which includes Greenland and Baffin's Land. The vast South American ancient platform participates in the geological structure of South America. The western half of the mainland Australia is occupied by an ancient platform. The central and eastern parts of Antarctica are also a platform. The named continental massifs are grouped into meridional belts, separated by oceanic depressions. In structure and history of geological development, the continents show great similarity in latitudinal direction. The northern belt of continents is distinguished, bordering the Arctic Ocean, which includes the ancient cores of the continents of North America and Eurasia. Parallel to this belt, but in the southern hemisphere, the latitudinal belt of South America, Africa, Arabia, Hindustan and Australia stretches. In the south, it is replaced by the oceanic belt of the Southern Ocean, which borders the Antarctic platform.
Ancient platform cores are separated by mobile, geosynclinal belts, consisting of geosynclinal regions. Scientists distinguish five large belts: Pacific, Mediterranean, Ural-Mongolian, Atlantic and Arctic (see Fig. 3).
The largest of the mobile belts is the Pacific. Half of the West Paradise stretches along the periphery of Asia and Australia and is distinguished by its enormous width - up to 4000 km. A significant part of the belt continues to develop actively. Currently, it is here that there are areas of intense volcanism and powerful earthquakes... The eastern half of the Pacific belt is relatively narrow (up to 160 (3 km) wide), occupied mainly by the mountain-fold structures of the Cordilleras of the American continents and the Antarctic Andes. The Mediterranean belt is also one of the largest; mobile belts of the Earth. It is most fully expressed in the Mediterranean, in the Middle and the Middle East, where it includes the mountain-fold structures of the Crimea, the Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, merging through the Himalayas and Indonesia with the Pacific belt.
The Ural-Mongolian belt forms a huge arc, convex to the south. Near The aral sea and the Tien Shan, he contacts Mediterranean belt, in the north, in the area of ​​Novaya Zemlya, with the Arctic, and in the east, in the region of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, with the Pacific belt (see Fig. 3).
If we map the moving belts of the continents and include the mountain systems of the oceans in them, then, with the exception of the Pacific Ocean, we get a grid of latitudinal belts, in the cells of which are the cores of ancient continents. And if we had the opportunity to look at our Earth through a telescope from another planet, we would see large isometric regions separated by mysterious linear channels, that is, this is how Mars appeared to us quite recently. Of course, both the Martian channels, and the mountain-fold belts of the Earth, and isometric blocks have a very complex, heterogeneous structure and a long history of development.
Geosynclinal belts are characterized by the accumulation of thick sediments (up to 25 km), vertical and horizontal movements, extensive development of magmatic processes, seismic and volcanic activity. The rocks here are strongly deformed, crumpled into folds, and the relief is sharply dissected. The characteristic structural elements of geosynclinal belts are faults that separate folded structures. The largest faults are several thousand kilometers long and have their roots in the mantle at depths of up to 700 km. Recent studies show that faults largely determine the development of platform structures.
In addition to linear formations, ring structures occupy a significant place in the structure of the earth's crust. They are very different in 5 their scales and origin, for example, the giant depression of the Pacific Ocean, which occupies almost half of the planet, and the miniature tops of the cones of active and long extinct volcanoes. A large number of different ring structures are now known on Earth. Probably, at the early stage of the Earth's development, there were more such structures, but due to intensive surface geological processes, their traces have been lost. Per long history geological development, and it has about 4.5 109 years, the structural plan of our planet was gradually created and rebuilt. The modern face of the Earth is the result of geological processes in the relatively recent past. Traces of ancient processes have been preserved in rocks ah, minerals, structures, the study of which allows us to recreate the annals of geological history.

Briefly defining the task of geologists, it boils down to the study of the material composition of the Earth and its evolution throughout the history of geological development. In other words, a geologist must know the composition, properties of matter, its spatial location and confinement to certain geological structures. The structure and composition of the Earth's interior is studied by many methods (Fig. 4). One of them is the direct study of rocks in natural outcrops, as well as in mines and boreholes.
On the plains, you can find out the composition of the geological layers that lie at a depth of only tens of meters. In the mountains, along the river valleys, where the water cuts through powerful ridges, we seem to look already at a depth of 2-3 km. As a result of the destruction of mountain structures, rocks of deep depths appear on the surface. Therefore, studying them; one can judge the structure of the earth's crust at a depth of 15-20 km. The composition of the masses lying deep is allowed to judge the substances ejected during the eruption of volcanoes, which rise from a depth of tens and hundreds of kilometers. They allow you to look into the bowels of the Earth and mines, but their depth in most cases does not exceed 1.5-2.5 km. The deepest mine on Earth is located in South India. Its depth is 3187 m. Geologists have drilled hundreds of thousands of wells. Some wells have reached a depth of 8-9 km. For example, the Bertha-Rogers well located in Oklahoma (USA) has a mark of 9583 m. The well on the Kola Peninsula reached a record depth of 10,000 m. However, if we compare these figures with the radius of our planet (R = 6371 km), then we can easily see how limited our view into the bowels of the Earth is. Therefore, the decisive word in the study of deep structure belongs to geophysical research methods. They are based on the study of natural and artificially created physical fields of the Earth. There are five main geophysical methods: seismic, gravimetric, magnetometric, electrometric, and thermometric. ^ The most information is provided by the seismic method. Its essence lies in the registration of vibrations artificially created or arising during earthquakes, which propagate in all directions from the source, including deep into the Earth. Seismic waves, meeting on their way the boundaries of media with different densities, are partially reflected. The reflected signal from the deeper interface arrives at the observer with some delay. Noticing sequentially arriving signals and knowing the speed of wave propagation, we can distinguish shells of various densities in the bowels of the Earth.
The gravimetric method studies the distribution of gravity on the surface, which is due to the different densities of rocks lying inside the Earth. The deviation of the magnitude of the force of gravity is caused by the heterogeneity of the rocks of the earth's crust. An increase in the gravitational field (positive anomaly) is associated with the occurrence of denser rocks at depth, associated with the intrusion and cooling of magma in less dense sedimentary strata. Negative anomalies indicate the presence of less dense rocks such as rock salt. Thus, by studying the gravitational field, we are able to judge the internal structure of the Earth.
Our planet is a huge magnet around which a magnetic field is located. It is known that rocks have different properties of magnetization. Igneous rocks resulting from the solidification of magma, for example, are more magnetically active than sedimentary ones, since they contain a large amount of ferromagnetic elements (iron, etc.). Therefore, igneous rocks create their own magnetic field, which is indicated by instruments. On the basis of this, maps of the magnetic field are compiled, which are used to judge the material composition of the earth's crust. The heterogeneity of the geological structure leads to the heterogeneity of the magnetic field.
The electrometric method is based on knowledge of the conditions of passage electric current through the rocks. The essence of the method is that rocks have different electrical properties, therefore, a change in the nature of the electric field is associated with a change in either the composition of the rocks, or their physical properties.
The thermometric method is based on the properties of the thermal field of our planet, which arises as a result of internal processes in the bowels of the Earth. In places with high tectonic activity, for example, where volcanoes are active, the heat flow from the depths is significant. In tectonically calm areas, the thermal field will be close to normal. Any anomalies in the thermal field indicate the proximity of thermal springs and the activity of geochemical processes in the interior of the Earth.
Along with geophysical methods for studying the deep structure and. the composition of the Earth is widely used geochemical methods. With their help, distribution patterns are established chemical elements in the Earth, their distribution, as well as the absolute age of minerals and rocks. Knowing the half-life of radioactive elements, we can determine by the amount of decay products how many years have passed since the formation of a mineral or rock.
Remote sensing methods include a whole range of research, which is carried out from aircraft and spacecraft. The physical basis of remote sensing methods is the radiation or reflection of electromagnetic waves by natural objects. An aerial or satellite image is a spatial distribution of the field of brightness and color of natural objects. Homogeneous subjects have the same image brightness and color.
Using aerogues and satellite images, geologists study the structural features of the area, the specifics of the distribution of rocks, establish a connection between the relief and its deep structure. Remote sensing methods, both aerial and space, have become firmly established in practice and, along with other methods, constitute the modern arsenal of researchers.

FEATURES OF RADIATION RADIATION OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE
The main characteristic of the electromagnetic radiation of the earth's surface is the frequency of electromagnetic oscillations. Knowing the speed of propagation of light, you can easily recalculate the frequency of radiation to the length of the electromagnetic wave.
Electromagnetic vibrations have a wide range of wavelengths. If we turn to the spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations, then
it can be noted that the visible range occupies only a small area with a wavelength X = 0; 38-0.76 microns. Visible radiation with different wavelengths is perceived by the eye as light and color sensations.
table 2
In this interval, the sensitivity of the eye and other optical devices is not the same and is determined by the spectral sensitivity function of the human eye. The maximum value of the visibility function of the human eye corresponds to the wavelength
A. = 0.556 microns, which corresponds to the yellow-green color of the visible spectrum. At wavelengths outside this range, the human eye and similar optical devices do not react to electromagnetic oscillations, or, as they say, the coefficient of visibility is 0.
To the right of the visible range (upward) is the range of infrared radiation 0.76-1000 microns, followed by the ranges of radio waves of the ultrashort, shortwave and longwave ranges. To the left of the visible range (in the direction of decreasing) is the range of ultraviolet radiation, which is replaced by the X-ray and gamma ranges (Fig. 5).
In most cases, real bodies emit energy in a wide spectral range. Remote sensing methods are based on the study of radiation from the earth's surface and reflected radiation from external sources in various ranges. The most active external source of radiation for the Earth is the Sun. It is important for the researcher to know in which part of the spectrum the greatest radiation of the object under study is concentrated. The "curve" of thermal radiation, which characterizes the distribution of the radiation energy of heated bodies, has a maximum, the more pronounced, the higher the temperature. With increasing temperature, the wavelength corresponding to the maximum of the spectrum shifts towards shorter waves. We observe a shift of radiation towards short waves when the color of incandescent objects changes depending on the temperature. At room temperature, virtually all radiation is in the infrared (IR) region of the spectrum. As the temperature rises, visible radiation begins to appear. Initially, it falls on the red part of the spectrum, as a result of which the object appears red. When the temperature rises to 6000 ° K, which corresponds to the temperature of the surface of the Sun, the radiation is distributed in such a way that it appears white.
The total radiation flux undergoes significant changes associated with the absorption and dissipation of radiant energy by the atmosphere.
In a transparent atmosphere, infrared and microwave radiation is scattered much weaker than visible and ultraviolet radiation. In the visible range, the scattering of the blue-violet part of the spectrum is noticeable; on this day, in cloudless weather, the sky is blue, and during sunrise and sunset it is red.
In addition to scattering, radiation is also absorbed in the short-wavelength part of the spectrum. The attenuation of transmitted radiation depends on the wavelength. Its ultraviolet part is almost completely absorbed by the oxygen and ozone of the atmosphere. In the long-wavelength part of the spectrum (infrared) absorption bands are due to the presence of water vapor and carbon dioxide, and "transparency windows" are used for observation. The optical characteristics of the atmosphere, attenuation and scattering change depending on the season and latitude of the area. For example, the bulk of water vapor is concentrated in the lower atmosphere, and its concentration in it depends on latitude, altitude, season and local meteorological conditions.
Thus, a radiation receiver installed on board an aircraft or a space laboratory simultaneously registers surface radiation (intrinsic and reflected), attenuated by the atmosphere, and radiation of atmospheric haze (multiple scattering).
The success of remote observations of the earth's surface from satellite aircraft largely depends on the right choice part of the spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations, in which the influence of the gas shell on the radiation of the Earth is minimal.
Rice. 5. Spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations.

CHAPTER II. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY FROM ORBIT

TYPES OF SPACE VEHICLES.
FEATURES OF GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION FROM DIFFERENT ORBITS
A large arsenal of space technology is used to study the geological structure of our planet. It includes high-altitude research rockets (VR), automatic interplanetary stations (AMS), artificial earth satellites (AES), manned spacecraft (PKK) and long-term orbital stations (DOS). Observations from space, as a rule, are carried out from three levels, which can be roughly divided into low, medium, and high. From the low-orbit level (orbital altitude up to 500 km), observations are carried out from VR, PKK, and satellites. High-altitude rockets make it possible to obtain images over an area of ​​0.5 million km2. They are launched to an altitude of 90 to 400 km and have a parabolic orbit, and the equipment returns to Earth by parachute. Low-orbit spacecraft include the PKK and DOS of the Soyuz and Salyut types, the Kosmos-type satellites flying in sub-latitudinal orbits at altitudes of up to 500 km. The resulting images are characterized by high quality information. Medium-orbit spacecraft include ISs with a flight altitude of 500-1500 km. These are the Soviet satellites of the "Meteor" system, the American "Landsat" and others. They work in automatic mode and quickly transmit information to the Earth via radio channels. These vehicles have a near-polar orbit and are used to survey the entire surface of the globe (Fig. 6).
To obtain a uniform-scale image of the surface and simplicity of frame alignment with each other, the orbits of the satellites should be close to circular. By varying the altitude of the satellite, as well as the angle of inclination of the orbit; it is possible to launch satellites into the so-called sun-synchronous orbits, filming from which allows you to constantly survey the Earth's surface at the same time of day. AES "Meteor" and AES "Landsat" were launched into sun-synchronous orbits.
Surveying the Earth from different orbits makes it possible to obtain images of different scales. In terms of visibility, they are divided into four types: global, regional, local and detailed. Global imagery provides images of the entire illuminated portion of the Earth. They show the contours of the continents and the largest geological structures (Fig. 7). Regional images cover areas from 1 to 10 million km, helping to decipher the structure of mountainous countries, flat territories, to highlight individual objects (Fig. 8 a, b).
Rice. 7. Global image of the Earth; received from the Soviet interplanetary automatic station "Zond-7". It simultaneously captures the Earth and the edge of the Moon. The distance to the Moon is 2 thousand km, the distance to the Earth is 390 thousand km. The picture shows the eastern hemisphere of the Earth, you can distinguish the Arabian Peninsula, Hindustan, separate zones of the Eurasian continent. Australia. The water area looks darker. Clouds are read by the light phototone and vortex pattern of the image.
Rice. 8. a - Local satellite image of the western spurs of the Tien Shan, obtained from the Salyut-5 station from an altitude of 262 km. Three zones are distinguished in the photograph by the phototone and texture of the picture. The mountain range in the central part is characterized by a dark phototone, shagreen texture of the pattern, where the ridge-like forms of ridges, bounded by steep ledges, are clearly distinguished. From the southeast and northwest, the mountain range is limited by intermontane depressions (Fergana and Talas), most of which have a mosaic picture of the photographic image, due to the presence of abundant vegetation. The river network and steep ledges are confined to the system of faults, which are read in the form of linear photo anomalies,
Local images allow you to survey the territory from 100 thousand to 1 million km2. Detailed images are similar in their properties to aerial photographs, covering an area from 10 to 100 thousand km2. Each of the listed types of satellite images has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, high visibility gives different scales of different parts of the images due to the curvature of the Earth. These distortions even with modern level photogrammetric technique is difficult to fix. On the other side; great overview-
Rice. 8. b - Scheme of geological interpretation of a space image: 1- ancient complexes; 2- intermontane depressions; 3- faults.
This leads to the fact that small details of the landscape disappear and a pattern of underground structures protruding onto the surface of the planet becomes visible. Therefore, depending on specific geological problems, an optimal set of scientific equipment and a set of images of different scales are required.

CHARACTERISTIC OF RESEARCH METHODS
During geological surveys carried out from aircraft, radiation or reflection of electromagnetic waves by natural objects is recorded. Remote sensing methods are conventionally divided into methods of studying the Earth in the visible and
Rice. 9. a The photograph of Lake Balkhash was taken from the Salyut-5 station in 1976. The photographing height is 270 km. The picture shows the central part of the lake. From the south, it is approached by the Ili delta with many dry channels. On the southern shore of the lake, you can see a sandbank overgrown with reed thickets.
near infrared region of the spectrum (visual observations, photography, television shooting) and methods of the invisible range of the electromagnetic spectrum (infrared photography, radar photography, spectrometric photography, etc.). Let's dwell on brief description these methods. Manned space flights showed that no matter how perfect the technique was, visual observations should not be neglected. Their beginning can be considered the observations of Yuri Gagarin. The most vivid impression of the first cosmonaut is the view of the native Earth from space: "Mountain ranges, large rivers, large forests, spots of islands are clearly visible ... The Earth pleased with a rich palette of colors ...". Cosmonaut P. Popovich reported: "The cities, rivers, mountains, ships and other objects are clearly visible." Thus, from the very first flights, it became obvious that an astronaut can orient himself well in orbit and purposefully observe natural objects. Over time, the cosmonaut's work program became more complicated, space flights became more and more long, information from space became more and more accurate and detailed.
Many astronauts noted that they saw fewer objects at the beginning of the flight than at the end of the flight. So, cosmonaut V. Sevastyanov
he said that at first he could distinguish little from space heights, then he began to notice ships in the ocean, then ships at the berths, and at the end of the flight he distinguished individual buildings on the coastal areas.
Already in the first flights, astronauts saw from a height such objects that they could not theoretically see, since it was believed that the resolution of the human eye is equal to one angular minute. But when people began to fly into space, it turned out that objects were visible from orbit, the angular length of which was less than a minute. An astronaut, having a direct connection with the Mission Control Center, can draw the attention of researchers on Earth to a change in any natural phenomena and designate the object of the survey, that is, when observing dynamic processes, the role of the cosmonaut-researcher has increased. Does a visual overview matter for studying geological objects? After all, geological structures are quite stable, and therefore they can be photographed and then calmly examined on Earth.
It turns out that a specially trained cosmonaut can observe a geological object from different angles, at different times of the day, and see its individual details. Before the flights, the cosmonauts specially flew with geologists on an airplane, examined the details of the structure of geological objects, studied geological maps and space images.
While in space and carrying out visual observations, astronauts reveal new, previously unknown geological objects and new details of previously known objects.
These examples show the great value of visual observations for studying the geological structure of the Earth. In this case, however, one must take into account that they always contain elements of subjectivity and therefore must be supported by objective instrumental data.
Geologists have already reacted with great interest to the first photographs that were delivered to Earth by the cosmonaut G. Titov. What caught their attention in geological information from space? First of all, they got the opportunity to look at the already known structures of the Earth from a completely different level.
In addition, it became possible to check and link disparate maps, since individual structures turned out to be interconnected at large distances, which was objectively confirmed by space images. It also became possible to obtain information about the structure of hard-to-reach regions of the Earth. In addition, geologists have armed themselves with an express method that allows you to quickly collect material about the structure of a particular area of ​​the Earth, to outline research objects that would become the key to further understanding the bowels of our planet.
Currently, many "portraits" of our planet from space have been made. Depending on the orbits of the artificial satellite and the equipment installed on it, images of the Earth were obtained at various scales. It is known that space images of different
scales carry information about various geological structures. Therefore, when choosing the most informative image scale, one must proceed from a specific geological problem. Due to the high visibility, several geological structures are displayed at once on one satellite image, which allows conclusions to be drawn about the relationships between them. The advantage of using space information for geology is also explained by the natural generalization of landscape elements. Due to this, the masking effect of soil and vegetation cover is reduced and geological objects "look" more clearly on satellite images. Fragments of structures visible in space photographs are lined up into single zones. In some cases, it is possible to find images of deeply buried structures. They seem to shine through the cover deposits, which allows us to speak about a certain X-ray diffraction of space images. The second feature of filming from space is the ability to compare geological objects by daily and seasonal changes their spectral characteristics. Comparison of photographs of the same area, obtained at different times, makes it possible to study the dynamics of the action of exogenous (external) and endogenous (internal) geological processes: river and sea waters, wind, volcanism and earthquakes.
Currently, many spacecraft have photo or television devices that take pictures of our planet. It is known that the orbits of artificial earth satellites and the equipment installed on them are different, which determines the scale of space images. The lower limit of photographing from space is dictated by the altitude of the spacecraft's orbit, i.e., about 180 km. The upper limit is determined by the practical feasibility of the scale of the image of the globe obtained from interplanetary stations (tens of thousands of kilometers from the Earth). Imagine a geological structure that has been photographed at different scales. In a detailed photo, we can look at it as a whole and talk about the details of the structure. With a decrease in scale, the structure itself becomes a detail of the image, its constituent element. Its outlines will fit into the contours of the general drawing, and we will be able to see the connection of our object with other geological bodies. By successively decreasing the scale, you can get a generalized image in which our structure will be an element of any geological formation. Analysis of different-scale images of the same regions showed that geological objects have photogenic properties that manifest themselves in different ways, depending on the scale, time and season of shooting. It is very interesting to know how the image of an object will change with an increase in generalization and what actually determines and emphasizes its "portrait". Now we have the opportunity to see the object from an altitude of 200,500, 1000 km and more. Experts now have significant experience in studying natural objects using aerial photographs obtained from heights of 400 m to 30 km. But what if all these observations are carried out simultaneously, including ground work? Then we will be able to observe the change in the photogenic properties of the object from different levels - from the surface to cosmic heights. When photographing the Earth from different heights, in addition to purely informational, the goal is to increase the reliability of the identified natural objects. On the smallest scale images of global and partially regional generalization, the largest and most pronounced objects are identified. Medium and large-scale images are used to check the interpretation scheme, compare geological objects on satellite images and data obtained on the surface of indicators. This allows specialists to give a description of the material composition of rocks that emerge to the surface, to determine the nature of geological structures, i.e. e. to obtain concrete evidence of the geological nature of the studied formations. Photographic cameras operating in space are imaging systems specially adapted for photographing from space. The scale of the resulting photographs depends on the focal length of the camera lens and the shooting height. The main advantages of photography are high information content, good resolution, relatively high sensitivity. The disadvantages of space photography include the difficulty of transmitting information to the Earth and taking surveys only during the daytime.
Currently, a large amount of space information falls into the hands of researchers thanks to automatic television systems. Their improvement has led to the fact that the quality of the images is close to a space photograph of a similar scale. In addition, television images have a number of advantages: they ensure the prompt transmission of information to Earth via radio channels; frequency of shooting; recording of video information on magnetic tape and the ability to store information on magnetic tape. Currently, it is possible to obtain black-and-white, color and multispectral television images of the Earth. The resolution of television pictures is lower than that of photographs. Television filming is carried out from artificial satellites operating in automatic mode. As a rule, their orbits have a large inclination to the equator, which made it possible to cover almost all latitudes by the survey.
The satellites of the "Meteor" system are launched into an orbit with an altitude of 550-1000 km. Its television system turns on itself after the Sun rises above the horizon, and the exposure is automatically set due to changes in illumination during the flight. "Meteor" in one revolution around the Earth can capture an area of ​​approximately 8% of the surface of the globe.
Compared to a single-scale photograph, a television photograph has greater visibility and generalization.
The scale of telephoto images ranges from 1: 6,000,000 to 1: 14,000,000, the resolution is 0.8 - 6 km, and the filmed area ranges from hundreds of thousands to a million square kilometers. Good quality images can be enlarged 2-3 times without losing detail. There are two types of television shooting - frame and scanner. In frame photography, a sequential exposure of various parts of the surface is carried out and the image is transmitted via radio channels of space communication. During exposure, the camera lens builds an image on a light-sensitive screen that can be photographed. When scanning with a scanner, the image is formed from separate stripes (scans) resulting from a detailed "viewing" of the area with a beam across the movement of the carrier (scanning). The translational movement of the media allows you to obtain an image in the form of a continuous tape. The more detailed the image, the narrower the shooting bandwidth.
Television shots are mostly poorly promising. To increase the swath of the Meteor satellites, surveys are carried out by two television cameras, the optical axes of which are deflected from the vertical by 19 °. In this regard, the scale of the image changes from the projection line of the satellite orbit by 5-15%, which complicates their use.
Television images provide a large amount of information, allowing you to highlight major regional and global features of the geological structure of the Earth.

COLORED EARTH OUTFIT
Thanks to what properties of natural objects do we obtain information about the surface of our planet?
First of all, due to the "color side" of the Earth or the reflective properties of soil, vegetation, rock outcrops, etc. In other words, color gives us primary and basic information from surface and shallow objects.
At first, the main method of remote sensing of the Earth's surface was photography on black and white film and transmission of black and white television images. Geological structures, their shape, size and spatial distribution were studied by photon and geometric outlines of the drawing. Then they began to use color and multispectral films, gaining the opportunity to use color as an additional feature of objects. But at the same time, the requirements for materials obtained from space have increased, and the tasks to be solved have become more complicated.
It is known that color film has three layers, which are sensitive in three areas of the spectrum - blue, green and red. Making a positive on a three-layer film of a similar structure allows you to reproduce the original in natural colors. Spectral zone film also has three light-sensitive layers, but, unlike color film, there is no blue layer on it, but there is a layer that is sensitive to infrared rays. Therefore, the original reproduced from the spectrozonal film without the blue part of the spectrum has a distorted color coloration (pseudo-color image). But the radiation spectrum of natural objects contains many fractional characteristics.
Therefore, subtracting in several areas of the spectrum, we will catch the subtlest changes in the color and brightness images of the object, which are not able to capture the color film.
So, the specialists got the idea to photograph the same areas at the same time in different colors, or, as they say, in different zones of the spectrum. With such a multi-zone shooting, in addition to the image photographed in a narrow range of the spectrum, it is possible to create synthesized color images by combining frames obtained in separate zones. Moreover, the synthesis of a color image can be carried out in natural colors, so that natural objects have the usual color contrasts. Synthesized color images can be created by various combinations of narrow-spectrum images. In this case, a wide variety of combinations of color contrasts arise, when individual natural objects, differing in their brightness and color characteristics, are depicted in conventional colors. The ultimate goal of obtaining such an image is to maximize
nominal dismemberment of natural objects by color contrasts. It is clear that, in contrast to color and non-zonal photography, obtaining a synthesized image will make it possible to apply more modern technique processing and choose the optimal combination of the summed zones for the identification of objects.
During the flight of the Soyuz-22 spacecraft, cosmonauts V. Bykovsky and V. Aksenov carried out a multispectral survey of the earth's surface. For this purpose, an MKF-6 camera was installed on board the ship, developed jointly by specialists from the Space Research Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Electronics of the Academy of Sciences of the GDR and manufactured in the GDR. Multi-zone shooting was carried out using six devices, each of which has a special light filter, designed to obtain an image in a certain range of the spectrum (Table 3).
Multispectral imagery in space has a long history. The foundations of multispectral photography were laid in the 1930s by a Soviet scientist
V.A.Fass. In 1947, E.A.Krinov's book was published, where he for the first time showed the possibility of comparing individual objects by spectral
reflection characteristics. Subsequently, a catalog of reflecting characteristics of natural objects was compiled: outcrops of rocks and soil, vegetation cover, and water surface. In subsequent years, information about the reflecting properties of terrestrial formations has expanded significantly. And the facts that EA Krinov managed to collect were used as the basis for a catalog of reflecting properties of natural objects and their combinations (they constitute a kind of "bank" of memory for computers when comparing objects). Therefore, when photographing various natural objects, one can choose the most favorable spectral regions for shooting (Fig. 11).
Over time, the idea of ​​multi-area shooting has gained creative development... And already from board "Soyuz-12" cosmonauts V. Lazarev and O. Makarov took more than 100 photographs, taken in six, and in separate areas in nine spectral zones. Shooting from "Soyuz-12" covered the vast territory of North-East Africa, the deep ridges of Asia Minor, the volcanic highlands of Armenia, the steppe regions of Dagestan, the Caspian Sea region, the Mediterranean Sea and the Caspian Sea. As the analysis of multispectral photographs of "Soyuz-12" showed, interesting results were obtained when studying the underwater landscape of the water area with shallow depths, as well as areas of salt marshes. According to experts, in multi-zone shooting, examining images taken in the blue zone, one can confidently separate the contours of sands and salt marshes, since the image of salt crusts does not lose brightness, while the contrast of surrounding objects decreases. Thanks to these images, it became possible to correct the salinity maps of the parent rocks. In the images of Libya, taken in the red and yellow zones of the spectrum, the light contours of sandy deposits appear in great detail, and in the short-wavelength ranges (blue, green), "humid areas can be traced. American researchers tested the multispectral version of space imagery on the Apollo 9 spacecraft in 1969, and then on the automatic Landsat stations and the Skylab orbital station.
The equipment for taking pictures at Landsat-1 is a multi-zone scanning device that uses green, red and two infrared bands of the spectrum. The green zone most clearly shows the distribution of bottom sediments and marks shelf zones with different depths. In the red zone, the overall appearance of the image is clearer. Buildings and artificial plantations, soil structure are clearly visible on it. The tonality of land areas in the infrared zones is the brightest. They more clearly display areas of different types of rocks. The capabilities of the Landsat multi-zone cameras were most clearly manifested when obtaining synthesized color images. Moreover, in some cases it turned out to be more profitable to "subtract" one image from another and thus establish additional information of a certain range. At the same time, it turned out that the multispectral images also contain geochemical information. For example, iron oxides are easier to recognize in synthesized images than in single-zone ones. Changing the relationship between different types of rocks and iron-bearing minerals can be used in geological mapping.
Using the ratios of the reflection values ​​in the images taken in different zones of the spectrum, it became possible to compile maps using the automatic recognition method, where it is possible to single out individual rock outcrops and identify characteristic groups, which can be used as standards of geological objects.
Using examples, we will show the possibilities of multispectral imagery for studying natural objects in our country. To do this, let us consider the multizonal photographs of one of the regions of Kyrgyzstan, obtained from the Salyut-4 station during the flight of the cosmonauts P. Klimuk and V. Sevastyanov on it. The shooting was carried out on July 27, 1979 from an altitude of 340 km with a block of four cameras, which
Rice. 12. Multispectral satellite images taken from the Salyut-4 orbital station over the territory of Kyrgyzstan: a - the first zone 0.5-0.6 microns; b - second zone 0.6-0.7 microns; c - third zone 0.7 - 0.84 microns; d - scheme of geological interpretation: 1 - fragments of the ancient earth's crust; 2 - folded rocks of the Caledonian complex; 3 - breaking violations; 4 - folded rocks of the Herzny complex; 5- cover of the Central Kazakhstan median massif; 6- intermontane depressions; cover drawing top left - color photograph of the area of ​​Soviet Kirghizia. The picture was taken from the Salyut-4 long-term orbital station; cover drawing left middle. The image was obtained by optical synthesis from three original black-and-white images. In this version of the synthetic image, mountain vegetation stands out well: each shade of pink, red and brown corresponds to different types of vegetation; cover drawing front bottom. The reddish-brown tones in this synthetic image are forested, bushy, grassland and irrigated agricultural fields; cover drawing top right. Soils (modern alluvium) are particularly prominent in this picture.
in intermontane depressions; cover drawing bottom right. Conditional color image obtained by electro-optical method. A discrete (discontinuous) color scale is used to encode the optical density intervals of the original black-and-white image. Colors highlight the boundaries of various natural formations.
simultaneously filmed the same area of ​​the Earth in different zones of the spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations: (zone 0.5-0.6 microns), in green-blue-orange (zone 0.5-0.6 microns), orange and red (zone 0.6-0.7 microns), red and infrared (zone 0.70-0.84 microns) (Fig. 12 a, b, c, d). At the same time, shooting was carried out on ordinary color film. The photo shows the mountainous regions of Kyrgyzstan between the Issyk-Kul and Sonkol lakes. These are the spurs of the Kyrgyz ridge, the Kyungei and Terskey-Ala-Too ranges, the valleys of the Naryn and Chu mountain rivers, where settlements, arable lands, and pastures are located. The maximum absolute marks of heights here reach 4800 m. Snow cover crowns the highest peaks. If we evaluate the photographs taken in different areas of the spectrum, and the color image, then we can see that the photograph taken in the orange-red range of 0.6-0.7 microns provides the most complete information about the objects of photography. In terms of its expressiveness, it is close to a color image. The phototone here emphasizes the structure of intermontane depressions and ridges, the position of the glaciers is marked with a clear pattern. The image in the 0.5-0.6 µm zone, despite the fact that it looks less contrasting, provides versatile information about the structure of the shallow waters of Lake Issyk-Kul and Sonkol. The valleys of mountain rivers are clearly visible on it, where modern alluvium stands out, irrigated lands are visible. In the image in the red and near infrared zone of the 0.70-0.84 µm spectrum, water surfaces are recorded in dark tones, so the hydro-network is almost invisible, but the geological structure of the region is clearly visible.
Black-and-white zonal images served as the initial data for the synthesis of color images. In a color photograph, the distribution of tones is familiar to our eyes: the deeper zones of the lakes are dark in color; the position of the glaciers is highlighted with white strokes; mountain ranges are shown in brown and dark brown; light shows river valleys and intermontane depressions. The general green background of the photo indicates areas of vegetation (see cover image, top left). But when the image obtained in the first zone was given a red color, the second zone - blue, the third - green and they were summed up, natural objects in the synthesized image sparkled with unusual colors. In the image, the lakes appear white, the glaciers appear black, resembling a tree branch. The general reddish tone with its various shades emphasizes the diversity of landscapes and mountain vegetation (see cover image left middle). In another variant of optical synthesis, when the first zone of the spectrum is given a green color, the second is red, the third is blue, the lakes already have a dark color, red-brown tones. cover left bottom).
In the third variant of the synthesis, the first range is given a blue color, ska, the second - green, and the third - red. In terms of color distribution, this variant is close to a real color photograph. Here, the soils in intermontane depressions are most clearly distinguished, but at the same time, information about the nature of changes in the depths of Lake Issyk-Kul has disappeared (see the cover picture, upper right).
The use of multispectral imaging was the impetus for the widespread introduction of computers. Now you can add and subtract images of different ranges, distribute them according to the density of the phototone and encode a certain phototone with any color shade (see the cover picture, bottom right).
Table 3
These examples show the role of space photographs in the study of the natural resources of the Earth. Multispectral surveying increases the effectiveness of new methods, especially for studying geological objects.

EARTH IN THE INVISIBLE RANGE OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC VIBRATION SPECTRUM
Among the remote sensing methods, methods that use the invisible range of the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation are gaining an increasing role. With their help, we obtain information about the radiation spectrum of various natural objects, the distribution of the thermal field and other physical characteristics of the earth's surface. Currently, infrared, radar, spectrometric surveys and geophysical methods are most widely used in geological research.
Infrared (IR) photography is based on the use of an image captured in the infrared region. A common source of infrared radiation is a heated body. At low temperatures, the radiation intensity is insignificant, and at
As the temperature rises, the power of the radiated energy is quickly calculated.
The main temperature anomalies on the surface of our planet are caused by two natural heat sources - the Sun and the endogenous heat of the Earth. The heat flux from its core and inner shells does not depend on external factors. Temperature anomalies caused by this heat flow in zones of high volcanic activity and intense hydrothermal activity reach tens and hundreds of degrees.
Since thermal radiation is typical for all objects around us, and their temperature is different, the infrared image characterizes the thermal inhomogeneity of the earth's surface.
Carrying out infrared surveys from aircraft imposes restrictions on the use of infrared methods. These limitations are related to the absorption and scattering of infrared radiation by the atmosphere. When infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere, it is selectively absorbed by gases and water vapor. It is absorbed most strongly by water vapor, carbon dioxide and ozone. However, there are several zones of relatively weak absorption in the atmosphere for IR radiation. These are the so-called "transmission windows" of infrared radiation. Their transparency depends on the height above sea level and the content of water vapor in the atmosphere. With increasing altitude, the density of air and the amount of various impurities in it decrease, the transparency of the atmosphere increases and the width of the "transmission windows" increases. An infrared image of the earth's surface can be obtained only in the range that corresponds to the transparency band of the atmosphere (Fig. 13).
The instruments used for infrared photography from aircraft are designed based on these features of the atmosphere. For many years now, geologists have been conducting research in the field of practical application IR shooting.
The possibilities of infrared imaging are most clearly manifested in the study of areas of active volcanic and hydrothermal activity. In this case, abnormal, high-temperature heat sources are on the surface, and the infrared image conveys a picture of the distribution of the thermal field at the time of shooting. Sequential infrared imaging of the same areas makes it possible to reveal the dynamics of changes in the thermal field, to overcome the most active zones of the eruption. For example, an infrared image of the Kilauea volcano in Hawaii gives a clear picture of the distribution of the thermal field (Fig. 14). In this image, the main heat anomaly (bright light spot) determines the position of the volcano's crater, less intense anomalies correspond to the outflows of thermal waters and gases. In the image, you can trace the direction of movement of thermal springs to reduce the intensity of the anomaly. On a regular aerial photograph, the relief (the position of the crater, watershed, etc.) is well deciphered, therefore, the joint deciphering of these images allows a more detailed study of the structure of the volcano.
In the USSR, work in this direction is being carried out in the area of ​​active volcanoes in Kamchatka. IR images of some volcanoes have already been obtained (Mutnovsky, Gorely, Avacha, Tolbachik, etc.). In this case, in parallel with the IR survey, conventional aerial photography was carried out. The joint interpretation of the dx results made it possible to obtain important information about the structure of active volcanic chambers, inaccessible for ground-based observations. Good results are obtained by infrared survey in hydrogeological studies. On infrared images, according to the change in the thermal contrasts of the earth's surface, it is possible to distinguish places of high humidity associated with the presence of groundwater. Infrared methods are especially helpful when searching for groundwater in desert and semi-desert zones. Thermal anomalies in water basins can also be studied using infrared imaging.
Comprehensive analysis of infrared images obtained from satellites showed that in low-cloud weather they transmit well the thermal inhomogeneity of the Earth's surface. This makes it possible to use them in geological and geographical research. On satellite infrared images, the coastline and the hydrographic network are clearly visible. Analysis of infrared images confirmed that these images can be used to assess ice conditions. Thermal heterogeneity of the aquatic environment is also well recorded on infrared images. For example, in the pictures Atlantic Ocean the position of the Gulf Stream is determined by the dark stripes.
Data is received from satellites to compile the temperature picture of the Earth with an accuracy of the order of fractions of a degree. Similar maps have been created for various regions, and heat anomalies are well distinguished on them.
In addition to infrared surveys, radar surveys are carried out from satellites. It uses the microwave range of the electromagnetic spectrum for imaging. At the same time, not only the natural radiation characteristic of the objects around us is recorded, but also the artificial radio signal reflected from the objects. Depending on the nature of electromagnetic radiation, radar surveys are subdivided into active (radar) and passive (radio-thermal) surveys.
To solve geological problems, side-looking radars are used, which are installed on aircraft. The radio signal sent from them is reflected from objects encountered in its path, captured by a special antenna and then transmitted to the screen or recorded on film. Due to the roughness of the reflection surface, some of the energy of the sent signal is scattered and we get a diffuse (scattered) reflection. Its intensity * depends on the ratio of the surface roughness of the reflection to the wavelength. If the size of the surface particles is less than half the wavelength, then they do not give a scattered reflection. Thanks to this, radar surveys can be carried out at any time of the day and in any weather, since cloudiness (with the exception of thunderclouds) and fog does not affect the quality of the radar image. This long wavelength survey provides information on objects despite abundant vegetation and thick uncemented fine-grained sediments. The clarity of the radar image depends on the degree of roughness of the reflection surface, the geometric shape of the object, the angle of incidence of the beam, the polarization and frequency of the sent signal, the physical properties of the reflection surface (density, humidity, etc.). If the relief is sharply dissected, then some of the information in the image is hidden by the radar shadow.
Geological interpretation of the radar image is based on the analysis of structural outlines, tone, texture. The nature and completeness of geological information depend on the "severity" of geology in the relief, the degree of erosion, on the moisture content and the nature of the distribution of vegetation. A detailed study of the features of the radar image shows that, regardless of the complexity of the geological structure of the region, structural lines and rupture lines expressed in the terrain are most reliably deciphered. The value of this information is beyond doubt, for the elements of microrelief and relief in general, as a rule, reflect the nature of the internal structure of geological formations. At the first stage of deciphering, violations determined only by linear relief forms, straightened sections of river valleys or linear arrangement of vegetation are identified as presumptive.
And only subsequent analysis of geological and geophysical data can give the final characterization of these linear photoanomalies. Based on the results of decoding the radar image, preliminary geological, geomorphological and other maps are drawn up. The experience of Soviet and foreign researchers shows that radar surveys provide valuable information about the structure of the Earth (Fig. 15). At the same time, radar images provide a detailed image of the relief, the structural plan of the studied region and reflect the change in the physical characteristics of the underlying surface (density, porosity, electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility). Currently, radar surveys are used in geological mapping, geomorphology, hydrogeology and geography.
Radio-thermal imaging registers the radiation of natural objects in the range of 0.3 cm -10 cm.
When observing terrestrial objects, the maximum radio-thermal contrasts are observed between water and land. This indicates the capabilities of the method for detecting groundwater reserves. A great advantage of radio-thermal imaging is its independence from the state of the atmosphere. With the help of radio thermal imaging, the contours of large forest fires can be detected in dense clouds and dense fog. The experience of the geological interpretation of the thermal radio image indicates the possibility of using it to study the coastline, zones of increased volcanic activity and hydrothermal activity.
At present, in addition to visual observations, photography, television and other methods that provide an image of natural objects, it is possible to study their radiation using spectrometric photography. It is carried out both from aircraft and from manned spacecraft. The method of spectrometric shooting consists in measuring the brightness coefficients of natural formations in comparison with the standard. At the same time, the brightness of the underlying surface and a special screen with a previously known coefficient of spectral brightness is measured simultaneously. The most widespread are continuous measurements of spectral brightness coefficients over a natural object.
The experience of studying natural formations on the basis of spectral brightness shows that reliable identification of individual objects requires shooting in narrow spectral zones. In this case, the necessary contrast with the surrounding background is provided, and the number of ranges required for solving certain problems can vary. For example, to identify vegetation cover, you need a ratio of 2 and 3 spectral brightness coefficients. In satellite experiments, multispectral devices are used with 4-6 observation intervals in the visible range, 3-4 intervals in the near-IR range, 2-4 intervals in the infrared thermal range, 3-5 channels in the radio range. The processing of the obtained spectral characteristics is carried out using a computer.
Spectrometric survey experiments were carried out from the manned spacecraft Soyuz-7 and Soyuz-9 and the Salyut orbital station. Spectrometric studies were carried out over various regions of the globe. These studies were supplemented and expanded in subsequent flights of manned spacecraft and orbital stations "Sa-lyut".
In the last 10-15 years, along with aeromagnetic survey, magnetic survey from artificial earth satellites and orbital space stations... Since 1958, several global surveys of the Earth have been carried out in the Soviet Union: in 1964 - from the artificial Earth satellite (AES) "Kosmos-49", and in 1970 - from the satellite "Kosmos-321". Studies of the Earth's magnetic field from satellites continue at the present time. From an orbit close to the polar one, in a short time it is possible to carry out an area survey of the entire planet. Satellite measurement data are transmitted to Earth and processed by a computer. The results of these measurements are recorded in the form of profiles of the magnetic field vector or maps of the main magnetic field of the Earth. Morphologically, it is a field that includes global and significant regional anomalies.
It is assumed that the bulk of the anomalies detected by satellites are due to the peculiarities of the geological structure and their sources are located in the lithosphere.

CHAPTER III. WHAT SPACE INFORMATION GIVES FOR GEOLOGY

In the study of the Earth, an important role belongs to research carried out with the help of space technology. It is known that geological surveys are aimed at searching, discovering and developing natural resources hidden in the bowels of the Earth. Could the information received from spacecraft contribute to this? The experience of working with space images shows the great possibilities of using space images in geology.
In this chapter, we will talk about the main geological problems solved with the help of space surveys.

HOW WORK WITH SPACE IMAGES
The basis of space research is the registration of the reflected solar and own radiation of natural objects. It is carried out by various methods (photographic, television, etc.). In this case, the recorded values ​​(signals) of different intensities are proportional to the brightness of the corresponding areas of the Earth's surface.
All the variety of landscape elements is depicted in the form of dots, lines, areas of various phototones and sizes. The larger the range of tonal gradations and small details in the space image, the higher its visual properties. For a geologist-de-cipher, for practical work, it is important to know how correctly the image is transmitted by the brightness differences of objects. After all, geological objects are photogenic to some extent. Some look great in photographs, they correspond to a bright, memorable drawing. Others, no matter how hard we try, turn out badly. And in order to detect and prove their existence, you have to use additional signs. It is customary to say that geological objects have direct and indirect deciphering signs.
Direct signs indicate the features of the geometry, size and shape of the object under study. Phototone, color differences can also be reliable direct indicators in rock recognition.
Indirect signs are based on the study of natural relationships between the geological structure and landscape features of the earth's surface. It is known that the relief is very sensitive to the geological situation both on the surface and at depth, that there is a relationship between the soil cover, vegetation and parent rocks. These relationships are not always straightforward. They acquire specific features in various climatic zones are shaded under the influence of human economic activity. Their value can vary depending on the tectonics of the region and the scale of the survey. For example, in geosynclinal belts, which are characterized by high speed modern tectonic movements, we can observe in a slightly distorted form the spatial combinations of individual structures. Good exposure of rocks contributes to obtaining information from space images about the shape of geological bodies, the composition and thickness of their constituent rocks. In the plain and platform areas, indirect signs play a decisive role in identifying geological structures, since the observation of geological objects there is difficult due to abundant vegetation, a thick cover of modern deposits of human economic activity.
Thus, with the help of direct and indirect deciphering signs, we determine an object from a photographic image, transfer it to a topographic basis and give its geological interpretation. Many geological boundaries on maps are drawn from aerial and satellite imagery. Indeed, the photo image shows the state of the Earth's surface at the time of shooting, the relief is well read, areas of different phototone and color are highlighted. And the better we know surface geology, the more confidently we decipher the deep structure of the region. But how to proceed from the surface structure displayed on the satellite image to the study of the deep structure? Let's try to answer this. When geologists got the opportunity to study the deep horizons of the lithosphere, one amazing feature was noticed - the base of the earth's crust (the boundary of Mohorovichich) is, as it were, a mirror image of the relief of the earth's surface. Where there are mountains on Earth, the thickness of the crust increases to 50 km, in oceanic depressions it decreases to 10-15 km, and on the continental plains the thickness of the crust is 30-40 km. This confirms the connection between the surface and deep structure of the Earth. Thanks to the visibility of satellite images, we record geological structures of various scales. It was found that with an increase in the height of the survey and a decrease in the scale, the images show the largest structures corresponding to the inhomogeneities of the deepest horizons of the earth's crust. Large structures detected on images obtained from space are compared to geophysical anomalies to determine their depth, which indicate a change in the structure of the deep layers of the Earth. In addition to the direct correlation (connection), between the deep layers of the Earth and the surface structure, noted on satellite images, indirect signs are found that indicate the depth of a particular structure. Apparently, the change in the brightness of geological objects
In narrow areas of the spectrum during multispectral imaging - the result of the accumulation of certain chemical elements. The abnormal presence of these elements can serve as a direct or indirect sign of the heterogeneity of the earth's crust. Through deep faults, fluids reach the surface, which carry information about the physicochemical processes taking place on different levels lithosphere. Interpretation of these anomalies provides information about the depth of the geological structure. Thus, a set of multi-scale multi-zonal satellite images allows a broad interpretation and selection of geological structures of different ranks (from global to local).
Depending on the technical means and techniques, a distinction is made between visual, instrumental and automatic decryption. The most widespread so far is visual decoding. With it, it is necessary to take into account the properties of the observer's vision, lighting conditions, observation time. A person is able to distinguish about 100 gray tones in the range from black to white. In practical work, the number of phototone gradations is limited to 7-i0. Human color perception is much more subtle. It is believed that the number of colors distinguishable by the eye, different in tone, saturation and lightness, exceeds 10,000. Color variations are especially noticeable in the yellow zone of the spectrum. The eye resolution is also great. It depends on the size, contrast and sharpness of the boundaries of the observed object.
Instrumental processing involves transforming a snapshot and obtaining a new image with predetermined properties. This can be done using photographic, optical and other means. The use of electronic technology, computers, the use of digital methods made it possible to carry out a more complete analysis of space images. By itself, the process of transforming an image does not add new information. He only brings it to a form convenient for further processing, allowing, regardless of the subjective perception of the human eye, to shade the pictorial characteristics of objects. With instrumental processing, you can filter the image, that is, weed out unnecessary information and enhance the image of the studied objects.
Interesting results are obtained by quantizing the image according to the density of the phototone, followed by coloring of individual, preselected steps. Moreover, the number and width of the density range can be changed, which makes it possible to obtain detailed and generalized characteristics of phototone measurements. Synthesis of color images is widespread, in which, using several light filters, images taken in different zones of the spectrum are projected onto a single screen. This produces a false color image. The colors can be chosen in such a way as to better shade the studied objects. For example, if, when using three light filters, the image obtained in the green part of the spectrum is colored blue, in the red - green, and in the infrared - red, then the vegetation
It is depicted in red, the water surface in blue, and areas not covered with vegetation in gray-blue. When you change the color of the filter corresponding to the given shooting range, the color of the total image changes (see the picture on the cover).
Automatic decryption of space images assumes the acquisition of an image in digital form with its subsequent processing using computer programs. This allows you to highlight specific geological objects. Programs for this are created on the basis of solving the problem of "image recognition". They require a kind of "memory bank" where the objective characteristics of natural objects are collected. The automatic decryption technique is still under development. Currently, the most widespread is the analog-digital method. It involves converting a photograph into a "cipher" one using a special device and processing the cipher image in accordance with the available programs. Decryption automation cannot completely replace the decryptor, but it makes it possible to quickly process a large amount of material.
The use of space methods in geological research requires certain conditions and a clear organization. Decryption is always carried out purposefully, since different specialists take different information from the same images. For example, geologists are interested in geological objects, geographers are interested in various components of the geographic envelope, etc. Before deciphering, it is necessary to study the available material on the natural conditions of the study area, identify the relationships between landscape elements, analyze geological and geophysical data. The better the decoder knows the subject of research, the more information he will extract from the space image and the sooner he will determine whether the space image carries new information.
Deciphering space images is divided into three stages: preliminary office work, field work and final office processing. Moreover, the ratio of these stages depends on the scale of the survey, the complexity of the geological structure and the degree of its interpretation.
Preliminary office interpretation is carried out prior to the commencement of field geological work. At the same time, a series of preliminary maps are drawn up, on which the proposed geological structures are displayed. Images of different scales are considered, the contours of objects, zones of phototone anomalies are highlighted. Based on the available geological and geophysical material, assumptions are made about the geological nature of the identified objects, and their decryption is established.
During field work, the geological nature and material composition of the selected objects are established, and their deciphering signs are specified. As a rule, field work is carried out at selected key areas, and the research results are extrapolated. The number of such sites is determined by the peculiarities of the geological structure!
The final stage is the final office processing of the results of ground, aerial and space observations. These data are used to compile geological maps of various content, catalogs of indicators and decryption signs, regionalization of the territory according to the conditions of decryption, as well as to report the research results.

LINEAMENTS
On space images of the Earth, stripes are quite clearly visible, manifesting themselves as independent photoanomalies, either in the form of rectilinear boundaries between different landscape zones, or geological formations. Specialists involved in deciphering space materials called them lineaments1.
1 Lineimentum (lit.) - line, line.
Lineament in geology is usually understood as linear or arcuate elements of planetary significance, associated at the initial stage, and sometimes throughout the entire history of the development of the lithosphere with deep splits. In this sense, this term has been used in geology since the beginning of this century. Since that time, lineaments in the earth's crust have been identified by geological, geophysical and geomorphological methods. Now they began to show up in space images. At the same time, an interesting feature of their manifestation was found out: their number depends on the scale of space surveys. The smaller it is, the clearer the lineaments look on satellite images. What is the nature of the photolineaments identified from space images in many parts of the world? There are several answers to this question so far. The first boils down to identifying lineaments with deep faults along which large movements of the earth's crust have taken place or are currently taking place. The second connects them with zones of increased fracturing of the earth's crust. And finally, the third considers lineaments not as a tectonic structure, but as an object caused by surface exogenous factors. Each point of view has its own supporters.
It seems to us that the bulk of the identified lineaments are deep-seated faults. This is well illustrated by the following example. The Ural-Oman li-neament has been well described by Soviet and foreign geologists on the basis of traditional methods. The very name of this structure shows its colossal length from the equator to the polar regions. Soviet Union... Probably, it would be fair to call it a superlineament. Superlineaments are supposed to mean a structure that can be traced from continent to continent for many thousands of kilometers. The Ural-Oman superlinear was discovered by the French researcher J Fyuron, and then described in detail by the Soviet scientist V. Ye. Khain. This structure goes along the Gulf of Oman to the Iranian-Afghan and Iranian-Pakistani borders, and then crosses the south of Turkmenistan and stretches parallel to the Urals to the Arctic. Throughout its entire length, the Ural-Oman superlineament exerts its influence on the geological structure. In the Alpine belt of the Near and Middle East, it serves as the border between two large segments: East and West, characterized by different geological structures. In the northern (Ural part), the superlineament is the borderline between the ancient platforms - East European and Siberian. There is no doubt that this superstructure is a zone of a long-term development of a deep fault.
On global and regional satellite images, individual parts of the Ural-Oman lineament are clearly recorded in the form of linear photo-anomalies of almost longitudinal strike (in Iran, in the south of the USSR and in other regions. This example shows that the lineaments deciphered on space images can be identified In the analysis of the structure of the Mediterranean geosynclinal belt, in addition to the Ural-Oman lineament, other linear structures were identified that cross mountainous countries and are traced for many hundreds of kilometers in neighboring platform areas (Fig. 16). A similar picture is established and for the Caucasus. ”Space images revealed less extended than the Ural-Oman, photoanomalies, which turned out to be identical to the West Caspian, Palmyro-Apsheron and other deep faults. with deep faults. For example, in the same place on In the Caucasus, connections are established between the deciphered lineaments and tectonic structures, in particular with zones of intense fracturing of the earth's crust, or, as they are commonly called, with zones of planetary fracturing. Nevertheless, in both cases, the lineaments revealed in the satellite images reflect the zones of increased fracturing of the lithosphere. It is known that it is in such zones that the concentration of minerals occurs. Therefore, the analysis of linear photoanomalies in space images, in addition to theoretical interest, is also of great practical significance.
The conclusion about the identity of lineaments with discontinuities in the earth's crust leads to interesting generalizations.
Discontinuities of deep burial and long-term development usually appear clearly on the earth's surface and are relatively easy to establish using traditional methods. Deciphering space images confirmed the existence of many of them, discovered a lot of previously unknown lineaments, and established their connection with discontinuous tectonics. Analyzing new lineaments, we identify discontinuities that have not been established by ground-based methods. Why weren't these structures discovered by researchers in the field? First of all, because they are located at great depths and can be masked by overlying younger rocks. On satellite images, they are reflected in the form of strip photoanomalies caused by the natural generalization of small elements of these structures and the effect of combining its individual parts. Thus, in space images, the deeper layers of the earth's crust seem to shine through, a kind of X-ray effect is created. This property of space images has now become widely used to study the deep parts of the lithosphere: the foundation of ancient platforms, etc.
The analysis of space materials, which has become widespread in recent years, has revealed a dense network of li-neaments and superlineaments. At the same time, it was found that the lineaments are characterized by various strikes: latitudinal, longitudinal, diagonal.
Space geology has made it possible to approach the assessment of lineaments in a new way, identify many of these forms and make an attempt with their help to decipher the deep structure of individual parts of the earth's crust.
The identification of lineaments with the help of space geology also makes it possible to revise the prospects of many regions, to establish previously unknown patterns of distribution of minerals. The studied lineaments allow a new approach to the solution of many problems of seismic and tectonics.

RING STRUCTURES
Ring structures on the Earth's surface have been known to geologists for a long time. However, with the advent of space photographs, the possibilities for their study have expanded. Almost every researcher analyzing a space image of a particular region discovers one or more ring formations, the origin of which in many cases remains unclear.
Ring structures are rounded, single or concentric local formations that have arisen as a result of internal and external processes. Based on the variety of forms and genetic characteristics of ring formations, they can be classified by origin: endogenous, exogenous, cosmogenic and technogenic.
Ring structures of endogenous origin were formed as a result of the influence of the internal, deep forces of the Earth. These are volcanic cones, massifs of igneous rocks, salt domes, rounded folds and other similar formations.
Ring structures of exogenous origin are created by external forces. This group includes hills, depressions, depressions, etc.
Cosmogenic ring structures combine shock-explosive (impact) formations - astroblems.
Technogenic ring structures have arisen in areas of intensive human activity. These are large quarries, waste heaps, artificial reservoirs and other objects created by man.
Ring structures of endogenous origin have been studied in sufficient detail by many Soviet and foreign scientists. Among the endogenous structures of the Earth associated with volcanic and intrusive activity, one can distinguish focal ring structures. They are found on Earth and other terrestrial planets. On Earth, these structures do not exceed 50 km in diameter and are formed under the influence of magmas that lie relatively shallow in the earth's crust of the continental type. They got their maximum development on the activated "hard" blocks of continents.
It is obvious that, in addition to the magmatic factor in the formation of endogenous ring structures, tectonic movements play a certain role. Separate folds, approaching in their parameters to domes or bowls, are in the form of concentric rings. These include the Richat structure located in the Sahara. This fold is well captured on satellite images. It has a clear concentric structure due to outcrops of dense sandy rocks that form ridges in the relief. There are different points of view regarding the mechanism of its formation. The Richat structure may have arisen from the fall of a meteorite body, but it can also be assumed that it is associated with a large body of dolerites. Ring structures caused by diapirism also belong to the endogenous group. Their formation is associated with the deep movement of the viscous mass of the lithosphere and its penetration to the surface. The substance introduced into the near-surface zones of the lithosphere can be magmatic melt or viscous rock salt. With this mechanism, when, under the pressure of the overlying strata, a more viscous substance (salt, magma) rushes to the surface, deforming and breaking through all layers in its path, diapir folds appear, having a circular or close-to-shape cross-section. The diameter of these folds, equal to hundreds of meters or several kilometers, is less than or comparable to focal ring structures, but is always much smaller than the diameter of endogenous megircular structures.
The group of endogenous ring structures includes ring and arc faults. In the activated zones of the earth's crust, numerous minerals are associated with it - tin, molybdenum, lead, zinc, etc., and on platforms - diamondiferous kimberlites, rare metals, copper-nickel ores. Several types of these structures can be distinguished, among which the endogenous group includes ring faults associated with the formation of salt domes and diapirs. They are formed by the processes of hydrovolcanism that arose as a result of the intrusion of magmatic melts or arched uplifts and subsidence of rocks. The diameter of these structures is from tens of meters to tens of kilometers. They are vertical, cylindrical, or arcuate fractures that delimit volcanic calderas, salt domes, and other structures. Mud volcanoes, which are clearly recorded in space images in the form of rounded objects, are of great interest in the search for oil and gas. The endogenous ring structures also include numerous granite-gneiss domes, widely developed on ancient shields. Thus, endogenous ring structures are subdivided into four classes: tectonogenic, plutonic, metamorphogenic, and volcanoid.
Exogenous ring structures are formed by formations of cryogenic, karst, glacial, aeolian and biogenic origin.
Cryogenic forms associated with freezing of the upper horizons of the earth's crust are clearly visible in the form of ring structures on satellite images. These include craters and hollows, heaving mounds, hydrolaccoliths. These structures are not of search interest, but they are a good deciphering feature for identifying areas of permafrost. Ring structures of karst origin include craters, wells, cirques and other forms of relief associated with the process of dissolution and leaching of carbonate rocks. Glacial ring structures are formed by the activity of glaciers. Aeolian ring-shaped forms are formed by the action of the wind, forming blow-out hollows or ring dunes, which are clearly visible on satellite images. Biogenic ring forms - atolls and reefs - are just as easily recognized in space photographs.
The cosmogenic ring structures of the Earth have attracted widespread attention of researchers in recent years.
There are about 100 known formations (craters) on the globe (Fig. 17), which have arisen as a result of the fall of meteorites of various sizes. They are called "astroblemes", which means "star wound" in Greek. The introduction of such a resounding term into scientific use by the American geologist R. Dietz in 1960 reflected the increased interest of geologists in the study of fossil meteorite craters. They are distributed very unevenly over the surface of the Earth.
Rice. 17. The layout of the shock structures installed on the continents of the Earth (according to V. I. Feldman): 1 ring formations, the impact genesis of which is beyond doubt; 2 suspected meteorite craters.
There are 36 of them in North America (15 in the USA, 21 in Canada); in Europe - 30 (including 17 in the USSR); in Asia - 11 (including 7 in the USSR); in Africa -8; in Australia -8; in South America - 2.
According to experts, over the past 2 billion years, the Earth has experienced about 100,000 collisions with meteorites, capable of forming craters with a diameter of more than 1 km. For about 600 collisions, the result could be craters with a diameter of more than 5 km, and for about 20 - craters of even larger diameter (50 km or more). Therefore, it is clear that we know so far only an insignificant part of astroblems.
Known astroblemes have a rounded shape and a diameter of several meters to 100 km or more. The most common craters are medium-sized, 8–16 km in diameter, and most of them belong to structures with a diameter of 2–32 km (Table 4). Small (less than 0.5 km in diameter) craters often form continuous fields. There are 8 known crater fields covering from 2 to 22 craters (Sikhote-Alin in the USSR, Herault in France, Henteri in Australia, etc.).
The age of the craters (Table 5) ranges from Quaternary (Sikhote-Alin, USSR) to 2000 million years.
On Earth, where powerful factors of destruction of geological structures operate, it is not so easy to recognize a meteorite crater.
Among the signs that serve to distinguish meteorite craters, the first place is given to the remnants of meteorite matter. It was found in 20 craters in the form of fragments of meteorites (mainly iron), spherules of iron-nickel composition and specific changes in rocks.
The rest of the signs of crater formation are determined by the specifics of the impact of the shock wave that occurs when colliding with rocks of meteorites moving at a speed of more than 3-4 km / s. This creates a huge pressure, the temperature reaches 10,000 ° C. The time of the impact of the shock wave on the rock is millionths of a second, and the pressure build-up is no more than billionths of a second. Plastic deformations and solid-phase transitions occur in minerals and rocks: melting, and then partial evaporation of the substance. The impact of the shock wave determines the features of meteorite craters: a rounded shape and a characteristic transverse profile; a simple bowl-shaped crater with a diameter of up to 1 km; a somewhat flattened crater with a central hill with a diameter of 3-4 km; saucer-shaped crater with an additional inner annular shaft with a diameter of 10 km. They are also characterized by an annular wall, folded by material ejected during the explosion, an annular uplift along the side, a deformation zone outside the crater, anomalies of the magnetic and gravitational fields, the presence of breccias, authigenic, i.e., consisting of crushed, but not displaced by the explosion, rocks, and allogeneic from debris displaced by the explosion;
cones of destruction (known in 38 craters), in the form of cones with a grooved surface from several centimeters to 12 m in height, oriented with their tops towards or away from the center of the explosion;
the presence of impact and fused glasses and glass-containing rocks in craters;
the presence of minerals in which there are systems of oriented cracks and changes in mechanical properties have appeared;
the presence of minerals arising at loads of 25-100 kbar (coesite, stishevite, etc.);
the presence of rocks formed from impact melts and having a specific chemical and mineral composition.
As an example, consider the Zelenogay structure on the Ukrainian crystalline massif. This structure is a funnel with a diameter of about 1.5 km and a depth of 0.2 km. It is located in the ancient rocks of the basement of the East European platform, near the village of Zeleny Gai, Kirovograd region. The funnel is filled with poorly sorted sandy-argillaceous rocks and brought (allogeneic) with in-situ (authigenic) breccia, consisting of fragments of granite. Changes have been established in the rocks of the funnel - signs of impact metamorphism, which can only be explained by a super-high-speed impact. Based on these changes, scientists calculated the pressure, which turned out to be more than 105 atm. Some astroblemes are limited to annular or arcuate exogenous cracks resulting from mechanical impact blast wave. Ring structures of cosmogenic origin are of practical importance - complexes of minerals can be associated with them.
Technogenic ring structures are a product of anthropogenic activity. From the point of view of prospecting for minerals, they are not of interest.
There are ring structures and unexplained genesis. They began to be detected already during the processing of the first space photographs. At the same time, an interesting feature was noted: the more ancient the studied complex of rocks, the more ring structures in it are deciphered. There is also an increase in these structures on ancient shields and in parts of the continents closer to the oceans. Many of these formations began to appear in the basement under the cover of loose formations (Fig. 18). Ring structures began to be revealed everywhere in cosmophotographs of various parts of the globe. Their diameter is varied and varies over a wide range. The question of their origin is still open. It is possible that they are more ancient buried or destroyed analogs of known endogenous or exogenous ring formations. They can also represent the destroyed ancient astroblemes that cover the surface of the Moon and Marx, i.e., they are witnesses of the lunar (nuclear) stage of development of our planet. An example is the ring structures identified in the regional image of the Aral Sea region and Kyzylkum. There are identified 9 ring objects - gentle arched uplifts with a diameter of 20 to 150 km. Comparison of the interpretation data with the results of geophysical surveys made it possible to establish that the inner parts of the ring structures almost always correspond to negative gravity and magnetic field anomalies, and positive anomalies to the edge ones. Analysis of the data allowed us to make the assumption that ring structures in Kazakhstan have a long geological history... They are the result of isostatic alignment of the upper horizons of the continental crust over areas of low-density matter accumulation.
The ancient foundation of the ring structures is also evidenced by the data obtained from television satellite images of the territory of Eastern Siberia, on which more than 20 such structures have been installed. The diameters of some of them reach 700 km. Often these ring structures are "cut" by ancient faults, the geological activity of which began 2-2.5 billion years ago. If the ring structures are destroyed by faults, then it means that they existed even earlier, that is, they arose at earlier stages of the development of the Earth.
It becomes obvious that ring structures play a very significant role in the structure of the Earth's lithosphere. They deserve the utmost attention. Their identification on space images and study in nature can significantly change the industrial and economic potential of a particular region. Space images also showed the wide development of ring formations on the Moon and terrestrial planets (Fig. 19). A detailed study of them will shed light on the nature of these still mysterious structures.
Space research methods began to be used by geologists when there were practically no "blank spots" left on the Earth. For most of our planet, geological and tectonic maps have already been compiled, from the most detailed (in well-developed areas) to reconnaissance ones. Deposits that are located on the surface of the Earth or in close proximity to it, like favilo, are known to geologists. Therefore, now the task is to study regional and global patterns of the location of geological structures, to identify signs that will help to search for deposits located in large areas. During geological surveys and detailed exploration of deposits in the usual way, we get a detailed description of the target, but very often we do not see the continuation of similar geological conditions. This is because the deposits are masked by a thick layer of surface Quaternary formations or by the complication of geological structure associated with younger movements. In this case, the deposits seem to be lost. This often happened when looking for oil and gas fields. A view from space allows you to observe the geological panorama as a whole, to trace the continuation and end of oil and gas structures, ore fields, and faults.
The main task of geological research is to satisfy the needs of the national economy for minerals. The current stage of using space images for mineral exploration is characterized by the following. According to the images obtained from space, specialists identify known deposits, as well as oil and gas structures that have a large extent, and establish signs that would allow them to be found. The main trend of prospecting geological work using space, photographic and telephoto is to draw up overview schemes and maps. They are built on the basis of differences in the tectonic development of large folded structures, fault zones and the spatial distribution of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Within a number of open areas, it seems possible to compile catalogs on the basis of space photographs. They include local structures (folds and salt domes of oil and gas interest). Space images help to study their position in the structure of the region, as well as to reveal the role of breaks in the formation of folded forms and their morphology. This indicates the possibility of predicting mineral prospecting based on indirect signs. They make it possible to determine the presence of a correlation of certain geological structures with mineral deposits.
In the field of regional metallogeny, it is of particular importance to study regional ruptures and ring structures using satellite images, as well as to compare the obtained material with tectonic and metallogenic maps to clarify the influence of these structures on the location of deposits. The different scale of satellite images made it possible to establish the features of the localization of mineralization at different structural levels.
With medium- and large-scale metallogenic studies, we now have the opportunity to study in more detail the ore content of the structure, to outline the ore-bearing horizons.
Similar work is being carried out in various regions of our country. Interesting results have already been obtained in Central Asia, on the Aldan shield, in Primorye. Moreover, the solution of search problems is carried out taking into account the data of ground and space research.
We talked about the possibility of predicting minerals by indirect signs. Its essence lies in the correlation of certain geological structures or rocks with mineral deposits. Along with the fact, information has recently appeared on direct methods of searching for individual deposits using satellite images. Direct searches for minerals from space became possible with the introduction of multispectral imaging and the practice of cosmogeological research.
A change in the brightness of geological objects in various narrow zones of the spectrum can be the result of the accumulation of certain chemical elements. Their anomalous presence can serve as a direct or indirect sign of the presence of a mineral deposit. For example, by analyzing the ratio of the brightness of geological structures in different zones of the spectrum, a number of known deposits can be identified in the images and new promising areas can be identified.
Study of anomalous emissions individual elements in various zones of the spectrum opens up new possibilities for geologists in decoding information received from space. We can create catalogs of the brightness of the radiation of certain types of rocks or their combinations. Finally, we can compile a catalog of the brightness of the radiation caused by the accumulation of certain elements, record these data on a computer and, with the help of these data, decide the question of the presence or absence of the object of search.
Oilmen pin special hopes on space images. From space images, tectonic structures of various orders can be distinguished. This makes it possible to establish and clarify the boundaries of oil and gas basins, to study the distribution patterns of known oil and gas deposits, to give a predictive assessment of the oil and gas content of the region under study and to determine the direction of priority prospecting work. In addition, as we have already said, space images clearly decipher individual local structures, salt domes and faults, which are of interest in terms of oil and gas. For example, if the analysis of images obtained from space reveals anomalies with configuration and morphology similar to known oil and gas bearing structures, this will make it possible to search for oil here. Obviously, these anomalies need to be verified by ground
research first. The experience of deciphering space and I sl images of platform structures showed a real possibility of identifying minerals by photo anomalies on the Turan plate and in the Pripyat trough.
Thus, the current stage of space research and geology is already characterized by the practical use of space imagery. In this regard, the question arises: can the facies methods of prospecting for minerals be considered obsolete? Of course not .. But shooting from space makes it possible not only to supplement the picture of the geological structure, but also to re-evaluate the already discovered fields. Therefore, it would be more accurate to say that we have entered the age of cosmic geology.

SPACE RESEARCH AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The problem of interaction between man and nature has long attracted the attention of scientists. Academician V. I. Vernadsky compared the force of human influence on the lithosphere with natural geological processes. He was the first to distinguish among the shells of the Earth the near-surface part of the earth's crust - the nanosphere - the "sphere of reason", in which the influence of human activity is reflected. Now, in the era of the scientific and technological revolution, the influence of man on nature has increased significantly. According to Academician E. M. Sergeev, by 2000 the area of ​​the Earth occupied by engineering structures will amount to 15%.
The length of the shores of artificial reservoirs, created only in the USSR, is approaching the size of the Earth's equator, and the length of the relative main channels in our country has reached 3 / C of the distance between the Earth and the Moon. The total length of the world's railway network is about 1400 thousand km. Thus, the nanosphere occupies vast areas of the Earth, and every year it expands. Human influence on nature is global. This is an objective process. But this process must be predicted and managed by humans both globally, regionally, Tdk and locally. Space images play an invaluable role in this.
Space exploration methods of the Earth are aimed primarily at the study of nature. Using space information, we can assess natural conditions, a certain territory, to identify threatening natural environment danger and predict the consequences of human impact on nature.
Space images can be used to map anthropogenic changes in the environment: pollution of the atmosphere, water areas, monitor other phenomena associated with human activities. They can be used to study the nature and tendencies of land use development, keep records of surface and ground waters, determine flood areas and many other processes.
Space images not only help to observe the processes arising as a result of human activity, but also make it possible to predict the action of these processes and prevent them. Geological engineering maps are compiled from satellite images; they serve as the basis for predicting the intensity of exogenous processes arising from human activities. Such maps are necessary both for inhabited areas and for developed areas. So, the area of ​​\ u200b \ u200bbuilding Baikal-Amur Mainline became the object of close attention of scientists. After all, now it is necessary to predict what impact the development of this territory will have on the surrounding nature. Geotechnical and other forecast maps are now being drawn up for this territory with the help of satellite images.
The BAM route is located in the permafrost zone. The experience of the development of other regions of the North shows that as a result of economic changes in the natural situation, the temperature regime of the earth's surface is disturbed. In addition, the construction of railways and dirt roads, industrial facilities and the plowing of land are accompanied by a violation of the natural soil and vegetation cover. The construction of the BAM obliges to take into account the danger of avalanches, mudflows, floods, floods and other natural disasters. Space surveys are used to predict these processes.
Thanks to the ability to obtain space images of the same territory at different times of the day, in different seasons, we can study the dynamics of exogenous processes in relation to human activities. So, using satellite images, maps of the development of the erosion-ravine network for the steppe regions of our country were compiled, areas of soil salinization were marked. In the regions of the Non-Black Earth Region, an inventory of the used lands is carried out, water resources are counted, the places of the most intensive development are outlined.

COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY
Progress in the development of space technology has now made it possible to closely approach the study of individual planets of the solar system. Now extensive material has been collected on the study of the Moon, Mars, Venus, Mercury, Jupiter. Comparison of these data with materials on the structure of the Earth contributed to the development of a new scientific direction - comparative planetology. What does comparative planetary science give for further study of the geology of our planet?
First, the methods of comparative planetary science make it possible to better understand the processes of formation of the primary crust of the Earth, its composition, different stages of development, the processes of formation of oceans, the emergence of linear belts, rifts, volcanism, etc. These data also make it possible to identify new patterns in the placement of deposits mineral.
Secondly, it became possible to create tectonic maps of the Moon, Mars and Mercury. The comparative planetological method has shown that the terrestrial planets have many similarities. It was found that they all have a core, mantle and crust. All these planets are characterized by a global asymmetry in the distribution of the continental and oceanic crust. Fault systems were found in the lithosphere of these planets and near the Moon; extensional cracks are clearly visible, which led to the formation of rift systems on Earth, Mars and Venus (Fig. 20). Compression structures have been established only on Earth and Mercury. Fold belts, giant shifts and nappes are distinguished only on our planet. In the future, it is necessary to find out the reason for the difference in the structure of the crust of the Earth and other planets, to determine whether this is associated with internal energy or due to something else.
Comparative planetological analysis showed that in the lithosphere of the terrestrial planets, continental,
oceanic and transitional regions. The thickness of the crust on the Earth, Moon, Mars and other terrestrial planets, according to the calculations of geophysicists, does not exceed 50 km (Fig. 21).
The discovery of ancient volcanoes on Mars and modern volcanism on Jupiter's moon Io showed the commonality of the processes of formation of the lithosphere and its subsequent transformations; even the shapes of volcanic apparatuses turned out to be similar.
The study of meteorite craters on the Moon, Mars and Mercury has drawn attention to the search for similar formations on Earth. Dozens of ancient meteorite craters - astroblems - with a diameter of up to 100 km have now been identified. If there was a long discussion about such lunar craters about their volcanic or meteoric origin, then after the discovery of similar craters on the satellites of Mars Phobos and Deimos, preference is given to the meteorite hypothesis.
The comparative planetary method is of great practical importance for geology. Penetrating in the search for fossils deeper and deeper into the bowels of the Earth, geologists are increasingly faced with the problems of the formation of the initial crust. At the same time, a connection between ore deposits and the structure of ring structures is outlined. There is already a hypothesis that the primary ring pattern of the earth's crust, which arose almost 4 billion years ago, could determine the unevenness of the processes of heat and mass transfer from the depths to the surface layers of the earth's crust. And this, undoubtedly, should influence the distribution of igneous rocks, ore deposits, the formation of oil and gas deposits. This is one of the reasons for the "cosmization" of geology, the desire to study the geology of other planetary bodies and to improve on the basis of his ideas about the structure of the Earth, its origin and development.
The comparative planetological method, as already noted, made it possible to compile the first tectonic maps of the Moon, Mars, Mercury (Fig. 22).
In recent years, the Laboratory of Space Geology of Moscow University compiled the first tectonic map of Mars on a scale of 1: 20,000,000. When constructing it, the authors encountered the unexpected: grandiose volcanoes, giant crustal fractures, vast fields of sand dunes, clear asymmetries in the structure of the southern and northern hemispheres of the planet, distinct traces of winding channels of ancient valleys, vast lava fields, a huge number of ring structures. However, the most important information on the composition of the rocks, unfortunately, was not yet available. Therefore, what lavas poured out of the vents of the Martian volcanoes and how the bowels of this planet are arranged can only be guessed at.

The primary Martian crust can be found in places in each hemisphere that are literally dotted with craters. These craters, which have the same appearance as the ring structures of the Moon and Mercury, arose, according to most researchers, as a result of meteorite impacts. The main part of the craters on the Moon was formed about 4 billion years ago in connection with the so-called "heavy bombardment" from a meteorite swarm that surrounded the planetary body that was being formed.
One of the characteristic features of the surface of Mars is a clear division into the northern (oceanic) and southern (continental) hemispheres, associated with the tectonic asymmetry of the planet. This asymmetry arose, apparently, as a result of the primary heterogeneity of the composition of Mars, typical for all the planets of the terrestrial group.
The continental southern hemisphere of Mars rises 3-5 km above the average level of this planet (Fig. 23). In the gravitational field of the Martian continents, negative anomalies prevail, which can be caused by thickening of the crust and its reduced density. In the structure of the continental regions, the core, inner and marginal parts are distinguished. The cores usually appear in the form of uplifted massifs with an abundance of craters. Such massifs are dominated by craters of the most ancient age, which are poorly preserved and indistinctly expressed in the images.
The inner parts, in comparison with the cores of the continents, are less "saturated" with craters, and among them craters of a younger age prevail. The marginal parts of the continents are gently sloping ledges stretching for hundreds of kilometers. In some places, step faults are noted along the marginal ubtups.
Faults and cracks in the continental regions of Mars are oriented mainly in the northeast and northwest directions. On satellite images, these lines are not very clearly expressed, which indicates their antiquity. The Volynian faults have a length of several tens of kilometers, but in some places they are grouped into lineaments of considerable length. The clearly manifested orientation of such lineaments at an angle of 45 ° to the meridian makes it possible to associate their formation with the influence of rotating forces. Probably, lineaments could have arisen at the stage of the formation of the primary crust. It should be noted that the Mars lineaments are similar to planetary fracturing of the earth's crust.
The formation of the continents of Mars continued long time... And this process ended, probably about 4 billion years ago. In some places of the planet, there are mysterious formations that resemble dry river beds (Fig. 24).
Rice. 23. A detailed image of the surface of Mars, obtained from the Viking station. Angular fragments and blocks of porous lava are visible.
The entire northern (oceanic) hemisphere of Mars is a vast plain called the Great Northern Plain. It lies 1-2 km below the average level of the planet.
According to the data obtained, positive anomalies of the gravitational field prevail on the plains. This allows us to speak of the existence of a denser and thinner crust here than in the continental regions. The number of craters in the northern hemisphere is small, and small craters with a good degree of preservation prevail. These are usually the youngest craters. Consequently, the northern
Rice. 24. Surface (Mars, taken from the Viking station. Impact craters and traces of a watercourse are visible, which probably formed during the melting of ice covering the planet's poles.
the plains as a whole are much younger than the continental regions. Judging by the abundance of craters, the age of the surface of the plains is 1-2 billion years, "that is, the formation of the plains took place later than the formation of the continents.
Vast areas of the plains are covered with basaltic lavas. We are convinced of this by the winding ledges on the boundaries of the lava sheets, which are clearly distinguishable on space images, and in some places the lava flows and volcanic structures themselves. Thus, the assumption about the wide distribution of aeolian (i.e., wind-carried) deposits on the surface of the Martian plains was not confirmed.
The plains of the hemisphere are divided into ancient ones, which differ in the images in a darker or inhomogeneous tone, and the young ones are light, relatively even in the images, with rare craters.
In the circumpolar regions, the basalt plains are overlain by layered sedimentary rocks several kilometers thick. The origin of these strata is presumably glacial-wind. Depressions of the planetary order, similar to the Martian plains, are commonly referred to as oceanic regions. Of course, this term, transferred from terrestrial tectonics to the structure of the Moon and Mars, is probably not entirely successful, but it reflects the global tectonic patterns common to these planets.
The tremendous tectonic processes that led to the emergence of oceanic troughs in the northern hemisphere could not but affect the structure of the previously formed hemisphere. Its edge parts have undergone especially significant changes. Extensive edge plateaus arose here irregular shape with a smoothed relief, forming, as it were, steps at the edge of the continents. The number of craters covering the edge plateaus is less than on continents and more than on oceanic plains.
The marginal plateaus in most cases stand out on the surface of Mars with the darkest color. During telescopic observations, they were compared with the lunar "seas". The thickness of the thin clastic regolith material covering the lunar "seas" and the weathering crust is probably small here, and the color of the surface is largely determined by the underlying dark basalts. It can be assumed, that. the formation of marginal volcanic plateaus coincided with the initial stages of the formation of oceanic trenches. Therefore, the determination of the age of such areas will help to estimate the time of the transition from the continental to the oceanic stage in the history of the lithosphere of Mars.
In addition to the oceanic plains, the circular depressions of Argyr and Hellas with diameters of 1000 and 2000 km, respectively, stand out sharply on the maps of Mars.
On the flat bottom of these depressions, which is 3-4 km below the average level of Mars, only individual young craters of small size and good preservation are visible. The depressions are filled with aeolian deposits. On the gravity map, these depressions correspond to sharp positive anomalies.
Along the periphery of the depressions, mountain rises with a width of 200-300 km with a dismembered relief, which are usually called "Cordilleras", adjoin the circular seas, rise. The formation of these uplifts on all planets is associated with the formation of circular depressions in the relief.
Circular depressions and "Cordilleras" are accompanied by radially concentric faults. The depressions are bounded by sharp annular scarps 1–4 km high, which suggests that they are fractured in nature. In places, arc faults are visible in the Cordilleras. Radial faults are outlined along the periphery of the circular depressions, although they are not very pronounced.
The question of the origin of the Argir and Hellas depressions has not yet been unambiguously resolved. On the one hand, they resemble giant craters that could have been formed by the impact of meteorites of asteroidal size. In this case, the residual masses of meteorite bodies hidden under the basalt cover and sandy sediments can serve as a source of significant positive gravity anomalies, and the structures located above them are called thalassoids (i.e., similar to oceanic trenches).
On the other hand, the similarity of gravitational characteristics and relief suggests that the depressions of Argyr and Hellas were formed as a result of the evolution of planets, due to the differentiation of substances in the interior.
If on the Moon after the formation of the basalt "ocean" and "seas" tectonic activity began to weaken, then on Mars relatively young deformations and volcanism are widely represented. They led to a significant restructuring of ancient structures. The most prominent among these new formations is the gigantic domed uplift of the Tharsis, which has a rounded outline. The cross-section of the uplift is 5-6 thousand km. In the center of Tarsis are the main volcanic structures of Mars.
The largest shield volcano Farsis - Mount Olympus with a diameter of about 600 km - rises above the Middle Level of Mars by 27 km. The top of the volcano is a vast caldera with a diameter of 65 km. In the inner part of the caldera, steep ledges and two craters with a diameter of about 20 km are visible. On the outside, the caldera is surrounded by a relatively steep cone, along the periphery of which lava flows of a radial pattern are spread. Younger streams are located closer to the summit, which indicates a gradual extinction of volcanic activity. The shield volcano Mount Olympus is surrounded by steep and rather high ledges, the formation of which can be explained by the increased viscosity of the volcano's magma. This assumption is consistent with the data on its higher height compared to the nearby volcanoes of the Tarsis Mountains.
At the shield volcanoes of the Tharsis arch, arc faults are outlined along the periphery. The formation of such cracks is due to the stresses that are caused by the eruption process. Such arcuate faults, characteristic of many volcanic regions of the Earth, lead to the formation of numerous volcanotectonic ring structures.
Under terrestrial conditions, arches, volcanoes and rifts often form a single volcanotectonic region. A similar pattern manifested itself on Mars. Thus, the system of faults, named after the largest graben by the Coprat system, is traced in the latitudinal direction along the equator at a distance of 2500-2700 km. The width of this system reaches 500 km, and it consists of a number of rift-like grabens up to 100-250 km wide and 1-6 km deep.
On other slopes of the Tharsis vault, systems of faults are also visible, oriented, as a rule, radially with respect to the vault. These are linearly elongated systems of uplifts and depressions, only a few kilometers wide, bounded on both sides by faults. The length of individual ruptures ranges from tens to many hundreds of kilometers. On the earth's surface, there are no complete analogues to systems of closely spaced parallel faults on Mars, although a similar pattern of faults appears in space images of some volcanic regions, for example Iceland.
The faults spreading to the south-west of the Tarsis arched uplift and extending far into the interior of the continental island have a different pattern. It is a series of clear ^ almost parallel lines and has a length of 1800 km and a width of 700-800 km. zones with approximately equal intervals between them. On the surface, the faults are expressed by ledges, sometimes grooves. It is possible that this system was formed by faults of ancient origin, renewed in the process of the development of the Tharsis arch. There are no similar fault systems on the surface of the Earth and other terrestrial planets.
The study of space images of Mars and the widespread use of methods of comparative planetological analysis allowed us to come to the conclusion that the tectonics of Mars has many similarities with the tectonics of the Earth.
The work of a geologist is inspired by the romance of search and discoveries. Perhaps there is no corner of our vast country that has not been explored by geologists. And this is understandable, because in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, the role of mineral resources in the country's economy has significantly increased. The demand for fuel and energy raw materials, especially for oil and gas, has sharply increased. More and more weight is required for ore, raw materials for the chemical and construction industries. Geologists are also faced with the acute issue of the rational use and protection of the natural resources of our planet. The profession of a geologist has become more complex. In modern geology, scientifically based forecasts, the results of new discoveries are widely used, and modern technology is used. The alliance with astronautics opens up new horizons for geology. In this book, we have touched on only some of the problems that are solved in geology using space methods. The complex of space methods makes it possible to study the deep structure of the earth's crust. This provides an opportunity to explore new structures with which minerals may be associated. Space-based methods are especially effective in identifying deposits confined to deep faults. The use of space methods' in the search for oil and gas has a great effect.
The key to the successful application of space methods in geology is an integrated approach to the analysis of the results obtained. Many lineament systems and ring structures are known from other geological research methods. Therefore, the question naturally arises of comparing the results of space information with the available information on geological and geophysical maps of various contents. It is known that when identifying faults, the morphological manifestation of their front on the surface, the rupture of the geological section, structural and magmatic features are taken into account. In geophysical fields, faults are characterized by ruptures and displacement of deep seismic boundaries, changes in geophysical fields, etc. Therefore, when comparing deep faults identified from space images, we observe the greatest coincidence with the faults displayed on geological maps. When compared with geophysical data, there was more often a discrepancy in terms of photo anomalies and faults. This is due to the fact that in such a comparison we are dealing with elements of structures of different depth levels. Geophysical data indicate the distribution of anomalous factors at depth. The satellite images show the position of the photoanomaly, which gives a projection of the geological structure on earth surface... Therefore, it is important to choose a rational complex of observations that allows you to identify geological objects on space images. On the other hand, it is necessary to take into account the specifics of space information and clearly define its capabilities in solving various geological problems. Only a set of methods will make it possible to purposefully and scientifically search for minerals, to study the structural features of the earth's crust.
The practical use of materials obtained from space poses the problem of assessing their economic efficiency. It depends on how the newly obtained information coincides with the results of ground geological and geophysical studies. Moreover, the better the match, the less costs are needed for further work. If geological research is carried out with the aim of searching for minerals, then it becomes more focused, that is, if the results coincide, we are talking about clarifying information about objects, structures about which there is indisputable information.
In another case, new, more accurate information appears on space images, which other methods cannot provide. The high information content of space methods is due to the peculiarity of the space survey (generalization, integration, etc.). In this case, economic efficiency is increased by obtaining information about new structures. The use of space methods brings not only a quantitative, but above all a qualitative leap in obtaining geological information. In addition, as a result of the improvement of space imagery technology, the possibilities of its geological use will increase.
Summarizing what has been said, we can formulate the advantages of information obtained from space as follows:
1) the ability to remotely obtain images of the Earth from detailed to global;
2) the possibility of studying areas that are inaccessible for traditional research methods (alpine, polar regions, shallow water areas);
3) the possibility of filming with the required frequency;
4) availability of all-weather survey methods;
5) the efficiency of surveying large areas;
6) economic feasibility.
This is the present day of space geology. Space information provides geologists with many interesting materials that will contribute to the discovery of new mineral deposits. Space research methods have already become part of the practice of geological exploration. Their further development requires coordination of efforts of geologists, geographers, geophysicists and other specialists engaged in the study of the Earth.
The tasks of the next research should follow from the results of the practical use of space assets and pursue the goals of further developing and increasing the efficiency of methods for studying the Earth from space. These tasks are associated with the expansion of complex space research with the use of computers, the compilation of generalizing maps that allow the study of global and local structures of the earth's crust for further study of the patterns of distribution of minerals. The global view from space allows us to consider the Earth as a single mechanism and better understand the dynamics of its modern geological and geographical processes.

LITERATURE
Barrett E., Curtis L. Introduction to space geography. M., 1979.
Y. G. Katz, A. G. Ryabukhin, D. M. Trofimov, Cosmic Methods in Geology. M., 1976.
Kats Ya. G. et al. Geologists study the planets. M., Nedra, 1984.
Knizhnikov Yu. Ya - Fundamentals of aerospace methods of geographical research. M., 1980.
Kravtsova V.I. Space mapping. M., 1977.
Space exploration in the USSR. 1980. Manned flights. M., Science, 1982.

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Book text recognition from images (OCR) - creative studio BK-MTGK.

Venus has been extensively explored using spacecraft. The first spacecraft to study Venus was the Soviet Venera-1. After an attempt to reach Venus with this apparatus, launched on February 12, 1961, Soviet vehicles of the Venera, Vega series, the American Mariner, Pioneer-Venera-1, Pioneer-Venera-2, Magellan were sent to the planet. ", European" Venus Express ", Japanese" Akatsuki ". In 1975, the spacecraft Venera-9 and Venera-10 transmitted the first photographs of the surface of Venus to Earth; in 1982, Venera 13 and Venera 14 transmitted color images from the surface of Venus. However, the conditions on the surface of Venus are such that none of the spacecraft has worked on the planet for more than two hours. Roscosmos plans to send the Venera-D station with a satellite of the planet and a more tenacious probe, which should work on the planet's surface for at least a month, as well as the Venera-Glob complex from an orbiting satellite and several descent modules (a detailed list of successful spacecraft launches, who transmitted information about Venus, see Appendix 2).

Features of the nomenclature

Since the clouds hide the surface of Venus from visual observations, it can only be studied by radar methods. The first rough maps of Venus were compiled in the 1960s. based on radar conducted from the ground. Parts hundreds and thousands of kilometers in size, bright in the radio range, received conventional designations, and there were several systems of such designations that did not have a general circulation, but were used locally by groups of scientists. Some used letters Greek alphabet, others - Latin letters and numbers, third - Roman numerals, fourth - naming in honor of famous scientists who worked in the field of electrical and radio engineering (Gauss, Hertz, Popov). These designations (with some exceptions) have now gone out of scientific use, although they are still found in modern literature on astronomy. The exceptions are the Alpha region, Beta region and Maxwell Mountains, which have been successfully compared and identified with the refined data obtained using space radar.

The first map of part of the Venusian surface using radar data was compiled by the US Geological Survey in 1980. The information collected by the Pioneer-Venera-1 (Pioneer-12) radiosonde, which operated in the orbit of Venus from 1978 to 1992, was used for mapping.

Maps of the planet's northern hemisphere (one third of the surface) were compiled in 1989 at a scale of 1: 5,000,000 jointly by the American Geological Survey and the Russian Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry. IN AND. Vernadsky. The data of the Soviet radiosondes "Venera-15" and "Venera-16" were used. A complete (except for the southern polar regions) and more detailed map of the surface of Venus was compiled in 1997 at scales of 1: 10,000,000 and 1: 50,000,000 by the American Geological Survey. In this case, data from the Magellan radiosonde were used.

The rules for naming the details of the relief of Venus were approved at the XIX General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union in 1985, after summarizing the results of radar studies of Venus by automatic interplanetary stations. It was decided to use only female names(except for the three historical exceptions cited earlier):

Large craters of Venus are named after the names of famous women, small craters - female names. Examples of large ones: Akhmatova, Barsova, Barto, Volkova, Golubkina, Danilova, Dashkova, Ermolova, Efimova, Klenova, Mukhina, Obukhova, Orlova, Osipenko, Potanin, Rudnev, Ruslanova, Fedorets, Yablochkina. Examples of small ones: Anya, Katya, Olya, Sveta, Tanya, etc.

Non-crater relief forms of Venus are named in honor of mythical, fabulous and legendary women: the heights are given the names of the goddesses of different peoples, the lows of the relief - other characters from various mythologies:

lands and plateaus are named after the goddesses of love and beauty; tessera - named after the goddesses of fate, happiness and good luck; mountains, domes, regions are called by the names of various goddesses, giantesses, titanides; hills - by the names of sea goddesses; ledges - in the names of the goddesses of the hearth, crowns - in the names of the goddesses of fertility and agriculture; ridges - the names of the goddesses of the sky and female characters, linked in myths with heaven and light.

Furrows and lines are named after warlike women, and canyons are named after mythological characters associated with the moon, hunting and the forest. UFO magazine: 02.2000, 05.2000, 07.2000, 09.2000.