T.G. GRUSHEVITSKAYA,

A.P. SADOKHIN

CONCEPTSMODERNNATURAL

Russian Federation as a teaching aid

For university students,

students in the humanities

« Professional tutorial"As a teaching aid

For university students

UDC 50.001.1 (075.8)

BBK 20v.ya73

Reviewers:

Dr. Phys.-Math. Sciences, prof., Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences K.G. Nikiforov;

Dr. Philos. Sciences, prof., Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences A.V. Soldiers;

Cand. biol. Sciences, Assoc. L. B. Fisherman

Editor-in-chief of the publishing house doctor economic sciences N. D. Eriashvili

Grushevidnaya T.G., Sadokhin A.P.

G91 Concepts modern natural science: Textbook. manual for universities. - M .: UNITI-DANA, 2003 .-- 670 p.

ISBN 5-238-00502-4

The manual has been prepared in accordance with the requirements of the State educational standard higher professional education in the discipline "Concepts of modern natural science", which is included in the curricula of all humanitarian specialties of universities in the country. The work presents a wide panorama of concepts covering various processes and phenomena in animate and inanimate nature, describes modern scientific methods of understanding the world. The main attention is paid to the consideration of the concepts of modern natural science, which are of great ideological and methodological significance.

For students, graduate students and teachers of humanitarian faculties and universities of the country, as well as for everyone interested in the philosophical issues of natural science.

BBK 20v.ya73

ISBN 5-238-00502-4 © T.G. Grushevitskaya, A.P. Sadokhin, 2003

© UNITY-DANA PUBLISHING, 2003

Play the entire book or any

parts of it are prohibited without written

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Foreword

The task of training highly qualified specialists involves the formation of their versatile and fundamental knowledge about various processes and phenomena of the surrounding world. Today society does not need specialists focused only on solving narrowly utilitarian problems within the knowledge gained during training. Modern requirements for a specialist are based on his ability to constantly improve his qualifications, the desire to keep abreast of the latest achievements in his profession, the ability to creatively adapt them to his work. For this purpose, the curricula of higher educational institutions include such disciplines and lecture courses that are designed to form the worldview orientations and attitudes of a certified specialist, to help him master the scientific picture of the world and his chosen profession. All requirements and innovations in the system of domestic higher education development oriented creativity students so that after graduation, the graduate can become creative personality capable of performing both professional and civil duties. The course "Concepts of modern natural science" is focused on the implementation of these goals.

The need for this course is also due to the fact that over the past two decades in our society, various kinds of irrational knowledge, such as mysticism, astrology, occultism, magic, spiritualism, etc., have become more and more widespread. Gradually and consistently, they oust from the public consciousness the scientific picture of the world based on rational ways of explaining it. Representatives of these varieties of parascience are sincerely convinced that the status of the scientific worldview in modern society is not at all higher than that of any other type of irrational knowledge, therefore, the assertion of a scientific and rational attitude to reality, on which our entire civilization is built, acquires special significance. Many years of teaching experience by the authors of this course indisputably testifies that the study of the foundations of natural science contributes to the development of guidelines, attitudes and values ​​among students of a rationalistic attitude towards the world, nature, society, and man.

The proposed study guide was prepared in accordance with the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education and is intended for students of humanitarian specialties of universities.

The manual is written on the basis of lecture courses, read by authors for ten years. The experience of teaching this discipline in different universities proves that students of humanitarian specialties should not present the material of the natural sciences, delving into technical details, if this is not justified by the general concept and methodological approach to the presentation of this subject. However, the range of humanitarian specialties in the higher education system is quite wide and diverse, so the authors tried to make the textbook universal.

The course "Concepts of Modern Natural Science" in its content is an interdisciplinary discipline. It is taught by specialists with various basic education. Given this circumstance, the authors provided for the possibility of presenting this course in various versions, depending on the capabilities and characteristics of the educational institution, forms of training, structure curricula and the professional qualifications of each teacher.

The authors would like to note that although at present sufficient experience has already been accumulated in teaching the discipline itself and the course program has been established, its originality, allowing for a variety of presentation options, initially makes their work imperfect. Therefore, they express their gratitude to all interested readers in advance for their benevolent comments and wishes for improving their work.

Section I. Fundamentals of Science of Science

Chapter 1. Science and its role in the life of society

1.1. Science as part of culture

During their existence, people have developed many ways of knowing and mastering the world around them. The most important among them is undoubtedly science. We are familiar with this word, we very often use it in Everyday life, but at the same time we rarely think about its real meaning, and an attempt to give a definition of science usually causes difficulties.

As a rule, these difficulties are caused by the fact that the understanding of the role and place of science in the life of people is expressed in a variety of ideas and has not yet received a final assessment. It was developed for a long time and difficult, through the struggle of approaches, ideas, resolution of contradictions, overcoming doubts and the emergence of more and more new questions. Only in the 20s of the XX century a new scientific discipline emerged, called "science of science", designed to reveal the essence and characteristics of science, the mechanism of its development and application, as well as the general laws of development and functioning of science as a system of knowledge and a special social institution.

When starting a conversation about the nature of science, obviously, one should proceed from the axiom that science is part of the spiritual culture of mankind. With its appearance, in the aggregate of knowledge transmitted from generation to generation, unique spiritual products were accumulated, which gradually began to play an increasingly important role in the awareness, understanding and transformation of reality. It is also indisputable that, being a part of culture, science has features that link it with other spheres and structural elements of culture, and fulfills the common tasks facing the culture as a whole. Therefore, it is necessary to talk about science in the context of the entire culture, highlighting the features of the similarities and differences between science and other spheres of culture.

Without deliberately going into the essence of the discussion about what culture is, we consider it necessary to note that culture is a world of artificial objects created by mankind that opposes natural processes and phenomena. Culture appeared simultaneously with man himself, and the first cultural phenomena were the tools of labor created by our distant ancestors. They ensured the survival of man as a species, protected him from dangers outside world... Therefore, culture can be imagined as a wall that separates man and nature and protects him from adverse conditions. environment.

Culture has become the most important property of a person that distinguishes him from the rest organic world our planet: if the plants and animals of the Earth adapt to the conditions of the surrounding world, then the person changes these conditions, adapting the world for himself. This reflects the most important goal of culture - to protect and make life easier for people.

From the moment of its inception to the present time, all spheres of culture have been involved in solving this most important task, reflecting the needs and interests of a person. Science also has its own tasks, they distinguish science from other spheres of culture. So, it differs from art by rationality, the use of concepts and theories, and not images; from philosophy - the possibility of experimental verification of its conclusions, as well as the fact that it answers the questions "how?" and "how?", and not to the question "why?"; from religion - its reliance on reason and sensory reality, and not on faith; from mythology - by the fact that it does not seek to explain the world as a whole, but wants to know individual fragments of the world in the form of laws.

Thus, science is a sphere of culture, which is most closely related to the task of direct transformation by a person of the surrounding world, increasing its comfort and convenience for a person. After all, science creates a world of knowledge, consisting only of experimentally proven data about this world and conclusions obtained on the basis of the laws of logic. The use of this knowledge makes it much easier for a person to transform the world.

Hence, the importance of science in social life becomes obvious and the increased attention that is paid to it gets an explanation. To confirm this position, it is enough to look back and look at all the variety of things that surround us, which appeared only thanks to the development of science and technology closely related to it. Today it is no longer possible to imagine the world without science - after all, then most of the people currently living on Earth would simply be doomed to extinction.

At the same time, recognizing the enduring role of science in our life, can we talk about it special place in culture, that it should take a dominant position in the life of society? History knows examples of the artificial allocation of some spheres of culture to the detriment of others, which always led to the impoverishment of culture as a whole and disruption of its normal functioning. Thus, for most of European history (all of the Middle Ages), the dominant place in culture and worldview was occupied by religion, which slowed down the development of science for almost a millennium, while destroying many of the achievements of antiquity. It was only thanks to the dominance of religion that the consequences and sentences of the inquisitorial tribunals against the greatest scientists of the Renaissance - Giordano Bruno and Galilee Galilei, who became the founders of modern science, became possible.

Only after breaking free from the power of religion in the Renaissance, science begins to develop rapidly and claim a dominant place in the culture and worldview of man due to its successes in natural science. This is due to the fact that, although all the science of modern times has a practical orientation, the largest technical inventions, the real practical effect of theoretical research begins to appear precisely from the 19th century. Since that time, the pace of scientific and technological progress in European civilization has become very tangible. The 19th century begins with the appearance of the steam engine, which was used in steamships, steam locomotives and as a power plant in factories and plants. It ends with the invention of electric lighting, telephone, radio, car and airplane. Nature gradually turned from a temple full of unknown secrets into a workshop, where a person entered as a master and worker. And although not all of the changes were beneficial, there was still a practical positive effect from the development of science and technology.

Science, blinded by its successes, did not realize its boundaries, wanted to give answers to all questions, to lead humanity to a better future. Usually this future was imagined as a world of material prosperity and satiety, built on the achievements of science and technology. Sobering up came only in the middle of the 20th century, when humanity came face to face with the negative aspects of scientific and technological progress. The creation and use of nuclear weapons for the first time in the history of mankind created the possibility of their complete destruction in a new world war. The ecological crisis that broke out in the 60s and 70s cast doubt on the possibility of the survival of mankind as a biological species. Then the person for the first time thought about the cost of scientific and technological progress, then he began to look for the reasons for the current situation. At this time in full force the words of those thinkers sounded who spoke about the negative aspects of the unrestrained development of science and technology, about the dangers of the spread and approval of a scientistic worldview based on faith in science as the only saving force. It was scientism, which arose in the depths of enlightenment, in the second half of the 20th century. transformed into a trend of unlimited praise of the achievements of the natural sciences as opposed to social and humanitarian disciplines. This conviction has led to a modern ecological crisis, the danger of thermonuclear war, but most importantly - to a sharp decline in the ethical and aesthetic indicators of culture, the ever-increasing influence of technocratic psychology, which has generated consumer sentiment in modern society.

The worldview setting of scientism is due to the fact that it is based on rational calculation, and where there is a certain practical goal, a person professing this ideology will strive for this goal, regardless of any ethical obstacles. He will not be stopped either by the possibility of his own death in the course of a scientific experiment, or, moreover, by the danger to other people. It was the considerations of benefit that guided the people who made decisions about ground and air nuclear explosions. This is due to the fact that usually the development of the rational component of a person's personality goes to the detriment of other sides of the self (emotions, fantasy, moral values, etc.). This is how a dry, cold, sober-minded person is born, for whom the end always justifies the means.

The negative side of the scientistic worldview is the fact that the individual feels alienated and powerless in the scientistic world. Science taught him to doubt spiritual values, surrounded him with material comfort, taught him to see everything as a rationally achievable goal. But at the same time, a person has lost that main goal for which it is worth living, the integrity of his worldview has collapsed. Indeed, since the industrial revolution, new scientific thinking began to destroy the religious picture of the world that has functioned for millennia, in which a person was offered a universal and unshakable knowledge of how and why to live and what are the principles underlying the world order. It was a holistic and consistent picture of the world, since it was based on faith. The paradox of scientific thinking lies in the fact that, destroying the naive, holistic view of the world that is given by religion, questioning every postulate that was previously taken on faith, science does not give in exchange for the same holistic convincing understanding of the world - all scientific truths cover only a fairly narrow circle of phenomena. Science taught a person to doubt everything and immediately generated a worldview deficit around him, which she is fundamentally unable to fill, because this is a matter of philosophy, religion, art, that is, the humanitarian sphere of culture.

Having comprehended by the end of the XX century. both positive and negative aspects of the development of science, humanity began to abandon scientism in favor of anti-scientism - an ideology that considers science harmful and dangerous, leading to the death of humanity. This is reflected in a decrease in public interest in scientific discoveries, in the decline in the prestige of professions related to scientific activity, as well as in the spread of a large number of pseudosciences (astrology, parapsychology, etc.), which filled the emerging ideological vacuum.

There is no doubt that science is a tremendous achievement in human culture. It makes a person's life from generation to generation easier, more comfortable, safe, beckons with the prospect of an abundance of material and spiritual benefits. But deified science, scientism, is a completely different phenomenon that generates completely opposite results and threatens the existence of mankind.

Objectively, science is only one of the spheres of human culture, which has its own specifics and tasks, and one should not try to change this situation. Science in itself cannot be considered the highest value of human civilization, it is only a means in solving some problems of human existence. The same applies to other spheres of human culture, primarily to religion, philosophy and art. In a harmonious society there should be a place for science, and for art, and for philosophy, and for religion, and for all other spheres of human culture.

The science - This is a part of culture, which is a collection of objective knowledge about being. Also, the concept of science includes the process of obtaining this knowledge and various forms and mechanisms of their application in practical life of people.

1.2. Science criteria

This definition of science is not exhaustive, since during its existence, mankind has accumulated a large amount of objective knowledge about the world that is different in nature (first of all, everyday knowledge on which our daily life is built), and scientific knowledge is only one of the types of this knowledge. Therefore, the question arises about the criteria of scientific character, which will make it possible to distinguish between scientific knowledge itself and unscientific knowledge.

Scientific knowledge criteria

We distinguish four criteria of scientific knowledge.

The first is systematic knowledge. The system, in contrast to the sum, is characterized by internal unity, the impossibility of removing or adding certain elements to its structure without good reason. Scientific knowledge always acts as certain systems: in these systems there are initial principles, fundamental concepts (axioms), there is knowledge deduced from these principles and concepts according to the laws of logic. In addition, the system includes interpreted experimental facts, experiments, mathematical apparatus, practical conclusions and recommendations that are important for this science. A chaotic set of correct statements by itself cannot be considered a science.

But the principle of consistency alone is not enough to call some knowledge a science. After all, outside of science there is systematized knowledge, for example, religious knowledge, which also outwardly looks like harmonious, logically grounded systems. Therefore, the second criterion of science is availability of a proven mechanism for obtaining new knowledge. In other words, science is not just a system of knowledge, but also an activity to obtain it, which provides not only a proven method of practical and theoretical research, but also the presence of people specializing in this activity, appropriate organizations coordinating research, as well as the necessary materials. technologies and means of fixing information. This means that science appears only when special objective conditions in society are created for this:

a more or less clear social demand for objective knowledge (this makes it possible to form a group of people professionally engaged in scientific activity);

the social possibility of identifying such a group of people, which is associated with a sufficient high level development of a society that has the ability to direct part of the funds to activities that are not related to the achievement of real practical benefits;

preliminary accumulation of knowledge, skills, cognitive techniques that serve as the basis on which science is formed;

the emergence of means of fixing information, without which it is impossible to transfer the accumulated knowledge to the next generations, as well as to change them promptly.

The third criterion for the scientific character of knowledge is its theoretical, receiving truth for the sake of truth itself. If science is aimed only at solving practical problems, it ceases to be a science in the full sense of the word. Science is based on fundamental research, pure interest in the world around and its secrets (this is the only way revolutionary scientific ideas and discoveries are born), and then applied research becomes possible on their basis, if this level of technology development allows it. Thus, the scientific knowledge that existed in the East was used either as auxiliary in religious rituals and ceremonies, or in direct practical activities. For example, the compass was created by the Chinese in the 6th century, but only when it got to Europe, it gave impetus to the development of new branches of physics. The Chinese, on the other hand, used a compass for fortune telling and traveling, without thinking about the causes of magnetism. Therefore, in this case, we cannot talk about science as an independent sphere of culture.

The fourth criterion for scientific character is rationality of knowledge. The rational style of thinking is based on the recognition of the existence of universal causal relationships accessible to the mind, as well as formal proof as the main means of substantiating knowledge. Today this position seems trivial, but the knowledge of the world mainly with the help of reason did not appear immediately and not everywhere. Eastern civilization never adopted this specifically European path, giving priority to intuition and supersensible perception. This criterion is closely related to the intersubjectivity property of scientific knowledge, which is understood as the general validity, general validity of knowledge, its invariance, the ability to obtain the same result by different researchers.

For modern science, an additional, fifth criterion of scientific character is introduced. it the presence of an experimental research method, and mathematization of science. These signs appeared only in modern times, giving science a modern look, and also linking it with practice. From that moment on, both science and European civilization began to focus on the conscious transformation of the surrounding world in the interests of man, i.e. have become what they are now.

By separating scientific knowledge from unscientific knowledge, it is possible to identify specific traits science. Among them, the most important are the universality, validity, intersubjectivity of scientific data. If any result is obtained, any scientist, by reproducing the appropriate conditions, must obtain the same result, which will not be influenced by either the scientist's nationality or his individual characteristics. That is why many believe that in contact with extraterrestrial civilizations (if such occur), it is the generally valid conclusions of science that should become the starting point that will help to find mutual language even unlike creatures. After all, twice two will be equal to four not only on Earth, but the periodic table will be correct in any corner of our Metagalaxy.

Important properties of scientific knowledge are its reliability, associated with constant verification of the results obtained, as well as criticality - willingness to question and revise their views if they are not confirmed during the audit.

Scientific knowledge is always fundamentally incomplete. Since it is impossible to obtain absolute truth, scientific knowledge cannot be limited. The more we learn about the world, the more mysteries and mysteries await their solution.

Using the criteria we have introduced, we get the opportunity to separate science from non-science. This is especially important today, since the pseudoscience (pseudoscience, quasi-science), which has always existed alongside science, has recently gained more and more popularity and attracts an increasing number of supporters.

The first such difference is the content of knowledge. The assertions of pseudosciences usually do not agree with the established facts, do not stand up to objective experimental verification. So, many times scientists have tried to check the accuracy of astrological forecasts, comparing the occupation of people and their personality type with horoscopes compiled for them, which took into account the sign of the zodiac, the location of the planets at the time of birth, etc., but no statistically significant matches were found.

The structure of pseudoscientific knowledge usually does not represent a system (as it should be with scientific knowledge), but is fragmented. As a result, it is usually impossible to create any detailed picture of the world from them.

Pseudoscience is also characterized by an uncritical analysis of the initial data, which allows one to accept as such myths, legends, third-hand stories, ignoring those data that contradict the concept being proved. The case often comes to direct forgery, falsification of facts.

We must not forget that science studies natural and objective laws, i.e. significant repetitive processes and phenomena of the surrounding world. This gives rise to the predictive function of science, allows it to predict some events. The pseudoscientists fail to do anything of the kind. So, not a single ufologist has predicted the landing of a flying saucer. In other words, science gives an abstract quality knowledge in quantitative form, and pseudoscience is limited to sensually concrete and qualitative results.

Despite this, pseudoscience is enjoying great success. And there are reasons for this. One of them is the fundamental incompleteness of the scientific worldview, which leaves room for conjectures and inventions. But if earlier these voids were mainly filled with religion, today this place has been taken by pseudoscience, whose arguments may be incorrect, but are understandable to everyone. To an ordinary person psychologically clearer and more pleasant are pseudoscientific explanations, leaving room for miracles, which a person needs more than dry scientific reasoning, and which, moreover, cannot be understood without special education. Therefore, the roots of pseudoscience are in the very nature of man. Because of this, it will hardly be possible to get rid of it in the foreseeable future.

Types of pseudosciences

It remains to add that pseudoscience is not homogeneous. There are several types of pseudosciences.

The first are relict pseudosciences, among which are well-known astrology and alchemy. Once they were a source of knowledge about the world, a breeding ground for the birth of true science. They became pseudosciences after the birth of chemistry and astronomy.

In modern times, appeared occult pseudosciences- spiritualism, mesmerism, parapsychology. Common to them is the recognition of the existence of the otherworldly (astral) world, which does not obey physical laws... It is believed that this is the highest world in relation to us, in which any miracles are possible. You can contact this world through mediums, psychics, telepaths, while there are various paranormal phenomena, which become the subject of study of pseudoscience. In the XX century appeared modernist pseudosciences, in which the mystical basis of the old pseudosciences was transformed under the influence of science fiction. Among such sciences, the first place is occupied by ufology, which deals with the study of UFOs.

Sometimes pseudosciences include deviant (incorrect) science, activities within the framework of traditional science, committed with a deliberate violation of scientific requirements. This is data rigging, fake archaeological finds, etc.

Concepts of modern natural science. A.P. Sadokhin

2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: 2006 .-- 447 p.

The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education in the discipline "Concepts of Modern Natural Science", which is included in the curricula of all humanitarian specialties of universities. The work presents a wide panorama of concepts covering various processes and phenomena in animate and inanimate nature, describes modern scientific methods of understanding the world. The main attention is paid to the consideration of the concepts of modern natural science, which are of great ideological and methodological significance.

For students, graduate students and teachers of humanitarian faculties and universities, as well as everyone interested in the philosophical issues of natural science.

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Table of contents
From author 3
Chapter 1. Science as part of culture 5
1.1. Science among other spheres of culture 5
1.2. Natural science and humanitarian culture 7
1.3. Criteria for Scientific Knowledge 11
1.4. The structure of scientific knowledge 15
1.5. Scientific picture of the world 17
Chapter 2. The structure and methods of scientific knowledge 20
2.1. Levels and forms of scientific knowledge 20
2.2. Methods of Scientific Knowledge 23
2.3. Special empirical methods of scientific knowledge 25
2.4. Special theoretical methods of scientific knowledge 27
2.5. Special universal methods of scientific knowledge 29
2.6. General scientific approaches 32
2.7. Systems approach 33
2.8. Global Evolutionism 38
Chapter 3. Fundamentals of Natural Science 49
3.1. Subject and structure of natural science 49
3.2. Natural History 53
3.3. The beginning of science 54
3.4. The global scientific revolution of the late 19th - early 20th centuries 69
3.5. The main features of modern natural science as a science 71
Chapter 4. Physical picture of the world 75
4.1. The concept of the physical picture of the world 75
4.2. Mechanical picture of the world 78
4.3. Electromagnetic picture of the world 81
4.4. Quantum field picture of the world 85
4.5. Relationship between dynamic and statistical laws 88
4.6. Principles modern physics 91
Chapter 5. Modern Concepts of Physics 96
5.1. Structural levels of organization of matter 96
5.2. Movement and Physical Interaction 106
5.3. Concepts of space and time in modern natural science 116
Chapter 6. Modern cosmological concepts 126
6.1. Cosmology and cosmogony 126
6.2. Cosmological models of the Universe 128
6.3. Origin of the Universe - concept Big bang 134
6.4. Structural Self-Organization of the Universe 138
6.5. Further complication of matter in the Universe 144
6.6. The problem of the existence and search of extraterrestrial civilizations 151
Chapter 7. Earth as a subject of natural science 157
7.1. The shape and size of the Earth 157
7.2. Earth among other planets Solar system 159
7.3. Formation of the Earth 163
7.4. Geosphere of the Earth 170
7.5. Geodynamic Processes 179
Chapter 8. Modern Concepts of Chemistry 184
8.1. Specificity of chemistry as a science 184
8.2. The first level of chemical knowledge. The doctrine of the composition of matter 186
8.3. The second level of chemical knowledge. Structural Chemistry 193
8.4. The third level of chemical knowledge. The doctrine of the chemical process 197
8.5. The fourth level of chemical knowledge. Evolutionary chemistry 205
Chapter 9. Structural Living Standards 212
9.1. The structure of biological knowledge 212
9.2. Structural levels of life organization 218
Chapter 10. The origin and essence of life 243
10.1. Essence of Life 243
10.2. Basic concepts of the origin of life 249
10.3. The current state of the problem of the origin of life 257
10.4. The emergence of life on Earth 260
10.5. Formation and development of the Earth's biosphere 267
10.6. The emergence of the plant and animal kingdoms 271
Chapter 11. The theory of evolution of the organic world 278
11.1. Formation of the idea of ​​development in biology 278
11.2. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution 284
11.3. Further development of evolutionary theory. Anti-Darwinism 289
11.4. Fundamentals of Genetics 295
11.5. Synthetic theory evolution 301
Chapter 12. Man as a subject of natural science 308
12.1. Human Origins Concepts 308
12.2. Similarities and differences between humans and animals 321
12.3. The essence of man. Biological and social in man 332
12.4. Ethology of Human Behavior 336
Chapter 13. The Phenomenon of Man in Modern Science 340
13.1. The essence and origins of human consciousness 340
13.2. Human emotions 350
13.3. Human health, performance and creativity 353
13.4. Bioethics 365
Chapter 14. Man and the Biosphere 372
14.1. The concept and essence of the biosphere 372
14.2. Biosphere and space 376
14.3. Man and Space 378
14.4. Man and Nature 383
14.5. The concept of the noosphere by V.I. Vernadsky 393
14.6. Environmental protection 397
14.7. Rational use of natural resources 401
14.8. Anthropic principle in modern science 407
Conclusion 413
Bibliography 414
Questions for the exam (credit) for the course
"Concepts of modern natural science" 415
Glossary 416

Natural science and humanitarian culture The culture being the result of human activity, it cannot exist in isolation from the natural world, which is its material basis.<...>However, they gradually developed their own principles and approaches, determined the goals: natural science the culture sought to study nature and conquer it, and humanitarian the culture set as its goal the study of man and his world.<...> Natural science the culture that is why he focuses his attention on the study and study of natural processes and the laws that govern them.<...>Thus, natural science and humanitarian culture they are not isolated by chance, their differences are great.<...>We distinguish four criteria for scientific knowledge: 1) consistency knowledge; 2) the availability of a proven mechanism for obtaining new knowledge; 3) theoreticalness knowledge; 4) rationality knowledge. <...> Theoretical knowledge The third criterion for scientific character is theoreticalness knowledge, which determines the goals of scientific knowledge.<...> Theoretical knowledge 11 implies obtaining the truth for the sake of truth itself, and not for the sake of a practical result.<...>This is especially important nowadays, since lately, it has always existed alongside science pseudoscience enjoys increasing popularity and attracts an increasing number of supporters and adherents.<...>No contribution to the development of genuine science pseudoscience does not contribute, but claims to the privileges that scientists have.<...>Therefore, you should clearly understand what pseudoscience, to know how it differs from true science.<...>So, although the concept “ quark"Was introduced in physics back in the 30s.<...> Special methods scientific knowledge Special methods scientific knowledge is used by most sciences at different stages of cognitive activity and relate to a certain side of the subject being studied or the technique of research.<...>So there are special methods manifested: at the empirical level of knowledge ( special <...>

Concepts_modern_natural science._2_ed_ed., _ Revised_and_add._Tutorial._Grif_MO_RF._Grif_UMC_Professional_tutorial.pdf

UDC 50 (075.8) BBK 20ÿ73 Ñ14 Reviewers: Dr. of Philos. Sciences, prof., Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences A.V. Soldiers; Cand. biol. Sciences, Associate Professor L.B. Rybalov; Cand. chem. Sciences, Associate Professor N.N. Ivanova Editor-in-chief of the publishing house, Candidate of Legal Sciences, Doctor of Economics N.D. Eriashvili Sadokhin, Alexander Petrovich. Ñ14 university students enrolled in humanitarian specialties and specialties and ISBN 978-5-238-01314-5 Agency CIP RSL The textbook is prepared in accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education in the discipline "Concepts of Modern Natural Science", which is included in the curricula of all humanitarian specialties of universities. The work presents a wide panorama of concepts covering various processes and phenomena in animate and inanimate nature, describes modern scientific methods of understanding the world. The main attention is paid to the consideration of the concepts of modern natural science, which are of great ideological and methodological significance. For students, graduate students and teachers of humanitarian faculties and universities, as well as everyone interested in the philosophical issues of natural science. BBK 2073 ISBN 978-5-238-01314-5 © À.Ï. Sadokhin, 2006 © PUBLISHING HOUSE, 2003, 2006 Reproduction of the entire book or any part of it by any means or in any form, including on the Internet, is prohibited without the written permission of the publisher. A.Ï. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., First and dop. - Ì .: ÞÍÈÒÈ-ÄÀÍÀ, - 447 s.

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Table of contents From the author Chapter 1. Science as a part of culture 1.1. Science among other spheres of culture 3 5 5 1.2. Natural science and humanitarian culture 7 1.3. Scientific knowledge criteria 1.4. The structure of scientific knowledge 1.5. Scientific picture of the world Chapter 2. Structure and methods of scientific knowledge 20 2.1. Levels and forms of scientific knowledge 2.2. Methods of scientific knowledge 11 15 17 20 23 2.3. Special empirical methods of scientific knowledge 25 2.4. Special theoretical methods of scientific knowledge 27 2.5. Special universal methods of scientific knowledge 29 2.6. General scientific approaches 2.7. Systems approach 2.8. Global evolutionism Chapter 3. Foundations of natural science 3.1. Subject and structure of natural science 3.2. History of natural science 3.3. The beginning of science 3.4. The global scientific revolution of the late XIX - early XX century. 3.5. The main features of modern natural science as a science Chapter 4. Physical picture of the world 4.1. The concept of the physical picture of the world 4.2. Mechanical picture of the world 4.3. The electromagnetic picture of the world 4.4. Quantum-field picture of the world 444 32 33 38 49 49 53 54 69 71 75 75 78 81 85 4.5. Correlation of dynamic and statistical laws 88 4.6. Principles of Modern Physics 91

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Chapter 5. Modern concepts of physics 5.1. Structural levels of organization of matter 5.2. Movement and physical interaction 5.3. Concepts of space and time in modern natural science 6.2. Cosmological models of the Universe 6.3. The origin of the Universe - the concept of the Big Bang 6.4. Structural self-organization of the Universe 96 96 106 116 Chapter 6. Modern cosmological concepts 126 6.1. Cosmology and cosmogony 126 128 134 138 6.5. Further complication of matter in the Universe 144 6.6. The problem of existence and search for extraterrestrial civilizations Chapter 7. Earth as a subject of natural science 7.1. The shape and size of the Earth 7.5. Geodynamic processes Chapter 8. Modern concepts of chemistry 8.1. Specificity of chemistry as a science 8.2. The first level of chemical knowledge. The doctrine of the composition of matter 8.3. The second level of chemical knowledge. Structural chemistry 8.4. The third level of chemical knowledge. The doctrine of the chemical process 8.5. The fourth level of chemical knowledge. Evolutionary chemistry Chapter 9. Structural levels of life 9.1. The structure of biological knowledge 9.2. Structural levels of life organization Chapter 10. Origin and essence of life 10.1. The essence of life 7.2. Earth among other planets of the solar system 159 7.3. Formation of the Earth 7.4. Geospheres of the Earth 151 157 157 163 170 179 184 184 186 193 197 205 212 212 218 243 243 10.2. Basic concepts of the origin of life 249 445

Page 447

10.3. The current state of the problem of the origin of life 10.4. The emergence of life on Earth 10.5. Formation and development of the Earth's biosphere 10.6. The emergence of the kingdoms of plants and animals 257 260 267 271 Chapter 11. The theory of the evolution of the organic world 278 11.1. Formation of the idea of ​​development in biology 11.2. The theory of evolution ×. Darwin 11.4. Fundamentals of Genetics 11.5. The synthetic theory of evolution 278 284 11.3. Further development of evolutionary theory. Anti-Darwinism 289 295 301 Chapter 12. Man as a subject of natural science 12.1. Concepts of human origins 12.2. Similarities and differences between humans and animals 12.3. The essence of man. Biological and social in man 12.4. Ethology about human behavior 308 308 321 332 336 Chapter 13. The phenomenon of man in modern science 340 13.1. The essence and origins of human consciousness 13.2. Human emotions Chapter 14. Man and the biosphere 14.1. The concept and essence of the biosphere 14.2. Biosphere and space 14.3. Man and space 14.4. Man and nature 14.5. The concept of the noosphere by V.I. Vernadsky 14.6. Environmental protection 14.7. Rational use of natural resources 14.8. Anthropic principle in modern science Conclusion Bibliography Questions for the exam (credit) for the course "Concepts of modern natural science" Glossary 446 340 350 13.3. Human health, efficiency and creativity 353 13.4. Bioethics 365 372 372 376 378 383 393 397 401 407 413 414 415 416

Sadokhin A. Concepts of modern natural science

From the author

The proposed textbook was prepared in accordance with the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education and is intended for students of humanitarian specialties of universities.
It is common knowledge that modern system education should solve the problem of training highly qualified specialists with versatile and fundamental knowledge about the most diverse processes and phenomena of the surrounding world. Nowadays, society does not need specialists who are focused only on solving narrowly utilitarian problems. A highly qualified professional in demand on the labor market must have a broad outlook, skills to independently acquire new knowledge and critically reflect on it. In addition, he must have an idea of ​​the basic scientific concepts that explain the spatio-temporal relations of the objective world, the processes of self-organization in complex systems, such as animate and inanimate nature, the relationship of a person with the environment. natural environment and the place of man in the universe.
For this purpose, the curriculum of all higher educational institutions includes the discipline "Concepts of Modern Natural Science", designed to form students' broad worldview orientations and attitudes, to help them master the scientific picture of the world.
The aim of the course "Concepts of modern natural science" is to familiarize students of humanitarian specialties of universities with an integral component of human culture - natural science. At the same time, the main attention is paid to the consideration of those concepts of modern natural science that are of the most important ideological and methodological significance for the understanding and analysis of social phenomena.
The training course "Concepts of Modern Natural Science" in its content is an interdisciplinary complex based on the historical-philosophical, cultural and evolutionary-synergetic approaches to modern natural science. The modern trend towards a harmonious synthesis of humanitarian and natural science knowledge is due to the needs of society in a holistic worldview and emphasizes the relevance of this discipline.
The need to study this course is also due to the fact that over the past two decades in our society, various types of irrational knowledge are becoming more widespread - mysticism, astrology, occultism, magic, spiritualism, etc. Gradually and consistently, they try to oust from the public consciousness the scientific picture of the world based on rational ways of explaining it. Under these conditions, the following acquire special significance: the establishment of a scientific and rational attitude to reality, a holistic view of living and inanimate nature, an understanding of the content and capabilities modern methods scientific knowledge, as well as the ability to apply them in professional activities.
The experience of teaching this discipline in humanitarian universities shows that, when presenting the material of the natural sciences, excessive detail should be avoided, if possible, if this is not justified by the general concept and methodological approach to the presentation of this subject. It is advisable to focus on those most important concepts of modern natural science, which form the foundation of the modern scientific picture of the world and are most important in the worldview aspect. Thus, the author saw his main task in making the form of presentation of the material as accessible as possible for assimilation by those future specialists for whom natural science is not the main professional discipline. However, since the range of humanitarian specialties is quite wide and diverse, the author strove to give his work a universal character, so that it would thus be equally useful for students of all humanitarian specialties - future economists, psychologists, historians, sociologists, managers, etc.
Offering his work to a wide audience, the author expresses gratitude to the reviewers and fellow teachers for valuable comments and recommendations, which provided invaluable assistance in creating this textbook. In addition, the author expresses in advance his sincere gratitude to all interested readers for their benevolent wishes and comments.

Second edition, revised and expanded
Recommended by the Ministry of Education
Russian Federation as a textbook
For university students,
students in the humanities
Recommended by the Educational and Methodological Center
"Professional textbook" as a textbook
for university students studying
in the specialties of economics and management
and humanitarian and social specialties

Sadokhin, Alexander Petrovich.
С14 Concepts of modern natural science: a textbook for university students enrolled in humanitarian specialties and specialties of economics and management / A.P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: UNITI-DANA, 2006 .-- 447 p.
ISBN 5-238-00974-7

A.P. Sadokhin, 2006
UNITY-DANA PUBLISHING, 2003, 2006

2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: UNITI-DANA, 2006 .-- 447 p.

The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education in the discipline "Concepts of Modern Natural Science", which is included in the curricula of all humanitarian specialties of universities. The work presents a wide panorama of concepts covering various processes and phenomena in animate and inanimate nature, describes modern scientific methods of understanding the world. The main attention is paid to the consideration of the concepts of modern natural science, which are of great ideological and methodological significance.

For students, graduate students and teachers of humanitarian faculties and universities, as well as everyone interested in the philosophical issues of natural science.

Conclusion

The content of our work shows that natural science is a very ramified area of ​​scientific knowledge, touching upon a wide range of issues about the most diverse aspects of the life of nature. Nature as an object of the study of natural science is complex and diverse in its manifestations: it is constantly changing and is in constant motion. Accordingly, this diversity is reflected in a large number concepts devoted to almost all natural processes and phenomena. A careful study of them shows that the universe is regular and predictable; matter is made up of atoms and elementary particles; the properties of material objects depend on which atoms are included in their composition and how they are located there; atoms are made up of quarks and leptons; stars are born and die, like everything else in the world; The universe originated in the distant past and has been expanding ever since; all living things consist of cells, and all organisms have appeared as a result of natural selection; natural processes on Earth occur in cycles; changes constantly occur on its surface and there is nothing eternal, etc. In general, the world is simultaneously one and surprisingly diverse, it is eternal and endless in the incessant process of interconversion of some systems into others, while each part of it is relatively independent, being inevitably dependent on the general laws of being ...

In the same time general state knowledge about the world logically leads to the conclusion that it is still far from being cognized. Many natural phenomena have not received a scientific explanation and therefore have a mysterious, mysterious character. For example, the main shells of the Earth have not been sufficiently investigated: the hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere. This is quite natural, since it would be naive to believe that natural science can solve all problems of cognition. In his state of the art it figuratively represents an unfinished, unfinished building, in which everything unknown will be investigated and explained in the future, when the appropriate prerequisites for this are formed. But even in this case, the process of cognition will not stop, since some unknown questions will be replaced by others, no less interesting and mysterious, because nature is limitless and endless.

2191.08kb.

T.G. Grushevitskaya, A.P. Sadokhin

CONCEPTS

MODERN

NATURAL

Tutorial

For students

Full-time and part-time

Departments of universities

Moscow

« graduate School»

Reviewers:

Department of Philosophy and Sociology, St. Petersburg Maritime State Technical University (head. chair dr Philos. Sciences, prof. A.V. Soldatov);

Member of the International Academy of Informatization and the Academy of Social Education, Ph.D. Sciences, prof. A.V. Fedotov; Dr. Philos. Sciences, Associate Professor V.I. Smirnov (Saint Petersburg State academic institute painting, sculpture, architecture. I.E. Repin).

Professional education of the Russian Federation as

Study guide for university students.

Grushevitskaya T.G., Sadokhin A.P.

G90 Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. manual-M .: Higher. shk., 1998.-383 p.

ISBN 5-06-003474-7

The course is studied in all universities in the country as a compulsory one. The manual is written in accordance with the requirements of the "State Educational Standard" and provides basic knowledge, forming a future specialist with a broad scientific outlook.

The work highlights the specificity of science as a form of cognition, the history of science, sets out the main modern concepts of physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, etc.

For students of technical and humanitarian universities, for teachers and students of technical schools and colleges.

ISBN 5-06-003474-7 © "Higher School", 1998

Foreword

TOPIC 1. SCIENCE AND ITS ROLE IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY

THEME 2. SCIENTIFIC THEORY. STRUCTURE AND BASIS OF THE THEORY

THEME 3. METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

TOPIC 4. THE RISE OF SCIENCE. THE APPEARANCE OF THE FIRST NIGHT PROGRAMS

TOPIC 5. FORMATION OF THE BASIS OF NATURAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE ERA OF THE MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE

THEME 6. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION XVI - XVII CENTURIES. AND THE FORMATION OF CLASSICAL SCIENCE

TOPIC 7. SPECIFICITY AND NATURE OF MODERN SCIENCE

THEME 8. PHYSICAL PICTURE OF THE WORLD

TOPIC 9. STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF THE ORGANIZATION OF MATTER

TOPIC A 10. PHYSICAL INTERACTIONS

TOPIC 11. CONCEPTS OF SPACE AND TIME IN MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE

TOPIC 12. DETERMINISM AND CAUSALITY IN MODERN PHYSICS. DYNAMIC AND STATISTICAL LAWS

TOPIC 13. PRINCIPLES OF MODERN PHYSICS

TOPIC 14. COSMOLOGICAL MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE

TOPIC 15. EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

TOPIC 16. PROBLEMS OF SELF-ORGANIZATION OF MATTER

THEME 17. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEMICAL PICTURE OF THE WORLD

TOPIC 18. MODERN CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

TOPIC 19. ORIGIN AND ESSENCE OF LIFE

TOPIC 20. EVOLUTION OF THE ORGANIC WORLD

TOPIC 21. MODERN THEORY OF EVOLUTION

THEME 22. MAN AS A SUBJECT OF NATURAL KNOWLEDGE

THEME 23. HUMAN, BIOSPHERE AND SPACE

TOPIC 24. ON THE WAY TO THE NOOSPHERE

Questions for the exam and test

FOREWORD

The reform of higher education, carried out in our country, aims to make it more versatile and fundamental. For this, new lecture courses are being introduced into the curricula of higher educational institutions, designed to ensure, among other things, the independent formation of worldview orientations and personality attitudes, to help the student master the modern natural-science picture of the world and the chosen profession.

Today society does not need specialists who are able to solve only narrowly utilitarian problems within the knowledge gained during training. Modern requirements for a specialist imply his readiness to improve his qualifications, the desire to keep abreast of the latest achievements in his field, to be able to creatively adapt them to his work.

Therefore, the main task modern education is the development of students' creative abilities so that after graduation the graduate can become a creative person capable of various forms of activity. The course "Concepts of modern natural science" is focused on the implementation of these goals.

The relevance of introducing the course "Concepts of Modern Natural Science" into the educational process is also due to the fact that in recent years in our country various kinds of irrational types of knowledge, such as, for example, astrology, magic, mystical, etc. teachings, have become more widespread. Gradually and rather consistently, they are pushing out of the public consciousness the natural-scientific picture of the world, based on rational ways of explaining it. Representatives of modern parascience persistently disseminate any doctrine, including mysticism, superstition, etc. Many of them are sincerely convinced that the status of the scientific worldview in modern society is no higher than that of any myth, and they promote boundless worldview pluralism. Therefore, today, more than ever before, it is important to establish natural science knowledge in the public mind.

The achievements of the natural sciences are an integral part of human culture. Knowledge of basic modern theories and the concepts of natural science forms the scientific method of thinking, an adequate attitude of a person to the world around him. Any person needs to know that the world is rationally cognizable, that it is governed by objective laws that cannot be canceled or circumvented with the help of God or psychics. "Concepts of Modern Natural Science" is a course designed to acquaint the reader at the level of general ideas with the most important data of various sciences about the world and the place of man in it.

Finally, knowledge of the concepts of modern natural science should help students penetrate into the microcosm and into extraterrestrial space, understand and imagine what material and intellectual costs are the production of modern televisions and computers, how important the problem of nature conservation is, what is the essence of man, etc.

However, developing a tutorial in a completely new way training course is always an extremely difficult and responsible matter. At the same time, it becomes much more complicated if the title and subject of this course are defined very approximately and abstractly.

Firstly, the basis of the manual was made up of lecture courses, which are read by the authors for several years on humanitarian faculties Kaluga State Pedagogical University named after K.E. Tsiolkovsky and in the Kaluga branch of the Moscow Humanitarian and Economic Institute. As a result, the manual was created purposefully for students of various humanitarian specialties. Here, the authors saw their main task in making the presentation of the material available to future specialists, for whom natural science is not a professional discipline.

Secondly, since the range of humanitarian specialties in the higher education system is quite wide, the authors strove to make their work of interest to readers with a wide variety of needs and levels of training, as well as be useful for use in educational process exactly as educational and Toolkit... This purpose of the manual is determined by the requirements of the "State Educational Standard" for the course "Concepts of Modern Natural Science", according to which the achievements of the natural sciences are an integral part of human culture. Knowledge of the basics of natural sciences and methods of scientific knowledge forms the nature of students' thinking and contributes to the development of an adequate attitude to the world around them.

Thirdly, due to the fact that "Concepts of Modern Natural Science" is a course designed to show the place and significance of natural science in modern culture, to acquaint students at the level of general ideas with the most important concepts of the origin of nature and man, to help them master the modern natural science picture of the world , the authors strove to reveal the relevant problems on the basis of the synthesis of natural science, philosophy and cultural studies. This methodological approach is due to the authors' belief that only in this way it is possible to show the unity and diversity of the world, to contribute to the formation of a holistic worldview among students. Therefore, when necessary, the authors used the scientific-historical and philosophical approaches to the description of the relevant topics and issues, tried to show not only the results of solving natural science problems, but also the paths in the development of knowledge that led to them.

These methodological approaches have determined the content and structure of the textbook. The logic of the presentation of the course develops from questions of the history of science and the foundations of science of science (1-7 topics) through the description of the physical, chemical and biological pictures of the world (8-21 topics) to the disclosure of the essence of man and modern problems of his life (22-24 topics). At the same time, the authors provided for the possibility of presenting this course in various versions, depending on the capabilities and characteristics of the educational institution, forms of training, the structure of curricula and the qualifications of each teacher.

To what has been said, it should be added that it is impossible to simultaneously be an expert in all scientific areas described in this course. Therefore, significant assistance in the work on the manual was provided by consultations, advice and recommendations of specialists from various scientific fields. In this regard, the authors express their deep gratitude to Doctor of Philosophy, prof. Biryukov V.F .; Ph.D., Assoc. Dronov A.I .; Ph.D., Assoc. A.E. Zubarev; Candidate of Chemical Sciences, Assoc. Savitkin N.I. for the help and support provided in the preparation of the manuscript.

In conclusion, I would like to note that since sufficient experience in teaching the discipline itself has not yet been accumulated, the course program has not been firmly established, its content is being actively discussed, the authors are aware of the imperfection of their work. Therefore, they express in advance to all interested readers their gratitude for the benevolent and well-grounded comments and suggestions for improving their work.

TOPIC 1 SCIENCE AND ITS ROLE IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY

THE PROBLEM OF DEFINING SCIENCE

Throughout their history, people have developed several ways of knowing and mastering the world around them. One of these most important ways, of course, is science. We are familiar with this word, we very often use it in everyday life, but we absolutely do not think about its real meaning. Today it is quite obvious to us that science is an integral part of the spiritual culture of society. With its emergence, unique spiritual products are accumulated in the treasury of knowledge passed down from generation to generation, which play an increasingly important role in realizing, understanding and transforming reality. At a certain stage in human history, science, like other, previously emerging elements of culture, develops into a relatively independent form of social consciousness. This is due to the fact that a number of problems facing society can only be solved with the help of science.

Understanding the role and place of science in people's lives is a complex process that is not completed even today. It has been and is being worked out for a long time and with difficulty, in the struggle of approaches, ideas, in the course of overcoming difficulties, contradictions, doubts and the emergence of new and new questions. Only in the 20s of our century a new scientific discipline emerged, called "science of science" and designed to reveal the essence and characteristics of science, the mechanism of its development and application, as well as the general laws of development and functioning of science as a system of knowledge and a special social institution.

The first thing that the founders of science of science paid attention to was the etymology of the Latin word “scientia” itself, which means “knowledge” in translation. From a certain time, this word began to denote science and in this sense entered some European languages. But the problem is that not all knowledge is science. Knowledge is acquired by a person in the most diverse spheres of his life: in everyday life, in politics, in economics, in art, in engineering, but in them acquiring knowledge is not the main goal.

So, art through artistic images reflects reality, creates aesthetic values, expresses the artist's attitude to the real world... The economy, in order to ensure the activities of society, must be based on true knowledge of reality, but it must be evaluated according to the criteria of efficiency and practical results. Religion creates a world of transcendental knowledge, in which man communicates with God. Philosophy forms a person's knowledge about being, about a person's place in the world and about his own inner world.

Along with these forms of social consciousness, science is part of a single culture. But it is precisely in the comparison and interaction with them that the specificity of science is manifested. Religion, philosophy, art, and science - they all reflect reality in their own way and at the same time create their own world, their artificial reality. Science creates a world of knowledge, consisting only of experimentally proven data about this world, and conclusions obtained on the basis of the laws of logic. In this world, the person himself, the subjective element of this world, his value orientations is assigned a very insignificant role (for this there is art, morality, religion). Therefore, only complementing each other, all these constituent parts of culture can fulfill their main function - to provide and facilitate human life, being a connecting link between man and nature. If, in this relationship, one part is given more importance than others, then this leads to the impoverishment of culture as a whole and a distortion of its main purpose.

RELATIONSHIP OF SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION

History knows examples of the predominance of some spheres of culture to the detriment of others. First of all, this concerns the relationship between science, philosophy and religion in the Middle Ages and in modern times. Thus, medieval science was ruled by religion, which slowed down the development of science for at least a millennium and consigned to oblivion many of the achievements of ancient science. Having escaped from the power of religion in the Renaissance, science begins to develop rapidly, but retains the place of the main element in the worldview of educated people for philosophy (for the illiterate majority, religion still plays the leading role). And only in the XIX century. in connection with the successes of natural science, science began to claim a dominant position in the culture and worldview of man and society. At the same time, a conflict broke out between science and philosophy, which continued almost to the present day. Its essence boils down to the struggle for the right to possess the ultimate truth. Science, not realizing its borders, wanted to provide answers to all questions, to lead humanity to a better future. Usually this future was presented as a world of material prosperity and satiety, built on the basis of the achievements of science and technology. Against the background of the low standard of living inherent in most people at the beginning of the 20th century, the flawedness of such ideas about the "brave new world" remained incomprehensible not only to the majority of the population, attracted by the promise of those benefits that it never had, but also to politicians who purposefully lead their peoples to the world high tech, and even some of the thinkers (philosophers, writers, artists), with all the ardor of converts, propagandize these ideas. Only a few philosophers and culturologists were able to understand at the beginning of the 20th century that this path leads to disaster. This became clear in the middle of this century, after the creation of nuclear weapons and the impending environmental catastrophe.

Nevertheless, the vestiges of the ideology of scientism - the belief in science as the only saving force - persist to this day. Having arisen in the depths of enlightenment, having received development in the philosophy of positivism, in the second half of our century it transformed into a tendency to unlimited praise of the achievements of the natural sciences as opposed to social and humanitarian disciplines.

It was this belief that led to the modern ecological state of the planet, the danger of thermonuclear war, but most importantly, to a sharp decline in the ethical and aesthetic indicators of culture, the ever-increasing influence of technocratic psychology, which stimulated consumerism in modern society.

Such a role of scientism is due to the fact that, as a world outlook, it is based on rational calculation, and where there is a certain pragmatic goal, a person professing this ideology will strive for this goal, regardless of any ethical obstacles.

The individual feels lost and powerless in such a scientistic world. Science taught him to doubt spiritual values, surrounded him with material comfort, taught him to see in everything, above all, a rationally attainable goal. Naturally, such a person inevitably becomes a cold, calculating pragmatist, who sees other people only as a means to achieve their goals. He loses the goal for which a person is worth living, the integrity of his worldview is destroyed. Indeed, since the industrial revolution, new scientific thinking began to destroy the religious picture of the world that has been functioning for thousands of years, in which a person was offered a universal and unshakable knowledge of how to live and what are the principles underlying the world order. At the same time, the paradox of scientific thinking lies in the fact that, destroying the naive, holistic view of the world, which is given by religion or religious philosophy, questioning every postulate that was previously taken on faith, science does not give in return for the same holistic convincing worldview - all concrete truths sciences cover only a fairly narrow range of phenomena. Science taught a person to doubt everything and immediately generated a worldview deficit around him, which she is fundamentally unable to fill, because this is a matter of philosophy or religion.

There is no doubt that science is a tremendous achievement in human culture. It makes a person's life from generation to generation easier, more comfortable, independent, beckons with the prospect of an abundance of material and spiritual benefits. But deified science is a completely different phenomenon, generating completely opposite results. Objectively, science is only one of the spheres of human culture, which has its own specifics and tasks, and one should not try to change this position. Science in itself cannot be considered the highest value of human civilization, it is only a means in solving various problems of human existence. In a normal harmonious society, there should be a place for science, and for art, and for philosophy, and for religion, and for all other parts of human culture.

Thus, based on the above ideas about the essence and role of science in culture and society, we can give it a more precise definition. The science - it is a part of culture, which is a collection of objective knowledge about being. Substantially, this concept also includes the process of obtaining this knowledge and various forms and mechanisms of their application in the practical life of people.

STRUCTURE OF SCIENCE AND ITS FUNCTIONS

The philosophical concept of objective being includes nature, society and man. According to these three elements of objective being in science, three spheres of knowledge about these constituent parts being. it content aspect of science.

Depending on the sphere of being, and, consequently, on the kind of reality studied, three directions of scientific knowledge are distinguished: natural science - knowledge about nature, social science - knowledge about different types and forms of social life, as well as knowledge about man as a thinking being. Naturally, these three spheres are not and should not be considered as three parts of a single whole, which are only side by side, adjacent to each other. The border between these spheres is relative.

The whole body of scientific knowledge about nature is formed by natural science. Its structure is a direct reflection of the logic of nature. The total volume and structure of natural science knowledge is large and varied.

This includes knowledge about a substance and its structure, about the movement and interaction of substances, about chemical elements and compounds, about living matter and life, about the Earth and Space. Fundamental natural science directions originate from these objects of natural science.

Bodies, their movement, transformations and forms of manifestation at various levels are the object of physical scientific knowledge. By virtue of their fundamental nature, they form the basis of natural science and condition all other knowledge.

Chemical elements, their properties, transformations and compounds are reflected chemical knowledge... They have many points of contact with physical knowledge, on the basis of which a number of related disciplines arise - physical chemistry, chemical physics, etc.

Biological knowledge encompasses a group of knowledge about living things; as their subject of study, they have a cell and everything derived from it. Biological knowledge is based on knowledge about a substance, chemical elements. Because of this, at the junction of sciences, such sciences as biophysics, biochemistry, etc. appear.

The Earth as a planet is the subject of geological knowledge. They consider the structure and development of our planet. Geochemistry, paleontology, geophysics, etc. appear at the junction with other groups of knowledge.

One of the most ancient, but at the same time the most modern direction in science is cosmological knowledge, the subject of which is the Universe as a whole. Cosmology studies the states and changes of space objects.

The second fundamental direction of scientific knowledge is social science. Its subject is social phenomena and systems, structures, states, processes. Social sciences provide knowledge about individual varieties and the entire totality of social ties and relations.

By its nature, scientific knowledge about society is numerous, but it can be grouped in three areas: sociological, the subject of which is society as a whole; economic - reflect the labor activity of people, property relations, social production, exchange, distribution and relations based on them in society; state-legal knowledge - have as their subject state-legal structures and relations in social systems, they are considered by all sciences about the state and political sciences.

The third fundamental direction of scientific knowledge is scientific knowledge about man and his thinking. A person is the object of study of a large number of different sciences, which consider him in various aspects. Of the totality of sciences, the humanities are focused on the interests of a person, who acts for them as a measure of all things. But man himself and his thinking abilities are studied by psychology - the science of human consciousness; logic - the science of the forms of correct thinking.

Mathematics is the science of the quantitative relations of reality. It is an interdisciplinary science. Its results are used in both natural and social sciences.

Along with the indicated basic scientific directions a separate group of knowledge should include the knowledge of science about itself. The emergence of this branch of knowledge refers to the 20s of our century and means that science in its development has risen to the level of understanding its role and significance in the life of people. Science of science today is considered an independent, rapidly developing scientific discipline.

One of the most important conditions is really scientific approach to the study of any object is its analysis in various aspects, among which, in addition to the above-mentioned content, one of the main places belongs structural. With regard to scientific knowledge, this aspect means the division of scientific knowledge into groups depending on their subject, nature, degree of explanation of reality and practical significance.

In this case, we distinguish: factual knowledge - a set of systematized facts of objective reality; theoretical or fundamental knowledge - theories that explain the processes occurring in objective reality; technical and applied knowledge, or technology, - knowledge about the practical application of factual or fundamental knowledge, as a result of which a certain technical effect is achieved; practical-applied, or praxeological, knowledge - knowledge about the economic effect that can be obtained in the case of applying the above groups of knowledge.

V logical aspect scientific knowledge is a mental activity, the highest form of logical knowledge, a product of human creativity. Its starting point is sensory cognition, passing from sensation to perception and representation. After this, there is a transition to rational knowledge, which develops from a concept to judgment and inference. This corresponds to the level of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

And finally social aspect scientific knowledge presents it as a social phenomenon, a collective process of research and the application of the results of this research. In this aspect, we are interested in scientific institutions, collectives, educational institutions, organizations of scientists, etc.

Having defined the structure of scientific knowledge, we thereby got the opportunity to define science. It is understood as a dynamic system of objectively true knowledge about the essential connections of reality, obtained and developed as a result of special social activities and converted through their application into a direct practical force of society.

The problem of the functions of science is closely related to the structure of scientific knowledge. There are several of them:

1. descriptive - identifying essential properties and relationships of reality;

2. systematizing - assignment of the described by classes and sections;

3. explanatory - a systematic presentation of the essence of the object under study, the reasons for its occurrence and development;

4. production-practical - the possibility of applying the knowledge gained in production, for the regulation of social life, in social management;

5. predictive - prediction of new discoveries within the framework of existing theories, as well as recommendations for the future;

6. worldview - the introduction of the acquired knowledge into the existing picture of the world, the rationalization of a person's relationship to reality.

Speaking up to now about science and scientific knowledge, we considered them as an already really existing object of research, which we analyzed from a formal point of view.

However, humanity in its history has accumulated knowledge of the most varied nature, and scientific knowledge is only one of the types of this knowledge. Therefore, the question arises about the criteria for the scientific character of knowledge, which, accordingly, allows us to classify them as scientific or any other.

CRITERIA FOR SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

One of the main criteria of scientific character is the consistency of knowledge. The system, in contrast to a simple sum of parts, is characterized by internal unity, the impossibility of removing any elements. Scientific knowledge always acts as certain systems: these systems have initial principles, fundamental concepts and knowledge derived from these principles and concepts. In addition, the system includes interpreted experimental facts, experiments, mathematical apparatus, practical conclusions and recommendations that are important for this science.

But the principle of consistency alone is not enough to call some knowledge a science. After all, outside of science there is systematized knowledge - for example, religious knowledge, which also outwardly looks like harmonious, logically grounded systems.

Science is not just a system or a body of knowledge, but also an activity to obtain new knowledge, which provides for the existence of people specializing in this, relevant organizations coordinating research, as well as the availability of the necessary materials, technologies, and means of recording information. This means that science appears only when special objective conditions in society are created for this: a more or less clear social demand for objective knowledge, the social possibility of identifying a special group of people whose main task is to answer this demand; the incipient division of labor within this group; the accumulation of knowledge, skills, cognitive techniques that serve as the basis on which science is formed; the emergence of means of fixing information, without which it is impossible to transfer the accumulated information to future generations, as well as its operational change.

An important criterion of scientific character is the presence of the goal of scientific knowledge, which is defined as the comprehension of truth for the sake of truth itself, or theoreticalness. If science is aimed only at solving practical problems, it ceases to be a science in the full sense of the word. So, the scientific knowledge that existed in the East was used only as auxiliary in religious magical ceremonies and rituals. Therefore, we cannot talk about the presence of science there as an independent cultural phenomenon.

A distinctive feature of scientific knowledge is its rational nature. Today this position seems trivial, but after all, the belief in the possibility of reason did not appear immediately and not everywhere. Eastern civilization never accepted this position, giving priority to intuition and supersensible perception. This criterion is closely related to the intersubjectivity property of scientific knowledge, which is understood as the general validity, general validity of knowledge, its invariance, the ability to obtain the same result by different researchers.

The defining features of science are also the presence of an experimental research method and the mathematization of science. These signs appeared in modern times, giving science a modern look, and also linking it with practice.

Seminar lesson plan (2 hours)

1. Science as a cultural phenomenon. The purpose and objectives of science.

2. Scientism as a worldview and its role in the formation of modern civilization.

3. Scientific knowledge and its various aspects.

4. Criteria of scientific character.

Topics of reports and abstracts

1. VI Vernadsky on the relationship between science, philosophy and religion.

2. Science as a social institution.

3. Science and philosophy.

4. Science and religion.

LITERATURE

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2. Vernadsky V.I. Works on common history science. M., 1988.

3. Vernadsky V.I. Philosophical thoughts of a naturalist. M., 1988.

4. Good GM Science about science. Kiev, 1989.

5. Zinchenko V.P. Science - an integral part of culture? // Problems of Philosophy. 1990. # 1.

6. Ilyin V.V., Kalinkin A.T. The nature of science. M., 1985.

7. Yordanov I. Science as a logical and social system. Kiev, 1979.

8. Scientific progress: cognitive and sociocultural aspect... M., 1993.

9. Fundamentals of Science of Science. M., 1985.

10. Rachkov P.A. Science of Science. M., 1974.

11. Philosophy and methodology of science. M., 1996.

12. Filatov V.P. Images of Science in Russian Culture // Problems of Philosophy. 1990. No. 5.