The length of a wormhole in space. Wormholes: is it a myth, a gateway to other worlds, or a mathematical abstraction? The connection between wormholes and black holes

A wormhole or wormhole is a hypothetical topological feature of space-time, which is a “tunnel” in space at any moment in time (space-time tunnel). Thereby mole Hole allows you to move through space and time. The areas that are connected by a wormhole can be areas of a single space or be completely disconnected. In the second case, the wormhole is the only link between the two areas. The first type of wormholes is often called “intra-world”, and the second type is “inter-world”.

As you know, the General theory of relativity prohibits movement in the Universe with a speed exceeding the speed of light. On the other hand, general relativity allows the existence of space-time tunnels, but it is necessary for the tunnel to be filled with exotic matter with negative energy density, which creates a strong gravitational repulsion and prevents the tunnel from collapsing.

Tachyons are most often referred to as such particles of exotic matter. Tachyons are hypothetical particles that travel faster than the speed of light. In order for such particles not to violate general relativity, it is assumed that the mass of the tachyons is negative.

There are currently no reliable experimental confirmation existence of tachyons in laboratory experiments or astronomical observations. Physicists can only boast of a “pseudo-negative” mass of electrons and atoms, which are obtained at a high density of electric fields, special polarization of laser beams or ultra-low temperatures. In the latter case, experiments were carried out with a Bose - Einstein condensate, an aggregate state of matter based on bosons cooled to temperatures close to absolute zero (less than a millionth of a Kelvin). In such a very cold state, it is enough big number atoms are in their minimum possible quantum states, and quantum effects begin to manifest themselves at the macroscopic level. For obtaining the Bose-Einstein condensate in 2001, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded.

However, a number of experts suggest that they can be tachyons. These elementary particles have non-zero mass, which has been proven through the detection neutrino oscillations... The latest discovery was even honored Nobel Prize in physics for 2015. On the other hand, the exact value of the neutrino mass has not yet been determined. A number of experiments to measure the speed of neutrinos have shown that their speed may slightly exceed the speed of light. This data is constantly being questioned, but in 2014 it came out new job on this occasion.

String theory

In parallel, some theorists suggest that in the early Universe, special education(cosmic strings) with negative mass. The length of relict cosmic strings can reach at least several tens of parsecs with a thickness less than the diameter of an atom with an average density of 10 22 grams per cm 3. There are several studies that such formations were observed in the events of gravitational lensing of light from distant quasars. On the whole, it is currently the most likely candidate for a “theory of everything” or a unified field theory that combines the theory of relativity and quantum field theory. According to her, all elementary particles are vibrating threads of energy about 10 -33 meters long, which is comparable to (the minimum possible size of an object in the Universe).

The unified field theory assumes that in space-time dimensions there are cells with minimum length and time. The minimum length should be equal to the Planck length (approximately 1.6 · 10 −35 meters).

At the same time, observations of distant gamma-ray bursts indicate that if the graininess of space exists, then the size of these grains is no more than 10 −48 meters. In addition, he could not confirm some consequences of string theory, which became a serious argument for the fallacy of this fundamental theory of modern physics.

The discovery in 2014 of theoretical connection between quantum entanglement and wormholes. In a new theoretical work, it was shown that the creation of a space-time tunnel is possible not only between two massive black holes, but also between two quantum entangled quarks.

Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon in quantum mechanics in which the quantum states of two or more objects are interdependent. This interdependence persists even if these objects are separated in space beyond any known interactions. Measurement of the parameter of one particle leads to an instant (above the speed of light) termination of the entangled state of another, which is in logical contradiction with the principle of locality (in this case, the theory of relativity is not violated and information is not transmitted).

Kristan Jensen of the University of Victoria (Canada) and Andreas Karch of the University of Washington (USA) described a quantum entangled pair of quark and antiquark that rush away from each other at near-light speeds, making it impossible for signals to pass from one to the other. Researchers believe that the three-dimensional space in which quarks move is a hypothetical facet of the four-dimensional world. In 3D space, quantum entangled particles are connected by a kind of "string". And in 4D space, this "string" becomes a wormhole.

Julian Sonner from Massachusetts Institute of Technology(USA) presented a quantum-entangled quark-antiquark pair, which is born in a strong electric field, which separates oppositely charged particles, forcing them to accelerate in different directions. Sonner also concluded that particles quantum entangled in three-dimensional space would be connected by a wormhole in four-dimensional space. In their calculations, physicists used the so-called holographic principle - the concept according to which all the physics of the n-dimensional world is fully reflected on its "faces" with the number of dimensions (n-1). With this “projection,” a quantum theory that takes into account the effects of gravity in four-dimensional space is equivalent to a quantum theory “without gravity” in three-dimensional space. In other words, black holes in 4D space and the wormhole between them are mathematically equivalent to their 3D holographic projection.

Prospects for gravitational wave and neutrino astronomy

Gravitational-wave and neutrino astronomy has the greatest prospects in studying the properties of matter at the most microscopic and high-energy level for a better understanding of quantum gravity, due to the fact that it studies waves and particles with the greatest penetrating ability. So if the microwave relict radiation of the Universe was formed 380 thousand years after, then relic neutrinos in the first few seconds, and relic gravitational waves in just 10 -32 seconds! In addition, the registration of such radiation and particles from black holes or from catastrophic events (mergers and collapses of massive stars) has great prospects.

On the other hand, traditional astrometric observatories are actively developing, which now cover the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Such observatories can detect unexpected objects or phenomena in the early Universe (the first interstellar clouds, and), in cases or during the observation of extreme objects (black holes and neutron stars). Astronomy continues to be the most effective area of ​​modern physics, as it is able to study matter under extreme conditions that are not available in terrestrial laboratories and accelerators. In particular, the existing astronomical observations in the electromagnetic range led to the discovery of mysterious dark matter and energy, which at the moment cannot be described by the Standard Model (a modern physical theory describing the electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions of all known elementary particles). Other examples of the importance of astronomical observations in the history of physics are the discoveries of anomalous motion, astrometric displacement of light from stars near the disk, and binary neutron stars. These discoveries motivated the creation and verification of the theory of relativity, as well as made it possible to predict existence.

Time-space tunnels or wormholes are the most popular way to travel to other stars in science fiction. The most popular films on this topic can be named: “Interstellar” (2014), “Contact” (1997), “Through the Horizon” (1997), franchise “ star Wars”(1977-2017). The American physicist John Wheeler (1911-2008) was the first to widely use the terms “black hole” and “wormhole”. Soviet-Russian radio astronomer Nikolai Kardashev was the first to put forward the idea that black holes in the centers of galaxies are the entrances to wormholes.

According to scientists, space is a kind of center of all kinds of tunnels leading to other worlds or even to another space. And, most likely, they appeared along with the birth of our Universe.

These tunnels are called wormholes. But their nature is, of course, different from that observed in black holes. There is no return from heavenly holes. It is believed that once you fall into a black hole, you will disappear forever. But once you find yourself in a "wormhole" you can not only safely return, but even get into the past or the future.

One of his main tasks - the study of wormholes - considers and modern science astronomy. At the very beginning of the study, they were considered something unreal, fantastic, but it turned out that they actually exist. By their nature, they consist of the same "dark energy" with which 2/3 of all existing universes... It is a vacuum that has negative pressure. Most of these places are located closer to the central part of galaxies.

But what will happen if you create a powerful telescope and look directly into the wormhole? Perhaps we can catch glimpses of the future or the past?

Interestingly, gravity is incredibly pronounced near black holes; in its field, a light beam even bends. At the very beginning of the last century, an Austrian physicist named Flamm hypothesized that spatial geometry exists and it is like a hole connecting worlds! And then other scientists found out that as a result, a spatial structure similar to a bridge is created, which is able to connect two different universes. So they began to be called wormholes.

Power electric lines enter this hole from one side, and go out on the other, i.e. actually ending and starting nowhere. Scientists are now working to, so to speak, identify the entrances to wormholes. In order to view all these "objects" up close, you need to build super-powerful telescopic systems. In the coming years, such systems will be launched and then researchers will be able to examine previously inaccessible objects.

It is worth noting that all these programs are designed not only for studying worm or black holes, but also for other useful missions. The latest discoveries of quantum gravity prove that it is through these "spatial" holes that it is hypothetically possible to move not only in space, but also in time.

On near-earth orbit there is an exotic object "intra-world wormhole". One of the mouths of the wormhole is located next to the Earth. The neck or goiter of a wormhole is fixed in the topography of the gravitational field - it does not approach our planet and does not move away from it, and in addition, it rotates with the Earth. The neck looks like tied world lines, like "the end of a sausage tied with a tourniquet." Luminescent. Being a few tens of meters and further, the throat has a radial size of about ten meters. But with each approach to the entrance to the mouth of the wormhole, the size of the mouth increases nonlinearly. Finally, right next to the throat door, looking back, you will see neither the stars, nor the bright sun, nor the blue planet Earth. One darkness. This indicates a violation of the linearity of space and time before entering the wormhole.

It is interesting to note that back in 1898, Dr. Georg Waltemas from Hamburg announced the discovery of several additional satellites of the Earth, Lilith or Black Moons. The satellite could not be found, but according to the instructions of Valtemas, the astrologer Sefarial calculated the "ephemeris" of this object. He argued that the object is so black that it is impossible to see it, except for the time of opposition or intersection of the object of the solar disk. Sepharial also argued that the Black Moon has the same mass as the usual one (which is impossible, since disturbances in the Earth's motion would be easy to detect). In other words, the method of detecting a wormhole near the Earth, using modern means of astronomy, is acceptable.

In the luminescence of the mouth of a wormhole, the glow from the side of four small objects resembling short hairs and included in the topography of gravity stands out, which, according to their purpose, can be called control levers of a wormhole. An attempt to physically influence the hairs, such as, for example, to move the clutch lever of a car with your hand, has not been successful in research. To open a wormhole, the psychokinetic abilities of the human body are used, which, in contrast to the physical action of the hand, allow one to influence the objects of the topography of space-time. Each hair is connected to a string that runs inside the wormhole to the other end of the neck. Acting on a hair, the strings give rise to an etheric vibration inside the wormhole, and with the sound combination of "Aaumm", "Aaum", "Aaum" and "Allaa" the throat opens.

This is the resonant frequency corresponding to the sound code of the Metagalaxy. Entering the inside of the wormhole, you can see that four strings are attached to the wall of the tunnel; the diameter is about 20 meters (most likely in the wormhole tunnel, the space-time dimensions are nonlinear and heterogeneous; therefore, a certain length has no basis); the material of the walls of the tunnel resembles red-hot magma, its substance has fantastic properties. There are several ways to open the mouth of a wormhole and enter the universe from the other end. The main one is natural and connected with the structure of the entry of strings into the tourniquet of the topography of the spatio-temporal lines of the mouth of a wormhole. These are short levers, when tuned to the sound tone "zhaumm", a wormhole opens.

The Zhaum universe is the world of the titans. The intelligent creatures of this existence are billions of times larger and extend to a distance in the order of magnitude, as from the Sun to the Earth. Observing the surrounding phenomena, a person discovers that he is comparable in size to the nanoobjects of this world, such as atoms, molecules, viruses. Only you differ from them in a highly intelligent form of existence. However, the observations will be short-lived. An intelligent creature of this world (that titan) will find you and, under the threat of your destruction, will demand an explanation of your actions. The problem lies in the unauthorized penetration of one form of etheric vibration into another, in this case, the vibrations "aaumm" in "zhaumm". The point is that the etheric vibration determines the world constants. Any change in the etheric vibration of the universe leads to its physical destabilization. At the same time, the psychocosm changes, and this factor has more serious consequences than the physical one.

Our Universe. One of the tentacles contains our Galaxy, which includes 100 billion stars and our planet Earth. Each tentacle of the Universe has its own set of world constants. Fine threads represent wormholes.

The use of natural wormholes for space exploration is very tempting. This is not only an opportunity to visit the nearest universe and obtain amazing knowledge, as well as riches for the life of civilization. This is also the next opportunity. Being in the wormhole channel, inside the tunnel that connects the two universes, there is real opportunity radial exit from the tunnel, while you can find yourself in the external environment outside the Universe or the mother matter of the Forerunner. Here are other laws of the forms of existence and motion of matter. One of them is instantaneous travel speeds compared to light speeds. This is similar to how oxygen, an oxidizing agent, is transported in an animal organism at a certain constant rate, the value of which is no more than a centimeter per second. And in the external environment, the oxygen molecule is free and has speeds of hundreds and thousands of meters per second (4-5 orders of magnitude higher). Researchers can find themselves incredibly quickly anywhere on the surface of the space-time of the Universe. Then go through the "skin" of the Universe and find yourself in any of its universe. Moreover, using the same wormholes, one can penetrate deeply into the universe, bypassing its border. In other words, wormholes are space-time tunnels, the knowledge of which can significantly reduce the flight time to any point in the Universe. At the same time, leaving the body of the Universe, they use the above-light velocities of the mother form of matter, and then again enter the body of the Universe.

In any case, the existence of wormholes implies an extremely active use of them by space civilizations. The use can be inept and lead to local disruption of the global broadcast background. Or it can be deliberately aimed at changing the set of world constants. The fact is that one of the properties of wormholes is a resonant response not only to the etheric code of the real world vibration, but also to a set of codes corresponding to past eras. (During the existence of the Universe, the Universe has run through a certain set of epochs, which strictly corresponded to a certain set of world constants and, accordingly, a certain etheric code). With this access, a different ethereal vibration spreads from the wormhole tunnel, first it spreads to the local planetary system, then the stellar, then the galactic environment, changing the very essence of the universe: tearing apart the real forms of interaction of matter and replacing them with others. The whole being of the present epoch, like a knitted fabric, is torn in ethereal catatonia.

Black Moon - abstract in astrology geometric point lunar orbit (its apogee), also called Lilith after the mythical first wife of Adam; in the most ancient culture, Sumerian, Lilith's tears give life, but her kisses bring death ... In modern culture, the influence of the Black Moon means manifestations of evil, affects the subconscious of a person, strengthening the most unpleasant and hidden drives.

Why is it that some representatives of the higher mind perform this kind of activity associated with the destruction of the foundations of one being and the replacement by another? The answer to this question is connected with another research topic: with the existence of not only universal forms of consciousness, but also those that were generated outside the Universe. The latter (the Universe) is like a small living organism located in the waters of the boundless ocean, whose name is the Forerunner.

Until now, the functions of protecting the wormhole near the Earth were performed by the nearest civilizations surrounding earthlings. However, humanity grew up in psychophysical conditions with significant fluctuations in the values ​​of world constants. It has acquired an internal spiritual, physical and mental immunity to change the vibrations of the world etheric field. For this reason, in the field of functioning of the terrestrial space-time tunnel, the terrestrial universe is highly adapted to unexpected situations - from accidental, unauthorized, emergency, associated with the penetration of alien life forms and changes in the world ether field. That is why the coming world order is connected with the fact that the earthly civilization will play the role of the Atlantean of the sky, it will give sanctions or reject requests for the use of a wormhole near planet Earth by space civilizations. Terrestrial civilization is like a phagocyte cell in the body of the Universe, allowing cells of its own organism to pass through and destroying foreign ones. Undoubtedly, an incredibly high diversity of representatives of universal civilizations will flow through the earthly civilization. Each of them will have certain goals and objectives. And humanity will have to deeply understand the requirements of non-earthly people. An important step for earthlings will be joining the union of space civilizations, contacts with alien intelligence and the adoption of a code of conduct for space civilization.

Modern science of wormholes.
A wormhole, also a "wormhole" or "wormhole" (the latter is a literal translation of the English wormhole) is a hypothetical topological feature of space-time, which at every moment of time is a "tunnel" in space. The area near the narrowest part of the mole is called the “neck”.

Wormholes are divided into “intra-universe” and “inter-universe”, depending on whether its inputs can be connected by a curve that does not cross the throat (the figure shows an intra-world wormhole).

There are also traversable and impassable mole holes. The latter include those tunnels that collapse too quickly for an observer or a signal (with a speed not exceeding the speed of light) to get from one entrance to another. The classic example of an impassable wormhole is the Schwarzschild space, and a passable one is the Morris-Thorn wormhole.

Schematic representation of an "intra-world" wormhole for two-dimensional space

General theory of relativity (GR) does not disprove the existence of such tunnels (although it does not confirm). For the existence of a passable wormhole, it is necessary that it be filled with exotic matter, which creates a strong gravitational repulsion and prevents the burrow from collapsing. Wormhole-type solutions arise in various versions of quantum gravity, although there is still a long way to go before a complete study of the issue.
A traversable intra-world wormhole provides a hypothetical possibility of time travel if, for example, one of its entrances moves relative to the other, or if it is in a strong gravitational field, where the passage of time slows down.

Additional materials on hypothetical objects and astronomical studies near the Earth's orbit:

In 1846, Frederic Petit, director of Toulouse, announced that a second Earth satellite had been discovered. He was spotted by two observers at Toulouse [Lebon and Dassier] and a third by Lariviere at Artenac in the early evening of March 21, 1846. According to Petit's calculations, its orbit was elliptical with a period of 2 hours 44 minutes 59 seconds, with an apogee at a distance of 3570 km above the Earth's surface, and only 11.4 km perigee! Le Verrier, who was also present at the lecture, argued that it was necessary to take air resistance into account, which no one had done in those days. Petit was constantly haunted by the idea of ​​a second satellite of the Earth and 15 years later he announced that he had made calculations of the movement of a small satellite of the Earth, which is the cause of some (then unexplained) features in the movement of our main moon. Astronomers usually ignore such claims and the idea would have been forgotten if the young French writer, Jules Verne, had not read the resume. In J. Verne's novel "From a Cannon to the Moon", he uses a small object approaching close to the capsule to travel through outer space, which is why it flew around the moon, and did not crash into it: "This," said Barbicane, "is simple but a huge meteorite held as a satellite by the gravity of the Earth. "

"Is it possible?" Exclaimed Michel Ardant, "Does the earth have two satellites?"

"Yes, my friend, it has two satellites, although it is generally believed that it has only one. But this second satellite is so small and its speed is so great that the inhabitants of the Earth cannot see it. Everyone was shocked when the French astronomer, Monsieur Petit was able to detect the existence of a second satellite and calculate its orbit. According to him, a complete revolution around the Earth takes three hours and twenty minutes.... "

"Do all astronomers admit the existence of this satellite?" Asked Nicole

"No," replied Barbicane, "but if they, like us, met him, they would no longer doubt.... But this gives us the opportunity to determine our position in space... The distance to him is known and we were, therefore, at a distance of 7480 km above the surface of the globe, when they met the satellite. " Jules Verne was read by millions of people, but until 1942 no one noticed the contradictions in this text:

1. A satellite at an altitude of 7480 km above the Earth's surface should have an orbital period of 4 hours 48 minutes, not 3 hours 20 minutes

2. Since he was visible through a window through which the Moon was also visible, and since they were both approaching, he would have to have retrograde motion. This is an important point that Jules Verne does not mention.

3. In any case, the satellite must be in an eclipse (by the Earth) and therefore not visible. The metal projectile was supposed to be in the shadow of the Earth for some time.

Dr. R.S. Richardson of the Mount Wilson Observatory tried in 1952 to numerically estimate the eccentricity of this satellite's orbit: the perigee was 5010 km, and the apogee was 7480 km above the Earth's surface, the eccentricity was 0.1784.

Nevertheless, Jules Vernovsky is Petit's second companion (Petit in French - small) is known all over the world. Amateur astronomers concluded that this was a good opportunity to achieve fame - someone who discovered this second satellite could write his name in the scientific chronicles.

None of the large observatories ever dealt with the problem of the second satellite of the Earth, or, if they did, they kept it secret. German amateur astronomers were persecuted for what they called Kleinchen ("little bit") - of course they never found Kleinchen.

W.H. Pickering turned his attention to the theory of the object: if a satellite rotated at an altitude of 320 km above the surface and if its diameter is 0.3 meters, then with the same reflectivity as that of the Moon, it should have been visible at 3 -inch telescope. The three-meter satellite should be visible to the naked eye as a 5th magnitude object. Although Pickering did not search for the Petit object, he continued research related to the second satellite - the satellite of our Moon (His work in Popular Astronomy magazine for 1903 was titled "On the Photographic Search for the Moon's Satellite"). The results were negative and Pickering concluded that any satellite of our Moon should be less than 3 meters in size.

Pickering's article on the possibility of a tiny second Earth satellite, Meteorite Satellite, presented in Popular Astronomy magazine in 1922, caused another short burst of activity among amateur astronomers. There was a virtual call: "A 3-5-inch telescope with a weak eyepiece would be a great way to find a satellite. This is a chance for the amateur astronomer to become famous." But again, all searches were fruitless.

The original idea was that the gravitational field of the second satellite should explain an incomprehensible slight deviation from the motion of our large Moon. This meant that the object must be at least several miles in size - but if such a large second moon really existed, it must have been visible to the Babylonians. Even if it was too small to be visible as a disk, its relative proximity to Earth should have made the satellite's movement faster and therefore more visible (as artificial satellites or airplanes are seen today). On the other hand, no one was particularly interested in satellites, which are too small to be seen.

There was one more suggestion about an additional natural satellite of the Earth. In 1898, Dr. Georg Waltemath of Hamburg announced that he had discovered not just a second moon, but a whole system of tiny satellites. Valtemas presented the orbital elements for one of these satellites: distance from Earth 1.03 million km, diameter 700 km, orbital period 119 days, synodic period 177 days. "Sometimes," says Valtemas, "it shines like the sun at night." He believed that it was this moon that Lieut Greely saw in Greenland on October 24, 1881, ten days after the sun went down and the polar night came. Of particular interest to the public was the prediction that this satellite would pass across the disk of the Sun on February 2, 3, or 4, 1898. On February 4th, 12 people from the post office from Greifswald (post director Mr. Ziegel, his family members and postal employees) observed the Sun with the naked eye, without any protection from the blinding glare. It is easy to imagine the absurdity of such a situation: an important-looking Prussian, a civil servant, pointing to the sky through the window of his office, read aloud to his subordinates the predictions of Valtemas. When interviewed by these witnesses, they said that a dark object one-fifth the diameter of the Sun crossed its disk from 1:10 AM to 2:10 AM Berlin time. This observation was soon proved to be wrong, since during that hour the Sun was carefully examined by two experienced astronomers W. Winkler from Jena and Baron Ivo von Benko from Paul, Austria. They both reported that the solar disk contained only normal sunspots... But the failure of these and subsequent predictions did not discourage Valtemas and he continued to make predictions and demand their verification. Astronomers of those years were very annoyed when they were asked again and again the favorite question of an inquisitive public: "By the way, what about the new moon?" But astrologers seized on this idea - in 1918 the astrologer Sepharial named this moon Lilith. He said that it is black enough to remain invisible at all times and can only be detected by opposition or when it crosses the solar disk. Sepharial calculated Lilith's ephemeris based on the observations announced by Valtemas. He also argued that Lilith has approximately the same mass as the Moon, apparently happily unaware that even an invisible satellite of such mass should cause disturbances in the movement of the Earth. And even today the "dark moon" Lilith is used by some astrologers in their horoscopes.

From time to time, there are reports of other "additional moons" from observers. So the German astronomical magazine "Die Sterne" ("Star") reported on the observation by the German amateur astronomer W. Spill (W. Spill) of the second satellite crossing the disk of the Moon on May 24, 1926.

Around 1950, when they began to seriously discuss the launches of artificial satellites, they were presented in the form of the top of a multistage rocket in which there would not even be a radio transmitter and which would be monitored using radar from Earth. In this case, a group of small, close natural satellites of the Earth would have become interference, reflecting radar beams when tracking artificial satellites. The method for finding such natural satellites was developed by Clyde Tombaugh. First, the satellite's motion is calculated at an altitude of about 5000 km. The camera platform is then adjusted to scan the sky at exactly that speed. Stars, planets and other objects in the photos taken with this camera will draw lines, and only satellites flying on correct height will look like dots. If the satellite is moving at a slightly different altitude, it will be depicted by a short line.

Observations began in 1953 at the observatory. Lovell and actually "infiltrated" uncharted scientific territories: with the exception of the Germans looking for "Kleinchen", no one had paid so much attention to the space between the Earth and the Moon before! Until 1954, reputable weekly magazines and daily newspapers claimed that searches were beginning to show their first results: one small natural satellite was found at an altitude of 700 km, another at an altitude of 1000 km. Even the answer of one of the main developers of this program was given to the question: "Is he sure that they are natural?" No one knows exactly where these messages came from - after all, the searches were completely negative. When the first artificial satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958, these cameras quickly detected them (instead of natural ones).

Although it sounds strange enough, the negative result of this search does not mean that the Earth has only one natural satellite. She may have a very close companion for a short time. Meteoroids passing near the Earth and asteroids passing through the upper atmosphere can reduce their speed so much as to turn into a satellite orbiting the Earth. But since it will cross the upper atmosphere at each perigee passage, it will not be able to exist for a long time (there can be only one or two revolutions, in the most successful case - a hundred [this is about 150 hours]). There are some suggestions that such "ephemeral satellites" have just been seen. It is very possible that Petit's observers saw them. (also see)

In addition to the ephemeral satellites, there are two other interesting possibilities. One is that the moon has its own satellite. But, despite the intensified searches, nothing was found (We add that as it is now known that the gravitational field of the Moon is very "uneven" or inhomogeneous. This is enough for the rotation of the lunar satellites to be unstable - therefore the lunar satellites fall on the Moon after a very short interval time, after a few years or decades). Another assumption is that there may be Trojan satellites, i.e. additional satellites in the same orbit as the Moon, orbiting 60 degrees in front of and / or behind it.

The existence of such "Trojan satellites" was first reported by the Polish astronomer Kordylewski from the Krakow Observatory. He began his search in 1951 visually with a good telescope. He hoped to find a large enough body in lunar orbit at a distance of 60 degrees from the Moon. Searches were negative, but in 1956 his compatriot and colleague Wilkowski suggested that there might be many tiny bodies too small to be seen individually, but large enough to appear as a cloud of dust. In this case, it would be better to observe them without a telescope, i.e. with the naked eye! Using a telescope will "magnify them to a state of non-existence." Dr. Kordilevsky agreed to try. It required a dark night with a clear sky and a moon below the horizon.

In October 1956, Kordilevsky saw for the first time a distinctly luminous object in one of two expected positions. It was not small, extending about 2 degrees (i.e., almost 4 times as large as the Moon itself), and was very dim, half the brightness of the notorious difficulty of observing the counterglow (Gegenschein; counterglow is a bright point in the zodiacal light in direction opposite to the Sun). In March and April 1961, Kordilevsky succeeded in photographing two clouds near the expected positions. They seemed to change in size, but it could have been a change in lighting. J. Roach discovered these satellite clouds in 1975 using the OSO (Orbiting Solar Observatory). In 1990, they were photographed again, this time by the Polish astronomer Winiarski, who discovered that they constituted an object several degrees in diameter, "deviated" 10 degrees from the Trojan point, and that they were redder than the zodiacal light.

So the century-long search for the second satellite of the Earth, apparently, came to success, after all the efforts. Even though this "second satellite" turned out to be completely unlike anything anyone ever imagined. They are very difficult to detect and differ from the zodiacal light, in particular from the anti-radiance.

But people still assume the existence of an additional natural satellite of the Earth. Between 1966 and 1969, John Bargby, an American scientist, stated that he observed at least 10 small natural satellites of the Earth, visible only through a telescope. Bargby found elliptical orbits for all these objects: an eccentricity of 0.498, a semi-major axis of 14065 km, with a perigee and apogee at altitudes of 680 and 14700 km, respectively. Bargby considered them parts big body which collapsed in December 1955. He justified the existence of most of his supposed satellites by the perturbations that they cause in the movements of artificial satellites. Bargby used data on artificial satellites from the Goddard Satellite Situation Report, unaware that the values ​​in these publications are approximate and may sometimes contain big mistake and therefore cannot be used for accurate scientific calculations and analysis. In addition, as follows from Bargby's own observations, it can be concluded that although at perigee these satellites should be objects of the first magnitude and should be clearly visible with the naked eye, no one saw them like that.

In 1997, Paul Wiegert et al. Discovered that asteroid 3753 has a very strange orbit and can be regarded as a satellite of the Earth, although, of course, it does not orbit directly around the Earth.

An excerpt from the book of the Russian scientist Nikolai Levashov "Inhomogeneous Universe".

2.3. Matrix space system

The evolution of this process leads to the sequential formation along the common axis of the systems of the metauniverses. The number of matters that form them, in this case, gradually degenerates to two. At the ends of this "ray" zones are formed where no matter of a given type can merge with another or others, to form metauniverses. In these zones, “punching” of our matrix space arises and zones of joining with another matrix space arise. In this case, again, two variants of the joining of matrix spaces are possible. In the first case, the closure occurs with matrix space with a large coefficient of quantization of the dimensionality of space and, through this area of ​​closure, matter of another matrix space can flow in and split, and a synthesis of matter of our type will arise. In the second case, the closure occurs with the matrix space with a lower quantization coefficient of the dimensionality of space - through this area of ​​closure, the matters of our matrix space will begin to flow and split in another matrix space. In one case, an analogue of a super-scale star appears, in the other, an analogue black hole»Similar dimensions.

This difference in the variants of matrix spaces closing is very important for understanding the emergence of two types of sixth-order superspaces - the six-ray and the anti-six-ray. The fundamental difference between which is only in the direction of the flow of matter. In one case, matter from another matrix space flows through the central zone of the matrix spaces' closure and flows out of our matrix space through the zones at the ends of the "rays". In the anti-six-ray tube, matter flows in the opposite direction. Matter from our matrix space flows out through the central zone, and matters from another matrix space flow through the "ray" zones of closure. As for the six-ray, it is formed by the closure of six similar "rays" in one central zone. At the same time, around the center, zones of curvature of the dimensionality of the matrix space arise, in which metauniverses are formed from fourteen forms of matter, which, in turn, close and form a closed system of metauniverses, which unites six rays into one common system - a six-ray (Fig. 2.3.11 ).

Moreover, the number of "rays" is determined by the fact that in our matrix space can merge, during the formation, at most, fourteen forms of matter of this type. Moreover, the dimensionality of the emerging unification of the metauniverses is equal to π (π = 3.14 ...). This aggregate dimension is close to three. That is why there are six "rays", that is why they speak of three dimensions, etc. Thus, as a result of the sequential formation of spatial structures, a balanced system of distribution of matters between our matrix space and others is formed. After the completion of the formation of the Six-Beam, the stable state of which is possible only with the identity between the mass of matters flowing in and out of it.

2.4. The nature of stars and "black holes"

In this case, the zones of inhomogeneities can be both with ΔL> 0 and ΔL< 0, относительно нашей Вселенной. В случае, когда неоднородности мерности пространства меньше нуля ΔL < 0, происходит смыкание пространств-вселенных с мерностями L 7 и L 6 . При этом, вновь возникают условия для перетекания материй, только, на этот раз, вещество с мерностью L 7 перетекает в пространство с мерностью L 6 . Таким образом, пространство-вселенная с мерностью L 7 (наша Вселенная) теряет своё вещество. И именно так возникают загадочные «чёрные дыры»(Рис. 2.4.2) .

This is how stars and "black holes" are formed in the zones of inhomogeneity of the dimensionality of the spaces-universes. At the same time, there is an overflow of matter, matter between different spaces-universes.

There are also space-universes that have dimension L 7, but have a different composition of matter. When docking, in the zones of inhomogeneity of spaces-universes with the same dimension, but different qualitative composition of the substance forming them, a channel appears between these spaces. At the same time, there is a flow of substances, both into one and another space-universe. This is not a star or a "black hole", but a transition zone from one space to another. The zones of inhomogeneity of the dimensionality of space, in which the processes described above occur, will be denoted as zero-transitions. Moreover, depending on the sign of ΔL, we can talk about the following types of these transitions:

1) Positive zero-transitions (stars) through which matter flows into a given space-universe from another, with a greater dimension (ΔL> 0) n +.

2) Negative zero-transitions through which matter from a given space-universe flows into another, with a lesser dimension (ΔL< 0) n - .

3) Neutral zero-transitions, when the flows of matter move in both directions and are identical to each other, and the dimensions of the space-universes in the zone of closure practically do not differ: n 0.

If we continue to analyze what is happening further, we will see that each space-universe, through the stars, receives matter, and through the "black holes" it loses it. For the possibility of stable existence of this space, a balance is needed between the incoming and outgoing matter into the given space-universe. The law of conservation of matter must be fulfilled, provided that space is stable. This can be displayed as a formula:

m (ij) k- the total mass of forms of matter flowing through a neutral zero-transition.

Thus, between spaces-universes with different dimensions, through zones of inhomogeneity, there is a circulation of matter between the spaces that form this system (Fig. 2.4.3).

Through the zones of inhomogeneity of dimension (zero-transitions), a transition from one space-universe to another is possible. At the same time, there is a transformation of the substance of our space-universe into the substance of that space-universe, where the transfer of matter takes place. So, unchanged “our” matter cannot get into other space-universes. The zones through which such a transition is possible are both "black holes", in which a complete disintegration of matter of a given type occurs, and neutral zero-transitions, through which a balanced exchange of matter occurs.

Neutral zero transitions can be persistent or temporary, occurring intermittently or spontaneously. There are a number of areas on Earth where neutral zero transitions periodically occur. And if ships, planes, boats, people fall within their limits, they disappear without a trace. Such zones on Earth are: the Bermuda Triangle, areas in the Himalayas, the Perm zone and others. It is practically impossible, in case of falling into the zone of action of the zero-transition, to predict to which point and to which space the matter will move. Not to mention, the likelihood of returning to the starting point is practically zero. It follows that neutral zero-transitions cannot be used for purposeful movement in space.

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In science fiction novels, entire transport networks are described that connect stellar systems and historical eras, the so-called portals, time machines. But it seems much more surprising that time machines and tunnels in space are quite seriously, as hypothetically possible, actively discussed not only in articles on theoretical physics, on the pages of reputable scientific publications, but also in the media. There have been many reports of the discovery by scientists of some hypothetical objects called "mole holes."

While selecting material for the NPK on the topic “Black holes”, we came across the concept of “Mole holes”. We were interested in this topic, and we made a comparison between them.

Purpose of work: Comparative analysis of black holes and wormholes.

Tasks: 1. Collect material about black holes and mole holes;

2. Make detailed analysis information received;

3. Compare black holes and mole holes;

4. Create an educational film for students.

Hypothesis: Is it possible to travel in space-time thanks to the mole holes.

Object of study: literature and other resources about wormholes and black holes.

Subject of study: versions of the existence of wormholes.

Methods: study of literature; use of Internet resources.

Practical significance of this work is to collected material use in educational purposes in physics lessons and during extracurricular activities on this subject.

The presented work used materials scientific articles, periodicals, Internet resources.

Chapter 1. Historical background

In 1935, physicists Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen, using general relativity, suggested that there are special "bridges" through space-time in the universe. These paths, called Einstein-Rosen bridges (or wormholes), connect two completely different points in spacetime by theoretically creating a curvature of space that shortens travel from one point to another.

In theory, a mole hole consists of two entrances and a mouth (that is, the same tunnel). The entrances to the wormholes are spheroidal, and the neck can represent both a straight line of space and a spiral one.

For a long time this work did not arouse great interest among astrophysicists. But in the 90s of the XX century, interest in such objects began to return. First of all, the return of interest was associated with the discovery of dark energy in cosmology.

The English-language term, which has taken root for "mole holes" since the 90s, has become "wormhole", but the American astrophysicists Mizner and Wheeler were the first to propose this term back in 1957. In Russian, "wormhole" is translated as "worm hole". Many Russian-speaking astrophysicists did not like this term, and in 2004 it was decided to vote on various proposed terms for such objects. Among the terms proposed were such as: "worm hole", "wormhole", "wormhole", "bridge", "mole hole", "tunnel", etc. The voting was attended by Russian-speaking astrophysicists who have scientific publications on this topic. As a result of this vote, the term "wormhole" won.

In physics, the concept of wormholes emerged in 1916, just a year after Einstein published his great work, general relativity. Physicist Karl Schwarzschild, then serving in the Kaiser's army, found the exact solution of Einstein's equations for the case of an isolated point star. Away from a star, its gravitational field is very similar to that of an ordinary star; Einstein even used Schwarzschild's solution to calculate the deviation of the path of light around a star. Schwarzschild's result had an immediate and very powerful effect on all branches of astronomy, and today it still remains one of the most famous solutions of Einstein's equations. Several generations of physicists have used the gravitational field of this hypothetical point star as an approximate expression for the field around a real star with a finite diameter. But if you consider this point solution seriously, then in the center of it you will suddenly find a monstrous point object that has amazed and shocked physicists for almost a century - a black hole.

Chapter 2. Wormhole and black hole

2.1. Mole Hole

A wormhole is a supposed feature of space-time, which at every moment of time is a "tunnel" in space.

The area near the narrowest part of the mole is called the “neck”. Distinguish between passable and impassable mole holes. The latter include those tunnels that collapse (collapse) too quickly for the observer or signal to get from one entrance to another.

The answer lies in the fact that according to Einstein's theory of gravitation - general theory of relativity (GR), the four-dimensional space-time in which we live is curved, and the familiar gravity is a manifestation of such curvature. Matter "bends", bends the space around itself, and - the denser it is, the stronger the curvature.

One of the habitats of "wormholes" is the centers of galaxies. But the main thing here is not to confuse them with black holes, huge objects that are also located in the center of galaxies. Their mass is billions of our Suns. At the same time, black holes have a powerful gravitational force. It is so large that even light cannot escape from there, so it is impossible to see them through an ordinary telescope. The gravity of the wormholes is also enormous, but if you look inside the wormhole, you can see the light of the past.

Wormholes that light and other matter can pass through in either direction are called walkable wormholes. There are also impassable wormholes. These are objects that externally (at each of the entrances) are like a black hole, but inside such a black hole there is no singularity (singularity in physics is called the infinite density of matter, which breaks and destroys any other matter that falls into it). Moreover, the singularity property is mandatory for ordinary black holes. And the black hole itself is determined by the presence of a surface (sphere) on it, from under which even light cannot escape. Such a surface is called the black hole horizon (or event horizon).

Thus, matter can get inside an impassable wormhole, but it cannot get out of it (very similar to the property of a black hole). There may also be semi-traversable wormholes, in which matter or light can pass along the wormhole only in one direction, but cannot pass in the other.

The features of wormholes are the following:

A wormhole should connect two non-curved regions of space. The junction is called the wormhole, and its central section is the neck of the wormhole. The space near the mouth of the wormhole is rather strongly curved.

A wormhole can connect either two different universes, or the same universe in different parts... In the latter case, the distance through the wormhole may be shorter than the distance between the entrances measured from the outside.

The concepts of time and distance in curved space-time cease to be absolute values, i.e. the way we subconsciously always used to consider them.

The study of models of wormholes shows that exotic matter is necessary for their stable existence within the framework of Einstein's theory of relativity. Sometimes such matter is also called phantom. For the stable existence of a wormhole, an arbitrarily small amount of phantom matter is sufficient - say, only 1 milligram (and maybe even less). In this case, the rest of the matter supporting the wormhole must satisfy the condition: the sum of the energy density and pressure is zero. And there is nothing unusual in this: even the most ordinary electric or magnetic field satisfies this condition. This is exactly what is needed for the existence of a wormhole with any small amount of phantom matter added.

2.2. Black hole

A black hole is a region in space-time. The gravitational attraction is so great that even objects moving at the speed of light, including quanta of light itself, cannot leave it. The border of this area is called the event horizon.

Theoretically, the possibility of the existence of such regions of space-time follows from some exact solutions of the Einstein equations. The first was obtained by Karl Schwarzschild in 1915. The exact inventor of the term is unknown, but the designation itself was popularized by John Archibald Wheeler and first used publicly in the popular lecture Our Universe: Known and Unknown. Previously, such astrophysical objects were called "collapsed stars" or "collapsars", as well as "frozen stars".

There are four scenarios for the formation of black holes:

two realistic:

gravitational collapse (compression) of a rather massive star;

collapse of the central part of the galaxy or protogalactic gas;

and two hypothetical:

the formation of black holes immediately after the Big Bang (primordial black holes);

the emergence of high energies in nuclear reactions.

The conditions under which the final state of the evolution of a star is a black hole are not well understood, since for this it is necessary to know the behavior and states of matter at extremely high densities, inaccessible to experimental study.

The collision of black holes with other stars, as well as the collision of neutron stars, causing the formation of a black hole, leads to the most powerful gravitational radiation, which is expected to be detected in the coming years using gravitational telescopes. Currently, there are reports of collision observations in the X-ray range.

On August 25, 2011, a message appeared that for the first time in the history of science, a group of Japanese and American experts was able to fix the moment of death of a star, which is being swallowed by a black hole, in March 2011.

Black hole researchers distinguish between primordial black holes and quantum ones. Primary black holes are currently hypothesized. If at the initial moments of the life of the Universe there existed a sufficient deviation from the homogeneity of the gravitational field and the density of matter, then black holes could form from them through collapse. Moreover, their mass is not limited from below, as in a stellar collapse - their mass, probably, could be quite small. The discovery of primordial black holes is of particular interest in connection with the possibilities of studying the phenomenon of evaporation of black holes. As a result nuclear reactions stable microscopic black holes, the so-called quantum black holes, can arise. For a mathematical description of such objects, a quantum theory of gravity is needed.

Conclusion

If a wormhole is impassable, then outwardly it is almost impossible to distinguish it from a black hole. Today, the theory of the physics of wormholes and black holes is a purely theoretical science. Wormholes are topological features of space-time, described in the framework special theory of relativity by Einstein in 1935.

General relativity mathematically proves the likelihood of wormholes, but until now none of them have been discovered by humans. The difficulty in detecting it lies in the fact that the supposed huge mass of wormholes and gravitational effects simply absorb light and prevent it from being reflected.

After analyzing all the information found, we learned how wormholes differ from black holes and came to the conclusion that the world of space is still very little studied, and humanity is on the verge of new discoveries and opportunities.

Based on the research done, an educational film "Wormholes and Black Holes" was created, which is used in astronomy lessons.

List of sources and literature used

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https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%80%D0 % B0 (30.09.2017).

Winter, K. "Wormhole" - the corridor of time / K. Winter // Vesti.ru [Electronic resource]. - Access mode // http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=628114 (20.09.2017).

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Lebedev, V. Man in a wormhole (review) / V. Lebedev // Swan. Independent almanac. [Electronic resource]. - Access mode // http://lebed.com/2016/art6871.htm (09/30/2017).

Through a wormhole, Does the universe have an edge. [Electronic resource]. - Access mode // https://donetskua.io.ua/v(25.09.2017).

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Black holes. Universe [Electronic resource]. - Access mode // https://my.mail.ru/bk/lotos5656/video/_myvideo/25.html (09/25/2017).

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Shatsky, A. Wormholes: what is it - a myth, a gateway to other worlds or a mathematical abstraction? [Electronic resource]. - Access mode // http://www.znanie-sila.su/?issue=zsrf/issue_121.html&r=1 (09/18/2017).

Encyclopedia for children. T. 8. Astronomy [Text] / Chap. ed. M. Aksyonova; method. ed. V. Volodin, A. Eliovich. - M .: Avanta, 2004.S. 412-413, 430-431, 619-620.

WORMHOOL - 1) astrophysis. The most important concept of modern astrophysics and practical cosmology. A "wormhole" or "wormhole" is a trans-dimensional passage connecting a black hole and its corresponding white hole.

Astrophysical "wormhole" pierces the collapsed space in extra dimensions and allows you to move along a really short path between star systems.

Studies using the Hubble Orbiting Telescope have shown that each black hole is the entrance to a "wormhole" (see HUBBLE LAW). One of the largest holes is located in the center of our Galaxy. It is theoretically shown (1993) that it was from this central hole that the solar system arose.

By modern ideas, the observed part of the Universe is literally all permeated with "wormholes" going "back and forth". Many major astrophysicists believe that travel through wormholes is the future of interstellar astronautics. "

We are all accustomed to the fact that the past cannot be returned, although sometimes we really want to. For more than a century, science fiction writers have been painting all sorts of incidents that arise due to the ability to travel in time and influence the course of history. Moreover, this topic turned out to be so burning that at the end of the last century, even physicists far from fairy tales began to seriously search for such solutions to equations describing our world, which would make it possible to create time machines and in the blink of an eye to overcome any space and time.

Science fiction novels describe entire transport networks connecting stellar systems and historical eras. He stepped into a booth, stylized, say, as a telephone booth, and found himself somewhere in the Andromeda nebula or on Earth, but visiting the long-extinct tyrannosaurs.

Characters in such works constantly use zero-transport time machines, portals and similar convenient devices.

However, fantasy lovers perceive such travels without much trepidation - you never know what can be imagined, referring the realization of the invented to an uncertain future or to the insights of an unknown genius. Much more surprising is the fact that time machines and tunnels in space are quite seriously, as hypothetically possible, actively discussed in articles on theoretical physics, on the pages of the most reputable scientific publications.

The answer lies in the fact that according to Einstein's theory of gravitation - general theory of relativity (GR), the four-dimensional space-time in which we live is curved, and the familiar gravity is a manifestation of such curvature.

Matter "bends", bends the space around itself, and - the denser it is, the stronger the curvature.

Numerous alternative theories of gravitation, which are counted in hundreds, differing from general relativity in details, retain the main thing - the idea of ​​curvature of space-time. And if space is curved, then why not take, for example, the shape of a pipe that short-circuits areas separated by hundreds of thousands of light years, or, say, epochs that are far from each other - after all, we are talking not just about space, but about space- time?

Remember, the Strugatskys (who, by the way, also resorted to zero-transportation): “I don't see at all, why shouldn't the noble don…” - well, let's say, not fly into the XXXII century? ...

Wormholes or black holes?

Thoughts about such a strong curvature of our space-time arose immediately after the appearance of general relativity - already in 1916 the Austrian physicist L. Flamm discussed the possibility of the existence of spatial geometry in the form of a kind of hole connecting two worlds. In 1935, A. Einstein and mathematician N. Rosen drew attention to the fact that the simplest solutions of the equations of general relativity, describing isolated, neutral or electrically charged sources of the gravitational field, have the spatial structure of a "bridge" that connects two universes in an almost smooth way - two identical, almost flat, space-time.

Spatial structures of this kind were later called "wormholes" (a fairly free translation english word"Wormhole" - "wormhole").

Einstein and Rosen even considered the possibility of using such "bridges" to describe elementary particles. Indeed, the particle in this case is a purely spatial formation, so there is no need to specially simulate the source of mass or charge, and with the microscopic dimensions of a wormhole, an external, distant observer in one of the spaces sees only a point source with a certain mass and charge.

Electrical lines of force enter the burrow on one side and exit on the other, starting and ending nowhere.

In the words of the American physicist J. Wheeler, "mass without mass, charge without charge" is obtained. And in this case, it is not at all necessary to assume that the bridge connects two different universes - it is no worse than the assumption that both "mouths" of a wormhole go out into the same universe, but at different points and at different times - something like a hollow "handle" sewn into the familiar, almost flat world.

One mouth, into which the lines of force enter, can be seen as a negative charge (for example, an electron), the other, from which they come out, as a positive (positron), the masses will be the same on both sides.

For all the attractiveness of such a picture, it (for many reasons) did not take root in the physics of elementary particles. It is difficult to ascribe quantum properties to the Einstein-Rosen “bridges”, and without them there is nothing to do in the microcosm.

At known values ​​of the masses and charges of particles (electrons or protons), the Einstein-Rosen bridge does not form at all, instead the “electric” solution predicts the so-called “naked” singularity - the point at which the curvature of space and the electric field become infinite. The concept of space-time, even if curved, loses its meaning at such points, since it is impossible to solve equations with infinite terms. General relativity itself quite definitely states where exactly it stops working. Let us recall the above words: "connecting in an almost smooth manner ...". This "almost" refers to the main flaw of the Einstein-Rosen "bridges" - a violation of smoothness at the narrowest point of the "bridge", at the neck.

And this violation, I must say, is very nontrivial: at such a neck, from the point of view of a distant observer, time stops ...

According to modern concepts, what Einstein and Rosen considered as the throat (that is, the narrowest point of the "bridge"), in fact, is nothing more than the event horizon of a black hole (neutral or charged).

Moreover, from different sides of the "bridge", particles or rays fall on different "sections" of the horizon, and between, relatively speaking, the right and left parts of the horizon there is a special non-static region, without overcoming which it is impossible to pass the hole.

For a distant observer spaceship approaching the horizon of a rather large (compared to the ship) black hole, as if forever freezes, and the signals from it reach less and less often. On the contrary, according to the ship's clock, the horizon is reached in a finite time.

Having passed the horizon, the ship (particle or ray of light) will soon inevitably hit the singularity - where the curvature becomes infinite and where (still on the way) any extended body will inevitably be crushed and torn apart.

This is the harsh reality of the inner workings of a black hole. The Schwarzschild and Reisner - Nordström solutions describing spherically symmetric neutral and electrically charged black holes were obtained in 1916-1917, but physicists fully understood the complex geometry of these spaces only at the turn of the 1950s-1960s. By the way, it was then that John Archibald Wheeler, known for his work in nuclear physics and the theory of gravity, proposed the terms "black hole" and "wormhole".

As it turned out, there are indeed wormholes in the Schwarzschild and Reisner - Nordstrom spaces. From the point of view of a distant observer, they are not completely visible, like the black holes themselves, and are just as eternal. But for a traveler who dared to penetrate the horizon, the hole collapses so quickly that neither a ship, nor a massive particle, nor even a ray of light will fly through it.

To, bypassing the singularity, break through "into the light of God" - to the other mouth of the hole, you need to move faster than light... And physicists today believe that superluminal speeds of movement of matter and energy are impossible in principle.

Wormholes and time loops

So, Schwarzschild's black hole can be viewed as an impassable wormhole. Reisner's black hole - Nordstrom is more complicated, but also impassable.

However, it is not so difficult to come up with and describe passable four-dimensional wormholes, choosing the desired type of metric (metric, or metric tensor, is a set of quantities used to calculate four-dimensional distance-intervals between points-events, fully characterizing the geometry of space-time, and the gravitational field). Traversable wormholes, in general, are even geometrically simpler than black holes: there should not be any horizons leading to cataclysms with the passage of time.

Time at different points can, of course, go at different rates - but it should not accelerate or stop indefinitely.

It must be said that various black holes and wormholes are very interesting micro-objects that arise by themselves as quantum fluctuations of the gravitational field (at lengths of the order of 10-33 cm), where, according to existing estimates, the concept of classical, smooth space-time is no longer applicable.

On such a scale, there should be something similar to water or soap foam in a turbulent stream, constantly "breathing" due to the formation and collapse of small bubbles. Instead of a calm empty space, we have mini-black holes and wormholes of the most bizarre and intertwining configurations appearing and disappearing at a frantic pace. Their sizes are unimaginably small - they are as many times smaller than the atomic nucleus, as much as this nucleus is smaller than the planet Earth. There is still no rigorous description of the space-time foam, since a consistent quantum theory of gravity has not yet been created, but in general terms the picture described follows from the basic principles of physical theory and is unlikely to change.

However, from the point of view of interstellar and intertemporal travel, wormholes of completely different sizes are needed: "I would like" a spaceship or at least a tank of a reasonable size to pass through the throat without damage (without it, it would be uncomfortable among tyrannosaurs, wouldn't it?).

Therefore, first you need to obtain solutions to the equations of gravity in the form of traversable wormholes of macroscopic dimensions. And if we assume that such a hole has already appeared, and the rest of space-time has remained almost flat, then, consider, there is everything - the hole can be a time machine, and an intergalactic tunnel, and even an accelerator.

Regardless of where and when one of the mouths of the wormhole is located, the second can be anywhere in space and at any time - in the past or in the future.

In addition, the mouth can move at any speed (within the light) with respect to the surrounding bodies - this will not prevent the exit from the hole into the (practically) flat Minkowski space.

It is known to be unusually symmetric and looks the same at all its points, in all directions and in any inertial systems, no matter how fast they move.

But, on the other hand, if we admit the existence of a time machine, we immediately encounter a whole bunch of paradoxes such as flew into the past and “killed grandfather with a shovel” before grandfather could become a father. Normal common sense dictates that this, most likely, simply cannot be. And if a physical theory claims to describe reality, it must contain a mechanism that prohibits the formation of such "time loops", or, at least, to the extreme impede their formation.

General relativity, without a doubt, claims to describe reality. It found many solutions that describe spaces with closed time loops, but they, as a rule, for one reason or another, are recognized as either unrealistic or, shall we say, "not dangerous".

Thus, a very interesting solution to Einstein's equations was indicated by the Austrian mathematician K. Gödel: this is a homogeneous stationary universe rotating as a whole. It contains closed trajectories, traveling along which you can return not only to the starting point of space, but also to the starting point in time. However, the calculation shows that the minimum time length of such a loop is much longer than the lifetime of the Universe.

Traversable wormholes, viewed as "bridges" between different universes, are temporary (as we have said) to assume that both mouths exit into the same universe as loops arise immediately. What, then, from the point of view of general relativity, prevents their formation - at least on a macroscopic and cosmic scale?

The answer is simple: the structure of Einstein's equations. In their left part there are quantities characterizing the space-time geometry, and in the right - the so-called energy-momentum tensor, which contains information about the energy density of matter and various fields, about their pressure in different directions, about their distribution in space and about state of movement.

One can "read" Einstein's equations from right to left, stating that with their help matter "tells" space how to bend it. But it is also possible - from left to right, then the interpretation will be different: geometry dictates the properties of matter, which could provide it, geometry, existence.

So, if we need the geometry of a wormhole, we substitute it into Einstein's equations, analyze and find out what kind of matter is required. It turns out that it is very strange and unprecedented, it is called so - "exotic matter". So, to create the simplest wormhole (spherically symmetric), it is necessary that the energy density and pressure in the radial direction add up to a negative value. Needless to say that for ordinary types of matter (like many known physical fields) both of these quantities are positive? ..

Nature, as we can see, has actually put a serious barrier to the emergence of wormholes. But this is how a person is arranged, and scientists are no exception: if a barrier exists, there will always be those willing to overcome it ...

The works of theorists interested in wormholes can be roughly divided into two complementary directions. The first, assuming the existence of wormholes in advance, considers the resulting consequences, the second tries to determine how and from what wormholes can be built, under what conditions they appear or can appear.

In works of the first direction, such a question is discussed, for example.

Suppose we have a wormhole at our disposal, through which you can pass in a matter of seconds, and let its two funnel-shaped mouths "A" and "B" are located close to each other in space. Is it possible to turn such a hole into a time machine?

American physicist Kip Thorne and his co-workers showed how to do this: the idea is to leave one of the mouths, "A", in place, and the other, "B" (which should behave like an ordinary massive body), to accelerate to speed comparable to the speed of light, and then return it back and brake next to "A". Then, due to the SRT effect (slowing down of time on a moving body as compared to a stationary one), less time will pass for the "B" mouth than for the "A" mouth. Moreover, the greater was the speed and duration of travel of the mouth of "B", the greater the time difference between them will be.

This is, in fact, the same well-known to scientists "paradox of twins": a twin returning from a flight to the stars turns out to be younger than his homebody brother ... Let the time difference between the mouths be, for example, six months.

Then, sitting near the mouth of "A" in the middle of winter, we will see through the wormhole a vivid picture of the past summer and - really this summer and will return, having passed the hole through and through. Then we again approach the funnel "A" (it, as we agreed, is somewhere nearby), once again dive into the hole and - jump straight into last year's snow. And so on as many times as you like. Moving in the opposite direction - diving into the "B" funnel - let's jump for six months into the future ...

Thus, having made a single manipulation with one of the mouths, we get a time machine that can be "used" all the time (if, of course, we assume that the hole is stable or that we are able to maintain its "performance").

The works of the second direction are more numerous and, perhaps, even more interesting. This area includes the search for specific models of wormholes and the study of their specific properties, which, in general, determine what can be done with these holes and how to use them.

Exomatter and dark energy

Exotic properties of matter, which should have construction material for wormholes, as it turns out, can be realized due to the so-called polarization of the vacuum of quantum fields.

This conclusion was recently reached by Russian physicists Arkady Popov and Sergei Sushkov from Kazan (together with David Hochberg from Spain) and Sergei Krasnikov from the Pulkovo Observatory. And in this case, the vacuum is not a void at all, but a quantum state with the lowest energy - a field without real particles. Pairs of "virtual" particles constantly appear in it, which again disappear before they could be detected by instruments, but leave their very real trace in the form of some energy-momentum tensor with unusual properties.

And although the quantum properties of matter are manifested mainly in the microcosm, the wormholes they generate (under certain conditions) can reach very decent sizes. By the way, one of the articles by S. Krasnikov has a "frightening" title - "The threat of wormholes." The most interesting thing about this purely theoretical discussion is that actual astronomical observations of recent years seem to greatly undermine the opponents of the possibility of the very existence of wormholes.

Astrophysicists, studying the statistics of supernova explosions in galaxies that are billions of light-years away from us, concluded that our Universe is not just expanding, but is scattering with ever-increasing speed, that is, with acceleration. Moreover, over time, this acceleration even grows. The most recent observations carried out with the latest space telescopes speak quite confidently about this. Well, now is the time to recall the connection between matter and geometry in general relativity: the nature of the expansion of the Universe is tightly connected with the equation of state of matter, in other words, with the relationship between its density and pressure. If matter is ordinary (with positive density and pressure), then the density itself decreases with time, and the expansion slows down.

If the pressure is negative and equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign of the energy density (then their sum = 0), then such a density is constant in time and space - this is the so-called cosmological constant, which leads to expansion with constant acceleration.

But for the acceleration to grow with time, and this is not enough - the sum of pressure and energy density must be negative. No one has ever observed such matter, but the behavior of the visible part of the Universe seems to signal its presence. Calculations show that such a strange, invisible, matter (called "dark energy") in the present era should be about 70%, and this fraction is constantly increasing (unlike ordinary matter, which loses density with increasing volume, dark energy behaves paradoxically - the Universe is expanding, and its density is increasing). But after all (and we have already spoken about this) just such exotic matter is the most suitable "building material" for the formation of wormholes.

So it is tempting to dream up: sooner or later, dark energy will be discovered, scientists and technologists will learn to thicken it and build wormholes, and there, not far from "dreams come true" - about time machines and tunnels leading to the stars ...

True, the estimate of the density of dark energy in the Universe, which ensures its accelerated expansion, somewhat dampens: if the dark energy is evenly distributed, an absolutely insignificant value is obtained - about 10-29 g / cm3. For ordinary matter, this density corresponds to 10 hydrogen atoms per 1 m3. Even interstellar gas is several times denser. So if this path to creating a time machine can become real, it will not be very, very soon.

Requires donut hole

So far, we have been talking about tunnel-like wormholes with smooth necks. But general relativity predicts another type of wormholes - and they, in principle, do not require any distributed matter at all. Exists whole class solutions of Einstein's equations, in which the four-dimensional space-time, flat far from the source of the field, exists, as it were, in two copies (or sheets), and common to both of them are only a certain thin ring (the source of the field) and a disk, which is limited by this ring.

This ring has a truly magical property: you can “wander” around it for as long as you like, remaining in “your” world, but once you go through it, you will find yourself in a completely different world, albeit similar to “your own”. And in order to go back, you need to go through the ring again (and from either side, not necessarily the one from which you just left).

The ring itself is singular - the curvature of space-time on it turns to infinity, but all points inside it are completely normal, and the body moving there does not experience any catastrophic effects.

It is interesting that there are a great many such solutions - both neutral, and with an electric charge, and with rotation, and without it. This, in particular, is the famous solution of the New Zealander R. Kerr for a rotating black hole. It most realistically describes black holes of stellar and galactic scales (the existence of which most astrophysicists no longer doubt), since almost all celestial bodies undergo rotation, and when compressed, rotation only accelerates, especially when they collapse into a black hole.

So it turns out that exactly rotating black holes are “direct” candidates for “time machines”? However, black holes forming in stellar systems are surrounded and filled with hot gas and harsh deadly radiation. In addition to this purely practical objection, there is also a fundamental one associated with the difficulties of getting out of the event horizon onto a new space-time “sheet”. But it is not worth dwelling on this in more detail, since according to general relativity and many of its generalizations, wormholes with singular rings can exist without any horizons.

So there are at least two theoretical possibilities for the existence of wormholes connecting different worlds: holes can be smooth and consist of exotic matter, or they can arise due to singularity, while remaining passable.

Space and strings

Thin singular rings resemble other unusual objects predicted by modern physics - cosmic strings, formed (according to some theories) in the early Universe when superdense matter cooled down and changed its states.

They really resemble strings, only unusually heavy - many billions of tons per centimeter of length with a thickness of a fraction of a micron. And, as was shown by the American Richard Gott and the Frenchman Gerard Clement, from several strings moving relative to each other at high speeds, it is possible to make constructions containing time loops. That is, moving in a certain way in the gravitational field of these strings, you can return to the starting point earlier than it flew out of it.

Astronomers have been looking for this kind of space objects, and today one "good" candidate already exists - the CSL-1 object. These are two remarkably similar galaxies, which in reality are probably one, only bifurcated due to the effect of gravitational lensing. Moreover, in this case, the gravitational lens is not spherical, but cylindrical, reminiscent of a long thin heavy thread.

Will the fifth dimension help?

In the event that space-time contains more than four dimensions, the architecture of wormholes acquires new, previously unknown possibilities.

Thus, in recent years, the concept of "brane peace" has gained popularity. It assumes that all observed matter is located on some four-dimensional surface (denoted by the term "brane" - the truncated word "membrane"), and in the surrounding five or six-dimensional volume there is nothing but the gravitational field. The gravitational field on the brane itself (and only we observe it) obeys the modified Einstein equations, and in them there is a contribution from the geometry of the surrounding volume.

So, this contribution is capable of playing the role of exotic matter that generates wormholes. Burrows can be of any size and do not have their own gravity.

This, of course, does not exhaust the whole variety of "structures" of wormholes, and the general conclusion is that for all the unusualness of their properties and for all the difficulties of a fundamental, including philosophical, nature to which they can lead, their possible existence is take it seriously and with due care.

It cannot be ruled out, for example, that large burrows exist in interstellar or intergalactic space - if only because of the concentration of the same dark energy that accelerates the expansion of the Universe.

There is still no unequivocal answer to the questions - how they might look to an earthly observer and whether there is a way to detect them. Unlike black holes, wormholes may not even have any noticeable field of attraction (repulsion is not excluded), and therefore, in their vicinity one should not expect noticeable concentrations of stars or interstellar gas and dust.

But assuming that they can "short-circuit" regions or epochs that are far from each other, passing through themselves the radiation of the luminaries, it is quite possible to expect that some distant galaxy will seem unusually close.

Due to the expansion of the Universe, the further the galaxy is, the greater the spectrum shift (towards the red side) its radiation comes to us. But when looking through a wormhole, there may not be redshift. Or it will be, but something else. Some of these objects can be observed simultaneously in two ways - through the hole or "in the usual" way, "past the hole."

Thus, a sign of a cosmic wormhole can be as follows: the observation of two objects with very similar properties, but at different apparent distances and with different redshifts.

If wormholes do find (or build), the field of philosophy that deals with the interpretation of science will face new and, I must say, very difficult tasks. And for all the seeming absurdity of time loops and the complexity of the problems associated with causality, this area of ​​science, in all likelihood, sooner or later, will somehow sort it out. Just as I once “coped” with conceptual problems quantum mechanics and Einstein's theory of relativity ...

Kirill Bronnikov, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences

Traveling through space and time is possible not only in science fiction films and science fiction books, a little more and it can become a reality. Many well-known and respected experts are working on the study of such a phenomenon as a wormhole and a space-time tunnel.

A wormhole, in the definition of physicist Eric Davis, is a kind of cosmic tunnel, also called a throat, connecting two distant regions in the Universe or two different Universes, if other Universes exist, or two different periods of time, or different spatial dimensions. Despite the fact that the existence is not proven, scientists are seriously considering all kinds of ways to use traversable wormholes, provided they exist, to overcome distance at the speed of light, and even travel in time.

Before using wormholes, scientists need to find them. Unfortunately, no evidence of wormholes has been found today. But if they do exist, their location may not be as difficult as it seems at first glance.

What are wormholes?

Today, there are several theories of the origin of wormholes. Mathematician Ludwig Flamm, who used the equations of relativity of Albert Einstein, was the first to suggest the term "wormhole", describing the process when gravity can bend the time space related to the fabric of physical reality, as a result of which a space-time tunnel is formed.

Ali Evgun, of the Eastern Mediterranean University in Cyprus, suggests that wormholes originate in areas of dense accumulation of dark matter. According to this theory, wormholes could exist in the outer regions. Milky way where there is dark matter, and within other galaxies. Mathematically, he was able to prove that there are all the necessary conditions for confirming this theory.

“In the future, it will be possible to indirectly observe such experiments, as shown in the movie Interstellar,” said Ali Evgun.

Thorne and a number of other scientists concluded that even if a certain wormhole were formed due to necessary factors, it would most likely collapse before any object or person passed through it. Keeping the wormhole open long enough would take a large number of the so-called "exotic matter". One of the forms of natural "exotic matter" is dark energy, Davis explains its action as follows: "pressure, the value of which is below atmospheric, creates a gravitational-repulsive force, which in turn pushes the inner space of our Universe outward, which produces an inflationary expansion of the Universe."

An exotic material such as dark matter is five times more abundant in the universe than conventional substances... Until now, scientists have not been able to detect clusters of dark matter or dark energy, so many of their properties are unknown. The study of their properties occurs through the study of the space around them.

Through a wormhole through time - reality?

The idea of ​​time travel is quite popular not only among researchers. Alice's journey through the looking glass in the novel of the same name by Lewis Carroll is based on the theory of wormholes. What is a time-space tunnel? The region of space at the far end of the tunnel should stand out from the area around the entrance due to distortions like reflections in curved mirrors. Another sign may be a concentrated movement of light directed through the wormhole tunnel by air currents. Davis calls the phenomenon at the leading end of the wormhole the "caustic rainbow effect." Such effects can be seen from a distance. "Astronomers plan to use telescopes to hunt for these rainbow phenomena, looking for natural or even unnaturally created, traversable wormholes," Davis said. "I've never heard of the project getting off the ground."

As part of his research on wormholes, Thorne proposed a theory that the wormhole could be used as a time machine. Thought experiments related to time travel often encounter paradoxes. Perhaps the most famous of them is the grandfather's paradox: If a researcher goes into the past and kills his grandfather, then this person will not be able to be born, and, accordingly, would never go back in time. It can be assumed, that way back time travel is not, according to Davis, Thorne's work opened up new avenues for scientists to study.

Phantom Link: Wormholes and the Quantum Realm

"The entire artisanal industry of theoretical physics grew out of theories that led to the development of other space-time methods that produced the described causes of time machine paradoxes," Davis said. Despite everything, the possibility of using a wormhole for time travel attracts both science fiction fans and those who want to change their past. Davis believes based on modern theories that in order to make a time machine out of a wormhole, the flows at one or both ends of the tunnel will need to be accelerated to speeds approaching the speed of light.

"Based on that, it would be extremely difficult to build a time machine based on a wormhole," Davis said. "In this respect, it would be much easier to use wormholes for interstellar travel in space."

Other physicists have suggested that time travel through a wormhole could cause a massive build-up of energy that destroys the tunnel before it can be used as a time machine - a process known as reverse quantum reaction. Still, dreaming about the potential of wormholes is still fun: “Think of all the possibilities people would get if they found a way, what could they do if they could travel back in time?” Davis said. "Their adventures would be very interesting, to say the least."