All the terms you need to know from history. Terms and concepts in the history of the IX - XX centuries

1. Absolutism- a form of state in some countries of Western Europe and the East in the 16-18 centuries, in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. In a strictly centralized state, an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, a standing army, police, tax service, and courts were created. The most typical example of absolutism is France during the reign of King Louis XIV, who considered himself the viceroy of God on Earth.

2. Autonomy- self-government, the right to independently exercise certain functions of state power or administration, provided by the constitution of any part of the state.

4. Anarchy could mean the following:

• Lack of legislation and coercive apparatus.
• Lack of centralized management.
• The theoretical social structure of a state in which there are no rulers or groups of rulers, but everyone has absolute freedom.
• Freedom, independence from rules and authorities.

5. Annals- recording historical events in chronological order from year to year.

6. Annexation- a violent act of unilateral accession by a state of all or part of the territory of another state.

7. Entente- the military-political bloc of England, France and Russia, created as a counterweight to the "Triple Alliance"; formed mainly in 1904-1907 and completed the demarcation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War.

8. Anti-semitism- a form of national and religious prejudice and intolerance, hostile attitude towards Jews.

9. Anty- the union of ancient Slavic tribes, found in the Byzantine and Gothic sources of the 6th-7th centuries (up to 602 AD), inhabiting the lands from the Dniester to the Sea of ​​Azov.

10. Assembly- a form of business communication and secular entertainment, introduced by Peter I in the course of the transformation of public life in Russia.

11. Baroque - style of European art and architecture of the 17-18 centuries.

12. Corvee- a duty, which consisted in the duty of a peasant who had his own allotment, to work in the master's field for a certain number of days a week.

13. Baskak- a Mongolian official in charge of collecting tribute and accounting for the population in the conquered territories. They appeared in the middle of the 13th century. until the middle of the 14th century.

14. White settlements (white lands)- land of feudal lords in rural areas and cities of the Russian state of the 14-17th centuries, partially or completely exempted from state taxes.

15. Bortevoy beekeeping, beekeeping(from the word “ fight"- tree hollow), the oldest form of beekeeping, in which bees live in tree hollows. Bortnichestvo was known in Russia until the 19th century and was then one of the important branches of its economy.

16. Boyars- the upper class of feudal lords. In the Old Russian state - the descendants of the tribal nobility, senior warriors - vassals and members of the princely duma. During the formation of independent principalities - the richest and most influential feudal lords.

17. Boyar Duma - supreme council nobility under the Grand Duke, and from the 16th century. under the king. It was abolished in 1711.

18. Bureaucracy- designation of the layer of employees in management, administration, which is characterized by hierarchy, strict regulation, division of labor and responsibility.

19. Varangians- warriors-vigilantes from the Scandinavian peoples, who were called the Vikings in Europe.

20. Rope- the name of the community in Ancient Rus and at South Slavs... Mentioned in Russian Pravda.

21. Supreme Privy Council- the highest advisory state institution of Russia in 1726-30 (7-8 people). Created by Catherine I as an advisory body, in fact, it solved the most important state issues.

22. Veche - popular assembly in medieval Russia to discuss common affairs. Arose from the tribal assemblies of the Slavs.

23. Military settlements- the system of organizing troops in Russia in 1810-1857, combining military service with the employment of productive labor, primarily agricultural.

24. War communism- a system of socio-economic relations based on the elimination of commodity-money relations and the concentration of all resources in the hands of the Bolshevik state during the Civil War.

25. Free Farmers (or Free Farmers)- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by Decree 1803, on the basis of a voluntary agreement with the landowners.

26. Economic voluntarism- arbitrary decisions in economic practice, neglecting objective conditions and scientifically based recommendations (in this sense, this word was officially used in the USSR in 1964-1985 to assess the activities of N. S. Khrushchev).

27. East Slavs- cultural and linguistic community of the Slavs who spoke East Slavic languages... They constituted the main population of Kievan Rus.

28. Patrimony- the oldest type of land ownership in Russia, which was passed on by inheritance. It arose in the 10-11th centuries.

29. Temporarily obligated peasants- a category ("category") of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom by the Regulations of February 19, 1861, but not transferred to ransom.

30. Tysyatsky- the military leader of the city militia ("thousand") in Russia until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected from the boyars at the veche and was the closest assistant to the mayor.

31. Unitary state- a form of state structure, in which its parts are administrative-territorial units and do not have the status of a state formation.

32. Utopian socialism- accepted in the historical and philosophical literature designation preceding Marxism, the doctrine of the possibility of transforming society on socialist principles, about its just structure. The main role in the development and introduction into society of ideas about building socialist relations in a non-violent way, only by the power of propaganda and example, was played by the intelligentsia and layers close to it. The predecessors of the ideas of utopian socialism in Russia in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were A.N. Radishchev and P.I. Pestel. These ideas were especially widespread in the 1930s and 1940s.

33. Lesson summers- Lesson summers, in Russia, the period during which the owners could initiate a lawsuit to return the fugitive peasants to them.

34. Favoritism-sociocultural phenomenon that existed at the royal (imperial, royal) courts of the era of absolutism and had the goal of elevating a specific person (or group of persons) in connection with the personal affection of the monarch to the favorite.

35. Fascism- the generalized name of specific extreme right-wing political movements, ideologies and the corresponding form of government of a dictatorial type, characteristic features which are the cult of personality, militarism, totalitarianism.

36. Federation- a form of government, in which parts of a federal state are state entities with a legally defined political independence.

37. Charisma- exceptional giftedness; a charismatic leader is a person endowed with authority in the eyes of his followers based solely on the qualities of his personality - wisdom, heroism, holiness.

38. Censorship- system of state supervision over the press and funds mass media... It arose in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.

39. Civilization- a synonym for the concept of culture; the totality of material and spiritual achievements of society in its historical development, the level of social development and material culture achieved in a particular society; the degree and nature of the development of culture of certain eras and peoples.

40. Landlord- a noble landowner who owns an estate, patrimonial estate in Russia at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 20th centuries.

41. Estate- a type of feudal land tenure in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Granted for military service without the right of inheritance.

42. The planter- 1) Viceroy of the prince in Ancient Rus 10-11 centuries; 2) The highest public office in Novgorod in the 12-15th centuries. and Pskov in the 14th - early 16th centuries. Was elected from the noble boyars at the veche.

43. Post-industrial society- designation of a new stage of social development, emerging from the second half of the 20th century in developed countries.

44. Possessional peasants- peasants belonging to factories and factories.

45. Orders- 1) Central government bodies in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. They mainly had a judicial function; 2) Local bodies of palace administration in the 16th and 17th centuries; 3) The name of the streltsy regiments in the 16-17 centuries.

46. Jurors- non-professional judges participating in the trial. A verdict (decision) is passed on the guilt or innocence of the defendant. In Russia, the institute P. z. (jury trial) introduced Judicial reform of 1864.

47. Industrial revolution- this is a transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufactory to factory. The transition from a predominantly agricultural economy to industrial production, as a result of which there is a transformation of an agrarian society into an industrial one.

48. Enlightened absolutism- the policy pursued in the second half of the 18th century by a number of monarchical countries of Europe and aimed at eliminating the remnants of the medieval system in favor of capitalist relations.

49. Protectionism- the policy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition through a system of certain restrictions: import and export duties, subsidies and other measures. This policy contributes to the development of national production.

50. Pood- an obsolete unit of measurement of the mass of the Russian system of measures. 1 pood = 16.38 kg.

51. The revolution- a radical, radical, deep, qualitative change, a leap in the development of society, nature, or knowledge, coupled with an open break with the previous state

52. Repression- punishment, a punitive measure applied by state bodies in order to protect and preserve the existing system. Any repression is a manifestation of political violence.

53. Nobility- in Russia (the time of Peter the Great), Belarus and Ukraine (gentry) the gentry is called the nobility in general.

54. Expropriation- alienation by legal means, by a court verdict or for the sake of public benefit, property from the person to whom it belonged; v the latter case with a reward.

55. Extensification- the process and organization of production development, in which an increase in productivity is achieved through a quantitative increase in production capacity. That is, more labor and technology.

56. Escalation- expansion, build-up (of armaments, etc.), gradual strengthening, spreading (conflict, etc.), aggravation (provisions, etc.). The concept became widely used during the Cold War era.

57. St. George's Day- November 26, old style, religious holiday dedicated to Saint George (Yegoriy, Yuri) the Victorious. According to tradition, on St. George's Day, the peasants were transferred from a feudal lord to a feudal lord, tk. by this time, the annual cycle of agricultural work was completed and the peasants' monetary and in-kind obligations were settled in favor of their owners and state taxes.

58. Paganism- a term adopted in Christian theology and partly in historical literature, denoting pre-Christian and non-Christian religions. In a narrower sense, paganism is polytheistic religions

59. Label- diploma of the Tatar khan

60. His Imperial Majesty's own office(abbreviated - Own E. I. V. Chancellery) - the personal office of the Russian emperors, eventually transformed into one of the central authorities. It was created under Peter I, reformed under Catherine II, abolished by Alexander I during the creation of ministries; however, in 1812, it was re-established to work with cases that required the personal participation of the sovereign.

61. Councils of Workers' Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies- the elected bodies of state power of the Soviet Republic after the victory October revolution 1917. With the adoption on January 15 (28), 1918 of the decree on the creation of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army, they began to be called the Soviets of Workers ', Peasants' and Red Army Deputies.

62. Estate- social stratum; a group whose members differ in their legal status from the rest of the population.

63. Stagnation- the state of the economy, characterized by stagnation of production and trade for long period... Stagnation is accompanied by an increase in the number of unemployed, a decrease in wages and living standards of the population.

64. Old Believers- a part of Orthodox Christians that departed from the ruling Church in Russia after the reforms of the Moscow Patriarch Nikon.

65. Sagittarius- in the Russian state in the 16-18 centuries. people who made up a standing army; infantry armed with firearms.

66. Code of Laws- the most common form of legal acts during the formation of the Russian centralized state.

67. Table of ranks ("Table of ranks of all ranks of the military, civilian and courtiers") - the law on the procedure for civil service in the Russian Empire (the ratio of ranks by seniority, the sequence of ranks).

68. Totalitarianism- a form of social structure characterized by complete (total) control of the state and the ruling party over all aspects of society.

69. Trudoviks- (labor group), a Russian political organization that existed in the years 1906-1917.

70. Oprichnina- the policy of Ivan the Terrible, directed against the boyar aristocracy.

71. Horde exit- the tribute that the Russian lands paid to the Golden Horde in the 13-15th centuries. The entire population, except for the clergy, was clothed with tribute.

72. Cut- in Russia, at the beginning of the 20th century, a land plot allocated from the communal land (as a result of the Stolypin agrarian reform of 1906) into individual peasant property (unlike a farm, without transferring the estate).

73. "Thaw"- the period in the life of Soviet society, which began after the death of Stalin and meant the weakening of diktat in political and spiritual life.

74. Parliament- the highest representative and legislative body in the states where the separation of powers is established.

75. Political Party- a special public organization (association) that directly sets itself the task of seizing political power in the state or taking part in it through its representatives in government and local government bodies. Most parties have a program: an exponent of the party's ideology, a list of its goals and ways to achieve them.

76. Patriarch- the highest rank in the church hierarchy. Elected by the church council. In the Russian Orthodox Church in 1589 - 1700, restored on November 5 (18), 1917.

77. Plan "Barbarossa"- the plan for the German invasion of the USSR in the Eastern European theater of World War II and military operation carried out in accordance with this plan at the initial stage of the Great Patriotic War.

78. Churchyard- an administrative-territorial unit in Russia.

79. Undercut- a felled, cleared place for arable land in the middle of the forest.

80. Captive filing- a tax introduced in Russia by Peter I in 1724.

81. Elderly- the duty in Russia at the end of the XV-XVII centuries, which the peasant paid when leaving his owner a week before and a week after St. George's day in autumn.

82. Polovtsi- Turkic-speaking people, in the 11th century. - in the southern Russian steppes. They raided Russia in 1055 - early 13th century. Defeated and conquered by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th century. (some moved to Hungary).

83. Polyudye- in Ancient Russia, initially the annual detour by the prince and the squad of the subordinate population ("people") to collect tribute.

84. Localism- in medieval Russia: the procedure for the distribution of official positions, taking into account the origin and official position of the person's ancestors. Localism was abolished by the verdict of the Zemsky Sobor in 1682.

85. Mentality- a way of thinking, a set of mental skills and spiritual attitudes inherent in an individual or a social group.

86. Modernization- the process of reconstruction of a social system, complete or partial, in order to accelerate development.

87. Mongol-Tatar yoke- in Russia (1243-1480), the traditional name for the system of exploitation of the Russian principalities by the Mongol conquerors. Approved the vassal dependence of the Russian princes on Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde.

88. Monopoly- the exclusive right of production, trade, etc., belonging to one person, a certain group of persons or the state; generally the exclusive right to anything.

89. Machine-tractor station (MTS)- in the USSR, a state agricultural enterprise that provided technical and organizational assistance to collective farms with agricultural machinery.

90. People's Commissariat (Commissariat) - in the Soviet state (in the RSFSR, in other union and autonomous republics, in the USSR) in 1917-1946 - the central executive body in charge of management in a particular sphere of state activity or in a particular branch of the national economy; analogue of the ministry.

91. Populism- ideological current among the intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, whose representatives spoke from the standpoint of "peasant socialism" against serfdom and the capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (the so-called revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (the so-called liberal populists). The founders were A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, the ideologists were M. A. Bakunin, P. L. Lavrov.

92. Nomenclature- a list of the most important positions, the appointment and removal of which was carried out by party committees of different levels. The ruling elite in the USSR.

93. Normans- the name by which the peoples of Scandinavia were known in Western Europe during their expansion in the 8th - mid-11th centuries. In Scandinavia itself, the participants in the campaigns were called Vikings.

94. Rent- one of the obligations of dependent peasants, which consists in paying tribute to the landowner in food or in money.

95. OGPU (GPU) - state the political administration, created in 1922 under the NKVD of the RSFSR on the basis of the reorganized Cheka (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission) - the political police of the Bolshevik regime.

96. Oligarchy- a political regime in which power is concentrated in the hands of a relatively small group of citizens (for example, representatives of large monopolized capital) and, at times, serves their personal and / or group interests, and not the interests of all citizens.

97. Classicism- an education system based on the predominance of the study of Latin and Greek languages ​​over the study of the exact sciences.

98. Collectivization- This is the process of uniting individual peasant farms into collective farms (collective farms in the USSR). It was held in the USSR in the late 1920s - early 1930s (1928-1933).

99. Consensus- making decisions in parliament and its commissions, at conferences and meetings on the basis of general agreement without a vote and in the absence of formally stated objections.

100. Conservatism- ideological adherence to traditional values ​​and orders, social or religious doctrines.

101. Contribution- payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the winning state; during the war it is paid by the population of the occupied territory, at the end of the war - by the government of the defeated country.

102. Cooperation- an association of mutual assistance of workers, small producers, including peasants, created for the centralized purchase and sale of products and goods. Joint execution of a number of production operations, mutual financial assistance, etc.

103. Feeding- the type of awarding of the grand and appanage princes to their officials, according to which the princely administration was supported at the expense of the local population during the period of service.

104. Legitimation- recognition or confirmation of the legitimacy of state power, any social institution, status, authority, based on the values ​​adopted in a given society.

105. Liberalism- philosophical, political and economic ideology based on the fact that the rights and freedoms of an individual are the legal basis of social and economic order.

106. "People"- the population in Ancient Russia, subject to the prince, obliged to pay tribute.

107. Lumpen - declassed strata of the population (vagrants, beggars, etc.).

108. Manufactory- a large enterprise, where manual labor of hired workers was mainly used and the division of labor was widely used.

109. Marginal- a person who is in an intermediate, borderline position between any social groups, who has lost previous social ties and has not adapted to new living conditions; a person on the periphery of society; lumpen, vagabond, bum.

110. Freemasonry- an ethical movement that emerged in the 18th century as a closed organization.

111. Restalinization- a process that means "rehabilitation of Stalin and Stalinism", a return to the main provisions of his domestic and foreign policy.

113. Workers 'and Peasants' Inspection (Rabkrin, RCT) - the system of government bodies that dealt with issues of state control

114. Repair- compensation for losses caused by the war, paid to the victorious country by the defeated state that is guilty of the war.

115. Romanticism- a worldview, which is characterized by the idealization of reality, daydreaming.

116. Sacral - designation of the sphere of phenomena of objects, people related to the divine, religious, associated with them.

117. Secularization- removal of something from church, spiritual knowledge and transfer to secular, civil jurisdiction.

118. Semboyarshina- accepted by historians the name of the transitional government of seven boyars in the summer of 1610.

119. Senate- one of the highest bodies of state power, often the upper house of the legislative assembly (parliament).

120. SENTIMENTALISM- a trend in European literature and art of the second half of the 18th century, formed within the framework of the late Enlightenment and reflecting the growth of democratic sentiments in society.

121. Separate- separate, detached from others.

122. Symbolism- direction in European and Russian art 1870-1910. Focuses primarily on artistic expression through symbolism.

123. Synod- one of the highest state bodies in Russia in 1712-1917.

124. Smerd- in Ancient Russia, the category of incompetent people. The life of a stinker in Russkaya Pravda was defended by the minimum vira - 5 hryvnia. Perhaps this was the name of the inhabitants of the recently annexed territories, imposed by an increased tribute. It is believed that all the farmers were called smerds, among whom were both dependent and free.

125. SMUTA- a historical era in the life of Moscow Russia. The Time of Troubles began after the death of Fyodor Ivanovich, the last tsar from the Rurik family (January 6, 1598), and lasted until the election of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov to the tsar (February 21, 1613).

Here is all the terminology that you will need when passing the story - questions on terms are in parts A and B.

The material is great. For convenience, all terms are arranged not only in alphabetical order, but also in accordance with the chronological period.

Empire style - a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, the Empire style incorporated the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.

Anarchists are a political philosophy that contains theories and views that advocate the elimination of any coercive rule and power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different directions of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from minor to fundamental (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, ethno-national issue). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.

Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore the monarchical Bourbon dynasty in France, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In the scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called "anti-revolutionary", starting with the third - "anti-Napoleonic". At various times, the coalitions included Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.

Great reforms of the 1860-1870s - the bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856), which began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). The great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), urban (1870), judicial (1864), military (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the field of finance, education, the press and affected all spheres of life in Russian society.

Military settlements - a special organization of the armed forces in 1810-1857, combining combat service with housekeeping. Some of the state peasants were transferred to the position of military settlers. The villagers combined agricultural labor with military service. It was supposed to eventually transfer the entire army to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment kits, rid the mass of state peasants from recruiting, turning them essentially into free people. Alexander I hoped in this way to take one more step towards the elimination of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulations, turned into hard labor. Settlements and A.A. Arakcheev evoked universal hatred. The villagers rebelled several times. The largest uprising was the uprising of the Chuguevsky and Taganrog settlements regiments in 1819.

The Eastern question is the designation of international contradictions in the 18th - early 20th centuries, accepted in diplomacy and historical literature, associated with the incipient collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.

Temporarily liable peasants - peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to fulfill their previous obligations in favor of the landowner before switching to ransom.

Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906 redemption by peasants from landowners of land allotments provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landowners the amount of ransom for the land, and the peasants, who were in debt to the state, had to pay off this debt in 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of the quitrent, which the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. The collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to collect more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, having received about 700 million rubles. income.

Gazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam, a holy war for the faith, against the infidels (non-believers in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).

The State Council is the highest legislative body. Reformed in January 1810 from the Permanent Council in accordance with the "Plan of State Reforms" M. M. Speransky. He did not have the legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted to him by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, the budget, reports of ministries, some higher administrative issues and special court cases).

The Decembrists are members of the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.

Clergy - ministers of worship in monotheistic religions; persons who are professionally involved in the administration of religious practices and services and constitute special corporations. In the Orthodox Church, the clergy is divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the 19th century - the privileged class of Russian society, exempt from corporal punishment, compulsory service and poll tax.

Westerners - the direction of Russian social thought in the mid-19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path, opposed the Slavophiles. Westerners fought against the "theory of official nationality", criticized serfdom and autocracy, and put forward a project to free the peasants from the land. The main representatives are V.P.Botkin, T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin and others.

Zemstvo movement is a liberal oppositional social and political activity of zemstvo vowels and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and attracting them to governing the state. It manifested itself in the filing of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, holding illegal meetings and congresses, publishing brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: "Beseda", "Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists", "Union of Liberation". Prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Peter D. Dolgorukovs, P.A. Geiden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of political parties of the Cadets and Octobrists, the Zemstvo movement ceased.

Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the zemstvo reform of 1864, they were in charge of education, health care, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and governors, who had the right to cancel the decisions of the zemstvo.

Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of the crop shares. It was a form of transition from feudal land lease to capitalist.

Imamat is the general name for a Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in the late. 20s XIX century. during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonialist policy of tsarism.

Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.

Counter-reforms of the 1880s - the name of the measures taken by the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s: the restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), the introduction of class principles in primary and secondary schools, the abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), the introduction of the institute zemstvo chiefs (1889), the establishment of bureaucratic tutelage over zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.

The gendarme corps is a police force that has a military organization and performs functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. the gendarme corps served as the political police.

The bourgeoisie - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917 the tax-paying estate of the former townspeople - artisans, small traders and homeowners. They united at the place of residence in communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, the law could be subject to corporal punishment.

Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegia. The aim of the reform was to reorganize the central government on the basis of the principle of one-man management. Initially, eight ministries were created: the Army (from 1815 - the Military), the Naval Forces (from 1815 - the Naval), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also under Alexander I, there was the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or several comrades (deputies).

Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the highlanders of the North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of Muridism was its combination of religious doctrine and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against “infidels” (ie non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism assumed the complete and unquestioning submission of its followers to their mentors - the Murshids. Muridism was headed by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave great organization to the struggle of the Caucasian mountaineers.

The Narodniks are representatives of the ideological trend among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the standpoint of "peasant socialism" against serfdom and the capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal populists ). The founders: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of "peasant socialism"), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious tendency), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda tendency), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial tendency). Revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the party of socialist-revolutionaries (SRs).

Neo-Russian style is a trend in Russian architecture of the late 19th century. - 1910s., Using the motives of Old Russian architecture with the aim of reviving the national identity of Russian culture. It is characterized not by exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by the generalization of motives, creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style make it possible to consider it as a national-romantic trend within the framework of the Art Nouveau style. V.M. Vasnetsov (the facade of the Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F.O.Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky Station, 1902-1904), A.V. Shchusev (Cathedral of the Martha-Mariinsky Convent, 1908-1912) worked in this style.

Nihilism - in the 1860s current in Russian social thought, which denied the traditions and foundations of the noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.

The Patriotic War of 1812 - Russia's liberation war against the army of Napoleon I. It was caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, and Russia's refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.

Working off - in post-reform Russia the system of peasants cultivating landlord land with their own implements for leased land (mainly for land plots), loans with bread, money, etc. A relic of the corvée economy.

Sections - a part of the peasant allotments that went to the landowners as a result of the reform of 1861 (the allotments were reduced if their size exceeded the norm established for a given area).

Peredvizhniki - artists who were part of the Russian art association - the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. We turned to the image Everyday life and the history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, exposure of social order. I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov became the ideological leaders of the Itinerants. The main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; among the Itinerants were also artists from Ukraine, Lithuania, Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Itinerants entered the AHRR.

Petrashevsky - participants in the evenings held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, they discussed the problems of reorganizing autocratic politics and serfdom. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the members of the circle were the writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to seek the implementation of their plans by force, for which to create a secret society and organize the issuance of proclamations. However, it was not possible to accomplish what was planned. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of the execution, she was replaced by hard labor. The convicted Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.

Captive filing - in Russia XVI II-XIX centuries the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced the household taxation. The poll tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age.

Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual to machine labor and, accordingly, from manufacture to factory. Requires a developed market for free labor, therefore, in a feudal country, it cannot be fully accomplished.

Raznochintsy - people from different classes: clergy, peasantry, merchants, philistines - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, bearers of revolutionary democratic views.

Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality by specific means inherent in one or another type of artistic creation. In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes on specific forms of certain creative methods (educational realism, critical, socialist).

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic trend in the culture of the late 18th - 1st half. XIX century. Reflecting disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism opposed the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with the striving for unlimited freedom, the thirst for perfection and renewal, the idea of ​​personal and civil independence. The agonizing discord between a fictional ideal and a harsh reality is at the heart of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often - its idealization), the traditions of folklore and culture of their own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, visual arts).

The Russian Empire is the name of the Russian state from 1721 to 09/01/1917.

The Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (otherwise - neo-Russian, false-Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and is a synthesis of the traditions of Old Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements of Byzantine culture. Russian-Byzantine architecture is characterized by the borrowing of a number of compositional techniques and motifs of Byzantine architecture, most vividly embodied in the “exemplary projects” of the churches of Constantine Ton in the 1840s. Within the framework of this direction, Ton built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.

Holy Alliance - an agreement concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative to create the Holy Alliance belonged to the Russian Emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain, joined this treaty. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. The Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Union developed the principle of interference in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of violently suppressing any national and revolutionary movements.

Slavophiles are representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, proceeding from the position of the fundamental difference between Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia's mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They polemicized both with the Westerners and with the "theory of official nationality." Unlike the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nicholas autocracy and others. The main representatives: the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, AI Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, AS Khomyakov.

Estates are social groups that have rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The class organization of society, which usually includes several classes, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia, from the second half of the 18th century. the class division into the nobility, the clergy, the peasantry, the merchant class, and the bourgeoisie was established. The estates in Russia were officially abolished in 1917.

Social Democrats are a trend in the socialist and workers' movement, advocating the transition to a socially just society by reforming the bourgeois one. In the Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. the most widespread was Marxism. In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group was created in Geneva (V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deich, V.N. Ignatov, G.V. Plekhanov), whose main task is its members considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP (b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP (b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The theory of the official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on the conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education S. S. Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.

Specific peasants - a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia in the late 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on specific lands and belonged to the imperial family. Obligations were carried out mainly in the form of a quitrent. In 1863, the main provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the specific peasants, and they received a part of the specific lands in their ownership for the obligatory redemption.

The factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and the division of labor.

“Going to the People” is a mass movement of radical populist youth to the countryside, aimed at promoting socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of ​​"going to the people" belongs to A. I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the "Kolokol", addressed this appeal to the students. It began in the spring of 1873, and reached its greatest scope in the spring and summer of 1874 (it covered 37 provinces of Russia). The "Lavristi" aimed at promoting the ideas of socialism, the "Bakuninists" tried to organize massive anti-government protests. By November 1874, over 4 thousand people were arrested, the most active participants were convicted.

Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and the media with the aim of suppressing undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, since 1804 it was regulated by censorship charters and temporary rules.

Menshevism - arose at the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after the opponents of Lenin's principles of building the party were in the minority during the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, formally they were together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the bulk of the Mensheviks took the position of social-chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became participants in the struggle against Soviet power.

The World of Art is a Russian art association. It took shape in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers headed by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the World of Art magazine in original form existed before 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910 most of the masters “M. and." was a member of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. and." included many Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya.Bilibin, A. Ya.Golovin, I.E. Grabar, K. A. Korovin, B. M. Kustodiev, N. K. Roerich, V. A. Serov and etc.). MA Vrubel, II Levitan, MV Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists took part in the exhibitions of the World of Art.

Modernism (from the French "newest, modern") - the general name of trends in literature and art late XIX-XX centuries (cubism, avant-garde, surrealism, dada, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to reflecting being.

Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.), privately owned (individual, group or joint-stock) and exercising control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital for the purpose of establishing monopoly prices and extracting monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 g.) in the mining industry. In total, during this period, there were about 200 monopolies in Russia.

The Octobrists are members of the right-wing liberal party “Union of October 17”. It was formed by 1906. The name is from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. She spoke out with a demand for popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number, together with the adjoining groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper "Slovo", "Voice of Moscow" and others, more than 50 in total. The largest faction in the 3rd State Duma, alternately blocked with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 it ceased to exist.

The cut - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - is a peasant farm, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.

The Progressive Bloc - was created in August 1915 from the members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from the Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives) in order to put pressure on the government. The association was headed by the left Octobrist S. I. Shidlovsky, but the actual leader was the leader of the Cadets P. N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, a declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published demanding a renewal of the composition of local government bodies, an end to persecution for the faith, the release of some categories of political prisoners, the restoration of trade unions, etc. The main goal of the bloc was to create a government of "public trust" from among representatives of the administration and Duma leaders in order to lead the country out of the difficult political and economic situation in which it found itself in the conditions of the First World War, to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.

A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of socio-political conditions for a revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis of the top,” that is, the impossibility of representatives of the authorities to maintain their dominance in an unchanged form, while it is necessary that the “top” themselves cannot live in the old way; the exacerbation, above the usual, of the needs and calamities of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation in the late 50s and early 60s. XIX century. was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the exacerbation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. It culminated in the years 1880-1881. In the conditions of the ensuing reaction after the murder of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. The revolutionary situation at the beginning of the XX century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution because of the outbreak of World War I. The revolutionary situation in 1916-1917 poured into the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.

Russian Seasons Abroad - performances by Russian opera and ballet companies organized by S.P.Dyagilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. They contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term stuck, became a household name to denote the success of Russian cultural and art workers abroad.

Symbolism is a trend in European and Russian art in 1870-1910. Focuses primarily on artistic expression through symbolism. In an effort to break through visible reality to “hidden realities”, the supertemporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the Symbolists expressed rejection of bourgeois and positivism, longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic foreboding of world social shifts, trust in age-old cultural values ​​as a unifying principle. Main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valerie, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Viach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M.K. Churlionis, M. Vrubel and others.

A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. The members of the syndicate retain production, but lose their commercial independence.

Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council was in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies of leadership and coordination of the workers' struggle for their rights in the localities. On an incomparably wider scale, the Soviets revived during the February (1917) revolution and until June 1917 acted as a “second” power opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies operated. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were the representative bodies of state power in the center and at the local level in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 - in Russian Federation(from 1936 to 1977 - Soviets of Working People's Deputies, since 1977 - Soviets of People's Deputies). Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies (until 1991) has become the supreme body of state power. A distinctive feature of the Soviets was the inseparability of the legislative and executive powers.

The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land ownership, which marked the turn of the agrarian-political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of Internal Affairs and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P.A.Stolypin (1862-1911) ... Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of 11/9/1906), strengthening of the Peasant Bank, compulsory land management (laws of 6/14/1910 and 05/29/1911) and resettlement policy were aimed at eliminating land shortages while preserving landlord ownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, the creation of an additional support of power among the well-to-do peasant stratum. The reform was thwarted after the assassination of P.A.Stolypin by the Socialist-Revolutionary D. Bogrov.

A trust is a form of monopoly in which the members of an association lose their production and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.

Third June coup - dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and amendments to the electoral law. Considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.

The Triple Alliance is a military-political bloc of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. In 1915, Italy and Turkey joined.

Trudoviks are a faction of peasant deputies and the populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program was close to the program of the People's Socialist Party, and included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of the landlords' lands. The print organ is the Trudovy Narod newspaper. In June 1917 merged with the People's Socialists

A farm - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - is an economy that was separated from the community along with land and a house. It was privately owned.

The Black Hundreds (from the Old Russian “Black Hundred” - a heavy settlement population) are members of the extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, who spoke under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism (“The Union of the Russian People”, “The Union of Archangel Michael”, “Unions of Russians people ”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the years of the revolution of 1905-1907, they supported the repressive policy of the government, staged pogroms, organized the murders of a number of political figures. After February revolution 1917 the activities of the Black Hundred organizations were banned.

The Social Revolutionaries (Social Revolutionaries) are a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. The leader is V.M. Chernov. The tactics are political terror. The Left SRs were a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917 the left wing of the SRs). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Nathanson. Newspapers "Land and Freedom" and "Znamya Truda". They took part in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). Since the beginning of 1918, opponents of the Brest Peace, the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918, an armed uprising was organized, which was suppressed. Separate groups of Left SRs operated in the Ukraine, the Far East, and Turkestan. In 1923 they ceased operations.

1917-1920

Annexation (from Latin “annexation”) is the forcible seizure of a part of the territory of a defeated state by the winner.

White movement is a collective name for political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed Soviet power during the Civil War. The origin of the term is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of the supporters of the rule of law. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M. V. Alekseev, P. N. Wrangel, A. I. Denikin, A. V. Kolchak, L. G. Kornilov, E. K. Miller, N. N. Yudenich).

White is the name of the opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the Civil War.

The Military Revolutionary Committee is the organ of the Petrograd Soviet for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulation on the PVRC was approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrosovet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks; there were also Left Socialist-Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the highest emergency body of state power. Disbanded in December 1917.

The Provisional Government is the central organ of state power, formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. It existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to November 25 (November 7), 1917. It was created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma in 1917 and the Socialist-Revolutionary Menshevik leadership of the Petrograd Soviet. He was the supreme executive and administrative body, and also performed legislative functions. The provincial and district commissars were the local authorities of the provisional government.

Second coalition. Provisional government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for the capitalists and 7 for the socialists) July 24 (August 6) - August 26 (September 8) 1917

Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) - May 2 (15) 1917

The first coalition Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for the capitalists and 6 for the socialists) 5 (18) May - 2 (15) July 1917

Third coalition. Provisional government A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for the socialists and 6 seats for the capitalists) September 25 (October 8) - October 25 (November 7).

After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the deputy capitalist ministers who remained at large, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. On the basis of a forged protocol of August 17 (30), the self-proclaimed Provisional Government issued orders against the Soviet government, received from the State Bank up to 40 million rubles, of which it paid salaries to officials-saboteurs. The underground Provisional Government “acted” until November 16 (29), 1917

The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - workers', peasants' and Cossack's deputies) - the body that carried out the general leadership of the Soviets in the interval between the congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the I Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was formed at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, the Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 are Left Social Revolutionaries). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks were elected, 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Social Revolutionaries). Since the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties in the All-Russian Central Executive Committee have not been elected. In January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, the people's commissariats to manage individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 - Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 - M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.

VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-revolution, speculation and ex officio crimes; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (decree of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, "in connection with the transition to peaceful construction" V.I. Lenin proposed to reorganize the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By a decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into the State Political Administration (GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.

Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. In the course of the war, the problem of power is being solved, which, in turn, should provide a solution to the main life issues facing the warring parties.

Dual power - the simultaneous existence of two powers in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917.After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation developed in Russia: two bodies of power were simultaneously created - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Advice. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of the dual power. The period of the struggle between two dictatorships for autocracy.

Decree (from Lat. “Resolution”) is a normative legal act issued by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees, which were adopted by the congresses of the Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, "Decrees are instructions calling for a mass practical cause."

The dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the elimination of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, necessary condition and the main result of her victory. The proletariat uses its power to suppress the resistance of the exploiters and destroy them completely; then power is used for revolutionary transformations in all spheres of social life: economy, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of the working people and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry under the leading role of the working class .. In 1917, after the October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the form of Soviets.

Intervention (from Lat. "Invasion") - the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Modern international law considers intervention as an offense. The intervention can be both military and economic, ideological, carried out in other forms.

"Greens" - the name in Russia during the Civil War, hiding in the forests of the people who avoided military service... Liquidated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.

Contribution (from Lat. “To collect”) - money or other material values ​​collected from a defeated state by the victorious state after the war, as well as compulsory monetary levies levied by the authorities from the population in the occupied territory.

Confiscation (from Lat. "Take away to the treasury") - seizure by compulsory means, without compensation by the state of the property of a private person. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, landowners' lands, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.

The Kornilov mutiny is an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army of the General Staff, General of Infantry L.G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.

The Red Guard attack on capital is a term that characterizes the methods of implementing the socio-economic measures of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of direct expropriation of the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legalized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, merchant marine, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.

Red is a generalized name for supporters of the Bolsheviks, defenders of Soviet power during the Civil War and military intervention... In a broad sense, it is applied in relation to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.

Educational program - the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Mass campaign to educate adults in the basics of literacy in the 1920s – 1930s. As a result of the campaign by the end of the 30s. the literacy rate in the USSR has reached 90%.

Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy to the ownership of the state.

Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. They were created by the organs of the People's Commissariat of Food (part of the Food Army), trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets (procurement, harvesting, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; the governing body is the Military Food Bureau of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions). We carried out surplus appropriation in the countryside; acted in conjunction with the commissaires, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the seized bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.

Prodrazvorstka - a system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism", established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Obligatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. It caused discontent among the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.

Rabfak is a working faculty. In 1919-1940. a general educational institution in the USSR for the preparation of young people who did not have a secondary education in higher educational institutions; were created at universities (training 3 years in daytime, 4 years in evening).

Reparations - compensation by a defeated state of damage to the victorious state.

Sabotage is the deliberate failure to perform duties or their negligent fulfillment.

Council of People's Commissars - Council of People's Commissars (SNK), the highest executive and administrative body of state power, the government of the Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8) 1917. Until his death, he was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (transformed into the Council of Ministers in 1946).

The communist clean-up day is voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday 12.4.1919 at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first massive subbotnik on 05/10/1919 on the Moscow-Kazan railway. They spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, All-Union Leninist communist subbotniks have been held.

Terror (from Lat. “Fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to physical destruction.

The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, designed to establish the form of government and develop a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917 and met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd, and after 13 hours of work it was closed at the request of the guard.

Emigration (from Lat. “To move, move out”) - leaving the country associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of a given state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, for the purpose of temporary or permanent settlement on the territory of a foreign state. States may permit the restoration of citizenship to expatriates.

1920-1930

Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR with the rights of autonomies, which would violate their independence and equality.

Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is in the hands of one person or a group of persons. Authoritarianism is characterized by complete or partial absence of political freedoms citizens, restricting the activities of parties and organizations.

Antonovshchina - peasant movement of 1920-1921 in the Tambov province, directed against the Soviet regime and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the forces of the Red Army, sometimes even with the use of gas attacks. In June 1922 Antonov was killed. The abolition of food appropriation in 1921 significantly reduced the number of disgruntled peasants.

“The Great Turning Point” is an expression of Stalin, with which he characterized the policy of forced industrialization and collectivization of agriculture, begun in the late 1920s in the USSR.

GOELRO (abbreviated from the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia) is the first unified state long-term plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V.I. Lenin by the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years, provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy on the basis of electrification. Mainly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO is the Volkhovskaya HPP in the Leningrad Region.

GULAG - Main Directorate of Forced Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention), in 1934-1956 a division of the NKVD (Ministry of Internal Affairs), which was in charge of the system of forced labor camps (ITL). Special directorates of the GULAG united many ITL in different regions of the country: Karaganda ITL (Karlag), Dalstroy of the NKVD / USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs, Solovetsky ITL (USLON), Belomorsko-Baltic ITL and the NKVD combine, Vorkuta ITL, Norilsk ITL, etc. conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violations of the regime, mortality from hunger, disease and overwork... The prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, Far East and other regions.

Twenty-five-thousanders - workers industrial centers USSR, who went to the countryside at the call of the Bolshevik Party for economic and organizational work in the early 1930s during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. By the resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, it was envisaged to send 25 thousand people, in fact, 27.6 thousand people went.

Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has developed successfully since the late 19th - early 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (from the end of the 1920s), industrialization was forcibly carried out by a totalitarian regime by violent methods due to a sharp restriction of the standard of living of the majority of the population, the exploitation of the peasantry.

Collectivization - the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a programmatic installation of the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st five-year plan (1928/29 - 1932/33). By the end of 1932, it was largely completed. By 1936, the collective farm system was fully formed.

A collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the period of collectivization in the late 1920s and early 1930s. XX century They managed the economy on state land assigned to K. for the so-called perpetual use. The highest governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects the board, headed by the chairman, for the most part a protege of local party bodies, district and regional party committees. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the colonies had by that time been transformed into state state farms.

The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from different countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with the center in Moscow, in essence became an instrument for the implementation of the idea of ​​a world revolution. Higher bodies: Congress (the last 7th Congress was held in 1935), the Executive Committee (a permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor to the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the end of the 20s. the Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of ​​a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, JV Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Sotsintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Concession (from Lat. "Permission, concession") - an agreement on the transfer into operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic objects owned by the state; an agreement for the leasing of enterprises or land plots with the right to production activities to foreign firms, the enterprise itself, organized on the basis of such an agreement.

The cult of personality is a policy that exalts one person, characteristic mainly of a totalitarian regime and propagandizing the exclusivity of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.

The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. XX century, component socialist transformations. The cultural revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.

The League of Nations is an international organization, established in 1919. The official goal is to develop international cooperation, guarantee peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. It was expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.

Peaceful coexistence is a type of relations between states with different social systems, which presupposes the rejection of war as a means of resolving controversial issues, their settlement through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition for each people of the right to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.

NEP (New Economic Policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed by 1920 in the Soviet republic. The highest point of dissatisfaction with the current policy of "War Communism" was the Kronstadt mutiny. At the X Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin's allotment of food was replaced by a smaller in-kind tax. The main elements of this policy are: progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 tax in kind), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to lease and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, abolition of the rationing system and rationed supply, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the new economic policy was curtailed.

The opposition is an organized group opposing the ruling elite in terms of assessments, programs and policies. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and intraparty.

The tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 to replace the food appropriation system, was the first act of the new economic policy. Charged from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (much lower than the surplus appropriation), taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by the uniform agricultural tax.

The five-year plan is the period for which the centralized planning of the economy in the Soviet Union was carried out. Five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, at the XXI Congress of the CPSU, a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965 was adopted. In the future, the five-year plans were again adopted. The last, thirteenth Five-year plan was calculated for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a decentralized market economy.

Repressions are coercive measures of state influence, including various types of punishments and legal restrictions, applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of persons. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (red terror, decossackization). With the onset of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, the repressions acquired a massive character. They reached particular scope in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to the Gulag camps on charges of political crimes. Political repression continued with varying degrees of intensity until Stalin's death in March 1953.

Socialist realism is a creative method of literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries with a socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of the socialistically conscious concept of the world and man, the depiction of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. It was formed initially at the beginning of the XX century. in the works of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, partisanship and humanism. The sculpture "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" by V. Mukhina became the symbol of socialist realism.

The Stakhanov movement is a movement of workers in the USSR for an increase in labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of Donbass, and then spread to other industries, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A.G. Stakhanov.

Totalitarianism (from Lat. “All, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, the all-encompassing control of the state over all spheres of society.

Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political trends in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, associated the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921. During the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of "war communism", for the nationalization and militarization of trade unions. Much of what they promoted was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion 1923-1924. the Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of internal party relations, the expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy, proclaimed the slogans of "dictatorship of industry", "overindustrialization". The 13th Party Conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP (b). The 15th Party Congress in 1927 declared membership in Trotskyism incompatible with membership in the Party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political trend in the RCP (b) ceased to exist in connection with the expulsion of Leon Trotsky abroad, but much later the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious in the years of Stalinist repressions.

Shock worker - a Soviet concept that originated in the first five-year plans, denoting an employee demonstrating increased labor productivity The shock worker movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the shock workers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as an example to follow (miner Alexei Stakhanov, locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor operator Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies power, etc. The attitude to shock labor and shock workers among Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activity aroused respect. On the other hand, an increase in the productivity of some workers soon negatively affected the earnings of others, since the established production rates naturally increased, and the rates of wages fell.

Federation (from Latin “union, association”) is a form of government in which federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, uniform federal (union) bodies of state power are formed, a single citizenship, monetary unit, etc. is established.

Cost accounting (cost accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on comparing the costs of an enterprise for the production of products with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of costs and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, each worker in the fulfillment of planned targets, economical use of resources. In fact, it means admitting the principles of a market economy into a socialist planned regulated production.

1941-1945

The anti-Hitler coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against an aggressive bloc of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The beginning of the creation of the coalition dates back to June 1941, when the governments of England and the United States made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by fascist Germany... By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, the USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, New Zealand, etc. Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.

Blitzkrieg is a theory of a fleeting war with the achievement of victory in the shortest possible time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.

Blockade - encirclement by armed forces of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base from land, sea or air in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating any state politically or economically, to put pressure on him.

The Great Patriotic War was a war of the Soviet people against Hitlerite Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name "Great Patriotic War" began to be used in the Russian-speaking tradition after the radio address of I. Stalin on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people in the course of the battles, as well as the brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.

The second front is the front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was opened by the United States and Great Britain in June 1944 with a landing in Normandy (France).

Genocide is the destruction of certain groups of the population for racial, national or religious reasons.

Deportation (from the Latin "exile") - during the period of mass repressions, the expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were evicted. In 1989, a Declaration was adopted on the recognition of illegal and criminal acts of repression against peoples subjected to forced resettlement.

The rationing system is a system for supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To buy a product, it was necessary not only to pay money for it, but also to present a one-time voucher giving the right to purchase it. The cards (coupons) established certain norms for the consumption of goods per person per month, therefore such a system was also called rationed distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917, they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the rationing system took place in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The rationing system was again introduced in the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, finally canceled in December 1947. A new and last wave of normalized distribution in the USSR (coupon system) begins in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage ... Has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, due to the "vacation" of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.

A radical turning point in the course of the war - strategic and political changes in the course of hostilities, such as: the transfer of strategic initiative from one belligerent side to another; ensuring reliable superiority of the defense industry and the logistics economy as a whole; achievement of military-technical superiority in supplying the active army the latest types weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of power in the international arena.

Lend-Lease is a system of loaning or renting weapons, ammunition, food, medicine, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US spending on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 was $ 46 billion. The volume of supplies from the British Empire amounted to over $ 30 billion (% of the loan was 472 million) to the Soviet Union $ 10 billion (% of the loan was $ 1.3 billion).

The occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany as a result of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. To manage the Soviet zone, a Soviet military administration was established in Germany. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.

Occupation (from Lat. "Seizure") - the temporary seizure of someone else's territory by military force without legal rights to it.

A guerrilla movement is a type of people's struggle for freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformations, which is waged on territory occupied by the enemy, while the armed core relies on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. It manifests itself in the form of warfare, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded on the territory of the USSR occupied by the Nazis. Strategic leadership was carried out by the Headquarters through the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. The partisan detachments and formations numbered over 1 million people. The partisans liberated entire areas, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.

Underground - illegal organizations fighting against the invaders in the occupied territories. "Young Guard" - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovo underground in 1941-1942 in the Kaluga region.

"Rail War" - the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy's railway communications in the occupied territories of Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and part of Ukraine.

Evacuation (from Lat. "Empty, remove") - the withdrawal of troops, military property or the population during a war, natural disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding the terrain during hydraulic construction ).

1945-1991

Corporatization is a way of privatizing state and municipal enterprises by transforming them into open joint stock companies. It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.

Lease contract - forms of organization and remuneration of employees of leased collectives within enterprises. A work contract is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, according to which the leasing team undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise a certain amount of products at intra-farm prices and tariffs. He has the right to dispose of the products produced in excess of this volume on his own. Lease contract form. became widespread in the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).

The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between the two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between The Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in the history of mankind when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only a few, often small and insignificant from a strategic point of view, states that declared their neutrality.

Military-strategic parity - equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.

Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and opportunities. Accusations of subjectivity and voluntarism were brought against N. S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, which led to his resignation.

The military-industrial complex is a military-industrial complex, the designation (owned by D. Eisenhower) of the alliance of the military industry, the army and related parts of the state apparatus and science.

Glasnost is a concept developed by domestic political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of state bodies.

GKChP - State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR, was created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of the authorities who disagreed with the reform policy of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of a new Union Treaty. The GKChP includes: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, Chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasant Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association of State Enterprises and Industrial Facilities, Construction, Transport and Communications of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, vice-president of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were brought into large cities, almost all television programs were stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations, opposition CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the State Emergency Committee showed indecision. In this situation, the President of the Russian Federation B.N. Yeltsin was most active. He called on all citizens for disobedience and a general strike. The center of resistance to the Emergency Committee was the White House, the building of the Russian government. Within three days, it became clear that the public did not support the speech of the State Emergency Committee (putsch). The GKChP members went to Crimea to M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under Article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason to the Motherland) in the GKChP case. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt, undertaken by the State Emergency Committee, hastened the process of the collapse of the USSR.

Demilitarization - disarmament, the prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, the withdrawal of troops and military equipment, the conversion of military industries.

Monetary reform - changes carried out by the state in the field of monetary circulation, as a rule, aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, a monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same rate. The 1991 monetary reform in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - after the name of the USSR Prime Minister Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.

De-Stalinization is the debunking of the Stalin personality cult and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of governing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the personality cult of I.V. Stalin. After Malenkov's displacement, the process of de-Stalinization continues by N. S. Khrushchev, who made a report “On overcoming the personality cult and its consequences” at a closed meeting of the XX Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the rehabilitation process fades. A new wave of de-Stalinization begins during the period of perestroika.

Dissidents are “dissidents”. The name of the participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. Dissidents in various forms advocated the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights activists), against the persecution of dissent, protested against the introduction of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were repressed by the authorities.

“Iron Curtain” - after the speech of W. Churchill in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression “iron curtain” began to be used to refer to the “wall” dividing capitalism and socialism.

Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, spanning approximately two decades (1964-1982). In official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.

The Cuban Missile Crisis is an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment of American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as to the threat of an invasion of Cuba by American troops. The most acute crisis, which put the world on the brink of nuclear war, was eliminated due to the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (headed by N. S. Khrushchev) and the United States (headed by President J. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles. weapons. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the abolition of quarantine and the refusal to invade Cuba; the withdrawal of American missiles from Turkey and Italy was also announced in confidence.

Cooperation is a form of work organization in which a significant number of people jointly participate in one or different, but interconnected in labor processes, as well as a set of organizationally formalized voluntary associations of mutual assistance of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas of the economy. Based on a share participation.

“Cosmopolitanism” (from the Greek “citizen of the world”) is the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of national patriotism. Rejection of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. " common human values”. The campaign against cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in post-war years... They were accused of being apolitical and lack of ideas, “servility to the West”. It turned into a rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.

“Lysenkovschina” is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, denial of genetics and a temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from about the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I. V. Stalin, T. D. Lysenko (who eventually became a symbol of the campaign) and many others.

A multiparty system is a political system in which there can be many political parties that theoretically have equal chances of winning a majority of seats in the country's parliament. Begins to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the third Congress of People's Deputies abolished the 6th article of the Constitution, which consolidated the leading role of the CPSU.

New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which provided for: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposite socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; proclamation of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; declaring not the balance of forces of the two systems, but the balance of their interests as a universal way of solving international issues; rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and recognition of the priority of universal human values ​​over class, national, ideological, etc. It led to the end of the Cold War.

Nomenclature - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum that dominates the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenclature: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.

Scientific and technological revolution (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces on the basis of the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and a direct productive force. It began in the middle of the XX century. It sharply accelerates scientific and technological progress, has an impact on all aspects of society.

“Thaw” is a common designation for the changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that took shape after the death of I. V. Stalin (1953). The term "thaw" goes back to the title of the story by IG Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned the personality cult of Stalin. The Thaw contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, the positive shifts in the mid-50s. did not receive further development.

Passport regime is one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons in the types of state security protection. By observing their own nationals and foreigners arriving, the authorities may require them to provide identification, as well as proof that they are not dangerous to the peace of the state. Official documents proving the identity of a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, place of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. By the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968, new rules for registration and discharge of citizens in rural areas were introduced.

Perestroika is the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev, etc.) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, due to conflicting efforts, created the preconditions for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Human rights defenders are persons who criticized the vices of the socialist system in the USSR, spoke out against the violation of human rights, suggested ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system of the USSR. The human rights movement operated in the 60s - 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal bulletin in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. The members of the movement were subjected to brutal repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of the restructuring

A coup is a coup d'état by a group of conspirators, an attempt at a similar coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term, the attempt of the State Emergency Committee to remove the President of the USSR M. Gorbachev from power, contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.

Easing international tension - improving relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-70s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the United States recognizing the inviolable post-war borders in Europe, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed

Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) in rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform pursued the goal of getting rid of the excess money supply in cash circulation and at least partially solving the problem of the deficit in the USSR commodity market

Market economy is a socio-economic system that develops on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. The market economy is based on the principles of free enterprise and choice. Resource allocation, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of the market economy, to a large extent ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, a certain degree of government intervention is carried out in the economic systems of developed countries (provision of general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, implementation of social protection measures, etc.).

Samizdat is a method of illegal distribution of literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge and permission of official bodies, as a rule, by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers and others.

The CIS, the Commonwealth of Independent States is an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Establishment of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR in the conditions of a deep crisis and disintegration ceases to exist, declared their desire to develop cooperation in the political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan joined the Agreement and signed, together with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine in Alma-Ata, the Declaration on the Purposes and Principles of the CIS. Later, Georgia joined the CIS. In 1993, the CIS Charter was adopted, which determined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: Council of Heads of State, Council of Heads of Government, Council of Foreign Ministers, Interstate Economic Council, Interparliamentary Assembly centered in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordination and Consultative Committee in Minsk.

The economic councils are territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of branch ministries.

The shadow economy is a term for all types of economic activity that are not included in official statistics and are not included in GNP.

Commodity shortage - shortage, shortage; goods that are not in sufficient quantity.

The Helsinki Process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The beginning of the Helsinki process was laid by the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975)

The Cold War is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 40s to 1991. The Cold War is characterized by a confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the United States, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres with the use of psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.

The sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the “sixties” were the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the “thaw”.

1992–…

A share is an equity security that gives the owner the right to receive income, dividends, depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.

Exchange - an institution in which the sale and purchase of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or bulk goods sold by samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; the building where exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first exchange was established in 1703 in St. Petersburg.

The Near Abroad is a collective name that emerged in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltic states). The term is more of a historical and cultural nature than geographic. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad, there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states directly bordering with it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, PRC, DPRK).

Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994 a state security (bearer) of a target purpose with a specified par value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other property objects (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.

Devaluation - an official decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit or a depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or any national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.

Default - the economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the worst economic crises in the history of Russia. The main reasons for the default were: the huge national debt of Russia generated by the collapse of Asian economies, the liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials that formed the basis of Russian exports, and populist economic policy of the state and construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual date of default is August 17, 1998. Its consequences have seriously affected the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The ruble's exchange rate against the dollar fell more than 3 times in six months - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The confidence of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. A large number of small businesses went bankrupt, and many banks collapsed. The banking system was in collapse for at least six months. The population has lost a significant part of their savings, the standard of living has dropped. However, the devaluation of the ruble allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.

Impeachment (from the English. "Censure, accusation") - a special procedure for bringing to justice (through the lower house of parliament) senior officials.

Conversion - the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of peaceful products.

Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and powers entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and the growth of resources of influence. The result of corruption is the degradation of power, the increase in crime.

Liberalization of prices is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted in the refusal of state regulation prices for most of the goods (since 1992)

Nanotechnology is the technology of objects with dimensions of the order of 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes atomic assembly of molecules, new methods of recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions on molecular level and etc.

National projects are a program for the growth of “human capital” in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. The head of state singled out the following as priority areas of “investment in people”: health care; education; housing; Agriculture.

A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, the president holds supreme power. The president can be elected by popular vote, parliament or any institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). After being elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled or re-elected without extraordinary circumstances stipulated by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the President has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after, as a result of general elections or the prevailing political environment, the balance of power in parliament has changed in favor of opposition to the President, his election program and political course. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy proclaimed by him, the president, on the basis of the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures stipulated by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government took shape in the Russian Federation after the October 1993 crisis.

Privatization is the transfer or sale of a part of state property to private ownership.

Separation of powers - feature the rule of law, based on the principle of delimitation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.

A referendum (lat. Referendum - what must be communicated) is a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.

The Federation Council - according to the 1993 Constitution, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.

Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, parliament is a representative and legislative body. Consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

"Shock therapy" is a course towards improving the economy through its accelerated transfer to the rails of a market economy. It was carried out by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N.Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar reforms).

Dictionary of Historical Terms and Concepts

Below is a glossary of history terms that you will need when passing the exam.

Terms are listed alphabetically from A to Z.

For a quick search, click Ctrl + F.

• Absolute monarchy, absolutism- a type of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. When absolutism is achieved highest degree centralization, a standing army and police are created, an extensive bureaucratic apparatus. The activity of the estate-representative bodies, as a rule, ceases. The heyday of absolutism in Russia fell on the XVIII-XIX centuries.
• Autonomization- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin's proposal to include independent Soviet republics into the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy rights.
• Excise tax(lat. cut off) - a type of indirect tax on the consumption of goods produced by domestic private enterprises. Included in the price of the product. It existed in Russia until 1917.
• Anarchism(Greek. anarchy) - a socio-political trend advocating the destruction of any state power. In the XIX century. the ideas of anarchism were adopted by revolutionary populism. Later, Russian anarchism manifested itself during the revolution of 1905-1907. and during the Civil War.
• Annexation(lat. accession) - the forcible seizure by one state of all or part of the territory belonging to another state or nationality.
• Anti-semitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.
• "Arakcheevschina"- the internal political course of the autocracy in the last decade (1815-1825) of the reign of Alexander I. Named after the emperor's confidant - A.A. Arakcheeva. This period was characterized by the desire to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of life of Russian society: the planting of military settlements, the tightening of discipline in the army, the intensification of the persecution of education and the press. Peter I. Women also took part in the assemblies.

• Corvee- free forced labor a dependent peasant who worked with his own implements in the feudal lord's economy for a plot of land received for use. In Russia, the existence of corvee is already recorded in Russian Pravda. It became widespread in the European part of Russia in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 19th century. It actually existed until 1917 in the form of a working-out system.
• Baskak- the representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Supervised by local authorities. In the Russian principalities in the second half of the XIII - early XIV century. - Horde tribute collector.
• White Guard- military formations that came out after the October Revolution against the power of the Bolsheviks. White was considered a symbol of "legal order". Military strength white movement - White Guard - an association of opponents of the Soviet regime (opposite of the Red Guard). It consisted mainly of the officers of the Russian army, headed by L.G. Kornilov, M.V. Alekseev, A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and others.
• White matter- the ideology and politics of the White Guard. It was an independent trend in the anti-Bolshevik movement. The movement began in the spring and summer of 1917, when there was a unification of forces that advocated "restoring order" in the country, and then the restoration of the monarchy in Russia. The role of dictator was nominated by L.G. Kornilov. After the victory of the October Revolution, the white movement formalized its political program, which included the national idea of ​​"one and indivisible" Russia, the primacy of the Orthodox Church, loyalty to historical "principles", but without a clear definition of the future state structure. At the first stage, the "democratic counter-revolution", represented by the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, took part in the white movement, but later the monarchist tendency with the idea of ​​restoring the monarchy became more and more apparent. The white movement failed to propose a program that would suit all forces dissatisfied with the Bolshevik regime. The disunity of forces in the white movement itself, the curtailment of foreign aid marked its end.
• "Bironovschina"- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), after the name of her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features of "Bironovism": political terror, omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, disrespect for Russian customs, harsh tax collection, drills in the army.
• Middle Duma- advice from those close to the Grand Duke, and then to the Tsar. Under Vasily III, 8-10 boyars were included in the Near Duma. In the middle of the XVI century. The Near Duma was actually the government of Ivan IV (Selected Rada). From the second half of the 17th century. especially trusted persons began to be favored "in the room" (hence the name - Secret Duma, Room Duma). At this time, the Near Duma was the mainstay of the tsar and in many respects opposed the Boyar Duma.
• Bolshevism- the ideological and political trend in Russian social democracy (Marxism), which took shape in 1903, Bolshevism was a continuation of the radical line in the revolutionary movement in Russia. The Bolsheviks advocated the transformation of society only with the help of revolution, denying the reformatory path of development. At the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, during the elections of the governing bodies, supporters of V.I. Lenin received the majority and began to be called the Bolsheviks. Their opponents, headed by L. Martov, who received the minority of votes, became Mensheviks. Bolshevism advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism. The revolutionary practice of the XX century. rejected many of the provisions of Bolshevism as utopian.
• Boyars- 1) the upper stratum of society in Russia in the X-XVII centuries. They occupied a leading position after the Grand Duke in government. 2) Since the XV century. - the highest rank among service people"For the fatherland" in the Russian state. Boyars held senior positions, headed orders, were voivods. The rite was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the liquidation of the Boyar Duma, the Boyar Duma - in Russia, the supreme council under the prince (since 1547 under the tsar) in the X-XVIII centuries. The legislative body discussed important issues of domestic and foreign policy.
• "Bulyginskaya duma"- developed in July 1905 by the Minister of Internal Affairs A.G. Bulygin (hence its name) the law on the establishment of the Duma - the highest legislative representative body - and the provision on elections to it, according to which the majority of the population (workers, military personnel, women, etc.) did not have voting rights. The convocation of the Bulygin Duma was disrupted by revolutionary events in October 1905.
• Bureaucracy(Greek. domination of the chancellery) - 1) The system of management, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which had specific functions. 2) A layer of people, officials associated with this system.

• Varangians(Normans, Vikings) - so in Russia they called the participants in the predatory campaigns - people from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes).
• "Great men of the Menaion"(monthly readings) - Russian church-literary monument of the 30-40s of the 16th century; monthly meeting biblical books, translated and original Russian lives, the works of the "church fathers", as well as literary works, including secular authors. The purpose of this meeting is to centralize the cult of Russian saints and expand the circle of reading church and secular literature.
• Rope- a territorial community in Ancient Rus and among the southern Slavs.
• Supreme Privy Council- the highest state institution in Russia in 1726-1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body under the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.
• Veche(old man Bern - council) - assembly of the people Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Russia. The first chronicle mentions of the Veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development was in the Russian cities of the second half of the 11th-12th centuries. In Novgorod, Pskov, Vyatka land, it was preserved until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. Veche resolved issues of war and peace, summoned princes, passed laws, concluded treaties with other lands, etc.
• Voivode- military leader, ruler among the Slavic peoples. In the Russian state, the term "voivode" meant the head of the princely squad or the head of the people's militia. Mentioned in Russian chronicles from the 10th century. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries. each of the regiments of the Russian army had one or more governors. The regimental commanders were liquidated by Peter I. In the middle of the 16th century. the post of city governors appeared, who headed the military and civil administration of the city and district. Since the beginning of the 17th century. voivods were introduced in all cities of Russia instead of city clerks and governors. governors were placed at the head of the provinces. In 1775, the post of governor was abolished.
• Courts-martial- emergency military judicial bodies introduced in Russia during the revolution of 1905-1907. and pursuing an expedited trial and immediate reprisal for anti-state activities. They also operated during the First World War.
• Military industrial committees- public organizations created in Russia during the First World War to assist the government in mobilizing industry for military needs.
• Military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857.The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and create a reserve of trained troops. Ultimately, the planting of military settlements was to lead to the elimination of recruiting. "Settled troops" were set up on the state (state) lands of the St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kherson provinces. Those who lived in the military settlements were engaged in drill service and agricultural work. In 1817-1826. the leadership of the military settlements was carried out by Count Arakcheev. Strict regulation of life, drill - all this made the life of the settlers very difficult and was the cause of armed uprisings: Chuguevsky (1819), Novgorod (1831), etc. In 1857, military settlements were abolished.
• "War communism"- a kind of economic and political system that took shape in the Soviet state during the Civil War (1918-1920). It was aimed at concentrating all the country's resources in the hands of the state. "War communism" was associated with the elimination of all market relations. Its main features: the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the transfer to martial law of defense plants and transport, the implementation of the principle of food dictatorship through the introduction of food appropriation and the prohibition of free trade, the naturalization of economic relations in conditions of depreciation of money, the introduction of labor service (since 1920 - universal) and the creation of labor armies. Some features of this policy resembled the classless society free from commodity-money relations, which the Marxists dreamed of. In 1921, "war communism" showed its inconsistency in the conditions of peaceful development of the country, which led to the abandonment of this policy and the transition to the NEP.
• Volosteli- in the Russian principalities from the XI century. and in the Russian state until the middle of the XVI century. an official in the countryside - rural municipality. Volostels exercised administrative, financial and judicial power.
• "Free plowmen"- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803. The condition for the release could be: a one-time ransom, ransom with payment by installments, working off a corvee. The landlords could free the peasants without ransom. By the middle of the XIX century. about 100 thousand male souls were freed. In 1848, free farmers were renamed into state peasants, who were settled on their own lands.
• Eastern question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations in the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the rise of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples, the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region. Russia managed to win a number of victories in the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Britain tried to weaken the influence of Russia and France in the Eastern question. The Eastern question became aggravated during the Crimean War (1853-1856). Russia was losing its positions in the division of the Turkish heritage, and Britain and France secured their dominant position in Turkey. As for Russia, despite the military successes in the Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878) and the signing of a victorious peace in San Stefano, she was forced to make concessions to the Western powers at the Berlin Congress. Since the end of the XIX century. and before Turkey's participation in the First World War on the German side, the Eastern question was part of international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. After Turkey's surrender in World War I, the Eastern question entered its final phase. The Ottoman Empire collapsed, the Lausanne Peace Treaty between Turkey and the Entente powers established new borders for the Turkish state.
• Patrimony(Fatherland - passed down from the father, sometimes from the grandfather) - the most ancient type of feudal land ownership. It arose in the Old Russian state as a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIV-XV centuries. was the dominant form of land tenure. Since the XV century. existed along with the estate. Differences between a fiefdom and an estate in the 17th century. gradually faded away. The final merger into one type of land ownership - the estate - was formalized by the decree of 1714 on single inheritance. Most of the monastic and church estates were liquidated in the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries.
• Temporarily liable peasants- the category of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom as a result of the reform of 1861, but not transferred to ransom. For the use of the land, these peasants bore obligations (sharecropping or quitrent) or paid the payments established by law. The term of the temporarily liable relationship has not been set. Having redeemed the allotment, temporarily liable persons passed into the category of landowners. But until that moment, the landowner was the trustee of the rural society. In 1881, a law was issued on the compulsory redemption of allotments for temporarily liable peasants. In some regions of Russia, temporarily liable relations remained until 1917.
• All-Russian market- the economic system, which has developed as a result of the specialization of farms in individual regions of the country in the production of certain types of products and the strengthening of commodity exchange between them. The all-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century. Fairs played a huge role in the formation of a single market.
• Second front- during the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the allies of the USSR in the anti-Hitler coalition in June 1944 by the landing in Normandy.
• Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861. For the redemption of land allotments from landlords, peasants were given a loan, which they had to repay in 49 years, paying 6% of the amount annually. The size of the redemption payments depended on the amount of the quitrent, which the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. The collection of payments ceased in 1907.

• Guard- the privileged (i.e., enjoying exclusive rights) part of the troops. In Russia, the guard was created by Peter I at the end of the 1890s. from the "amusing" troops - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - and bore at first the name of the tsarist, and from 1721 - imperial guard... After the death of Peter, thanks to its exceptional position in the army, it turned into a political force that played a significant role in the palace coups of the 18th century. Since the beginning of the XIX century. is losing its importance as a political force, while maintaining the status of privileged military units. It existed until the end of 1917. In the Great Patriotic War, from September 1941, the rank of guards units for the Armed Forces of the USSR was introduced.
• Hetman- the elected head of the registered Cossacks in the XVI-XVII centuries. Since 1648 - the ruler of Ukraine and the head of the Cossack army. From 1708 the hetman was appointed by the tsarist government. For a long time there were no such appointments, and from 1764 the hetmanate was abolished.
• Vowels- Elected deputies of zemstvo assemblies and city councils in Russia from the second half of the 19th century.
• City Council- a non-estate body of city government in Russia (1785-1917). She was engaged in improvement, health care and other city affairs. It was headed by the mayor.
• City government- the executive body of city government in Russia (1870-1917). Elected by the City Duma. The mayor was in charge of the council.
• Living room hundred- a corporation of privileged merchants in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries, the second in wealth and nobility after the “guests”. With the knowledge of the tsar, merchants from the settlement and peasants were enrolled in the Living Room Hundred. Their number sometimes reached 185, they were exempted from taxes and received other privileges. A hundred usually sent two elected representatives to the Zemsky Councils.
• The State Duma- a representative legislative institution of Russia from 1906 to 1917. Established by the Manifesto of Nicholas II of October 17, 1905. The Duma was in charge of legislative proposals, consideration of the state budget, reports of state control over its implementation and a number of other issues. Bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after approval by the State Council and approval by the emperor. She was elected for a term of 5 years. During the existence of this body of power, there were four Duma convocations: I State Duma (April - July 1906); II (February-June 1907); III (November 1907 - June 1912); IV (November 1912 - October 1917). The 1993 Russian Constitution revived the State Duma, giving the name to the lower house of the Federal Assembly. This emphasizes the continuity of the legislature. modern Russia with the pre-revolutionary. Since 1999, the State Duma of the third convocation has been working.
• State peasants- a special estate in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Decorated by decrees of Peter I from black-wooded peasants, odnodvorets, ladles and other peasant categories. State peasants lived on state land and paid rent to the treasury. They were considered personally free. From 1841 they were under the control of the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the XIX century. they accounted for 45% of the agricultural population of the European part of Russia. In 1886, they received the right to purchase land plots as property.
• State Council- the highest legislative institution of the Russian Empire. It was created from the Permanent Council in 1810, and in 1906 it became the upper legislative chamber. He considered the bills introduced by the ministers before their approval by the emperor. The members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor, and from 1906 some of the members of the Council were elected. Abolished in December 1917.
• GOELRO(State electrification of Russia) - the first unified long-term plan for the restoration and development of the economy of Soviet Russia for 10-15 years, adopted in 1920, provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy on the basis of electrification. Mainly completed by 1931.
• Civil War- the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. Organized armed struggle for power.
• Lip- in North-Western Russia, a territorial term corresponding to a volost or city. In the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. - a territorial district ruled by the laborer. Gubernia has been an administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first 8 provinces. Each province was divided into counties. Some of the provinces were united into governorate-generals. At the head were governors or governor-generals. In 1914 Russia was divided into 78 provinces. In the 20s of the XX century. instead of provinces, territories and regions were formed.
• Gulag- the main department of the camps of the NKVD (Ministry of Internal Affairs) of the USSR. The abbreviation GULAG is used to denote the system of concentration camps that existed under Stalin.
• "People walking"- in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. the general name for freed slaves, fugitive peasants, townspeople, etc., who did not have any specific occupation and place of residence and lived mainly by robbery or work for hire. They did not bear duties.

• Tribute- in kind or cash collection from the defeated in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax from subjects. It has been known in Russia since the 9th century. In the XIII-XV centuries. a kind of tribute was "exit" - a collection of money in favor of the khans of the Golden Horde. During the formation of the Russian centralized state, tribute became a compulsory state tax on the black-haired, palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century. combined with other collections and was called this money. Trivial people - in Russia in the XV-XVII centuries. persons from the taxing urban and rural population, given over to life-long military service. From the middle of the XVI century. included in the regiments of the "new order". Under Peter I, they were replaced by recruits.
• "Twenty-five-thousanders"- workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, sent in the 1929-1930s by decision of the CPSU (b) for economic and organizational work to create collective farms in the countryside. In fact, significantly more than 25 thousand left.
• Palace peasants- feudally dependent peasants in Russia, who lived on the lands of the great princes, tsars and persons of the royal family and bore obligations in their favor. From 1797 they began to be called appanage peasants.
• Palace coups era- the name adopted in historiography for the period 1725-1762, when in the Russian Empire, after the death of Peter I, who did not appoint an heir, the supreme power passed from hand to hand by palace coups, which were committed by noble groups with the support of the guards regiments.
• Nobility- the ruling privileged class, part of the feudal lords. In Russia until the beginning of the 18th century. nobility - these are some class groups of secular feudal lords. Mentioned from the end of the XII century; was the lowest part of the military-service class, which made up the court of a prince or a large boyar. Since the XIII century. the nobles began to be endowed with land for their service. In the XVIII century. turned from a servant to a privileged class.
• Decree- a normative act of the supreme bodies of the state. In the first years of Soviet power, laws and regulations issued by the Council of People's Commissars, the Congress of Soviets and their executive bodies were called decrees. Thus, the decree "On Peace" and the decree "On Land" were adopted by the II Congress of Soviets on the night of October 27, 1917.
• Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 20s-40s. expulsion of some peoples of the USSR. During the Great Patriotic War, this measure affected many peoples. Eviction in 1941-1945 Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were subjected to the Stalinist regime affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds, etc. ...
• Tithe- tax in favor of the church. Made up a tenth of the harvest or other incomes of the population.
• "Wild field"- the historical name of the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously mastered in the XVI-XVII centuries. fugitive peasants and slaves, was settled by service people to repel the raids of the Crimean khans.
• Dictatorship of the proletariat- according to Marxist theory, the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with other strata of the working people. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat should take place after the victory of the socialist revolution; its existence is limited by the transition period from capitalism to socialism. The policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat is associated with the implementation of violence against "alien" classes and strata of society.
• Dissidence- disagreement with the official ideology, dissent. In the 1950s and 1970s, the activities of dissidents in the USSR were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, protecting human rights and democracy, carrying out radical economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state.
• Volunteer army- the white army, created in the south of Russia in 1917 from volunteer officers, cadets and others. It was headed by generals M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov and A.I. Denikin. In March 1920, the Volunteer Army was defeated by the Red Army under the command of M.V. Frunze. The remaining forces of the Volunteer Army became part of the army of Baron P.N. Wrangel.
• Duma ranks- in the Russian state officials - boyars, okolnichy, Duma noblemen, Duma clerks, who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma. In the XVII century. led the orders. Were governors of the largest cities.

• Single legacy- the procedure for the transfer of land ownership by heredity established by the decree of Peter I in 1714, directed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could be transferred to only one of the heirs) and legally eliminating the differences between estates and estates.
• Heresies- religious movements in Christianity deviating from the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and cult. Most widespread in the Middle Ages.

• Gendarmerie, gendarmes- the police, which has a military organization and performs security functions within the country and in the army. In 1827-1917. in Russia there was a separate corps of gendarmes, which performed the functions of the political police.

• Bookholders- dependent peasants and townspeople who entered bondage, "living in a lodgings." Having lost their personal freedom, they were exempted from paying taxes. They existed from the 13th to the 17th century.
• Procurement- in Ancient Rus smerds (see Smerdy), who worked on the farm of the feudal lord for a "kupu" - a loan. After working off the debt, they were released. Unlike serfs (see Serfs), they had their own economy.
• Westerners- representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century. They advocated the Europeanization of Russia, based on the recognition of the commonality of Russia and Western Europe. They were supporters of reforming Russian society "from above". They constantly polemicized with the Slavophiles on the problems of the ways of development of Russia. "Reserved Summer" - at the end of the 16th century. this was the name of the years in which the peasants were prohibited from moving from one landowner to another on St. George's Day. They were an important stage in the enslavement of the peasants.
• Land redistribution- in Russia, the way of distributing land within the peasant community. Since 1861, they have been carried out by rural gatherings on the basis of equalizing land use.
• Zemskaya hut- an elective body of local self-government, created as a result of the Zemsky reform of Ivan IV. At the end of the XVI-XVII centuries. existed along with the provincial administration and was actually subordinate to it. In the 20s of the XVIII century. replaced by magistrates and town halls.
• Zemsky Cathedrals- the central state-owned estate-representative institutions in Russia from the middle of the 16th to the 50s of the 17th century. Core Zemsky Cathedrals there were the Consecrated Cathedral headed by the Metropolitan (since 1589 the Patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who had the right of a boyar court by virtue of their positions. In addition, zemstvo councils included representatives of the Tsar's court, privileged merchants, elected from the nobility and the top of the townspeople. They considered the most important national issues. The last Zemsky Sobor took place in 1653.
• Zemsky movement- Liberal oppositional social and political movement of the second half of the 60s of the XIX - early XX centuries. Its participants defended the expansion of the rights of the zemstvo and the extension of the principles of zemstvo self-government to the highest state institutions.
• Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of the Russian state with the center in Moscow, not included by Ivan the Terrible in the oprichnina. Zemshchina was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders. It had its own special zemstvo regiments. It existed until the death of Ivan the Terrible.
• Zubatovshchina- the policy of "police socialism" introduced by the Army. Zubatov - Head of the Moscow Security Department (since 1896) and the Special Section of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation, legal workers' organizations under the control of the police (for example, the organization of GA. Gapon in St. Petersburg).

• Chosen glad- a narrow circle of those close to Tsar Ivan IV - A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Macarius, A.M. Kurbsky and others, actually an unofficial government in 1546-1560. The elected council united supporters of reaching a compromise between various groups and layers of feudal lords. She advocated the annexation of the Volga region, the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Discussed plans for reforms of the central and local state apparatus and implemented them.
• "Chosen Thousand"- included in the Thousand Book of 1550, members of the Tsar's court (service princes, boyars, okolnichy, etc.) and provincial boyar children who were to receive an increment to their land holdings in other districts, as well as estates near Moscow.
• Sharecropping- a type of land lease, in which the rent is paid to the owner of the land with a share of the harvest (sometimes up to half or more).
• Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in industry and other sectors of the economy for the growth of productive forces and economic recovery. It was carried out in Russia at the end of the 19th century. In the USSR, it was held from the end of the 1920s. based on the priority of heavy industry in order to overcome the lag behind the West, create the material and technical base of socialism, and strengthen the defense capability. Unlike other countries of the world, industrialization in the USSR began with heavy industry and was carried out by limiting the consumption of the entire population, expropriating funds from private owners in the city and robbing the peasantry.
• International- the name of a large international association of the working class (International Working Class Association), created to coordinate the movement of the proletariat. The First International was founded with the direct participation of K. Marx and F. Engels in 1864. In 1876 its activity ceased. The Second International was founded in 1889 and existed until 1914, that is, until the First World War. With the outbreak of hostilities, the social democratic parties of the leading Western European countries spoke out in favor of supporting their governments in the war, which predetermined the collapse of international unification. The III International (Communist International, or Comintern) was formed by V.I. Lenin in 1919 and was a kind of headquarters of the communist movement, located in Moscow. The Comintern became an instrument for the implementation of the idea of ​​a world revolution. May 15, 1943 I.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Socialist International) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.
• Josephites- representatives of the church-political movement and religious movement in the Russian state (late 15th - mid-16th centuries). The name was given by the name of the abbot of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery, Joseph Volotsky. In the fight against non-possessors, they defended the dominant position of the church in Russian society, the inviolability of church dogmas, and the inviolability of the church's possession. They were supported by the grand-ducal power, and the Josephite Philotheus created the theory “Moscow is the third Rome”. In the second half of the XVI century. lost their influence in church and political affairs.
• Beggar- a kind of sharecropping, in which the rent for the land is half of the harvest.

• Cadets(constitutional democrats) - "Party of People's Freedom" - one of the largest political parties in Russia at the beginning of the XX century. It existed from October 1905 to November 1917. It represented the left wing in Russian liberalism. She advocated a constitutional monarchy, democratic reforms, the transfer of landlord lands to peasants for ransom, the expansion of labor legislation. The head of the party of cadets P.P. Milyukov, A.I. Shingarev, V.D. Nabokov and others dominated the I and II Dumas, supported tsarism in the First World War, in August 1915 created the Progressive Bloc to achieve victory in the war and prevent revolutionary uprisings, demanded participation in the government and the implementation of liberal reforms. The party was banned after the October Revolution of 1917.
• Cossacks- the military estate in Russia, which included the population of a number of southern regions of Russia. The Cossacks enjoyed special rights and privileges on the terms of compulsory and universal military service. It has been developing since the XIV century, when free people settle on the outskirts of the Russian principalities, carrying out a guard and border service for hire. In the XV-XVI centuries. self-governing communities of the so-called free Cossacks arise and develop, the bulk of which were fugitive and townspeople. The government sought to use the Cossacks to guard the borders, in wars, and by the end of the 18th century. completely subdued him. The Cossacks became a privileged military class. In 1920, the Cossacks were abolished as an estate.
• State factories- in Russia, state-owned, most often military and mining and metallurgical enterprises. Arose in the 17th century. as manufactories, they became widespread from the beginning of the 18th century, especially in the Urals. The workers of state-owned factories were mainly state peasants. After the peasant reform of 1861, they became hired workers.
• Cartel- a form of monopoly, in which the participants retain production independence, but at the same time jointly decide on the volume of production, sales of products, etc. Profit in cartels is distributed according to the share of participation in production and sales of products. In Russia, cartels appeared at the end of the 19th century.
• Cyrillic- ancient Slavic alphabet, named after the Slavic educator Cyril. Until the XI-XII centuries. was used in parallel with the verb. Later, she supplanted the Glagolite and became the basis of modern systems of Slavic writing.
• Princes- the name of the descendants of Russian appanage princes (Rurikovich and Gedimi noviches). By the beginning of the 17th century. in terms of economic and political status, most of the princes caught up with other service people. Since the 18th century. became the titled part of the Russian nobility.
• Collegiums- central state institutions, formed by Peter I during the reforms of public administration in 1717-1722. and existed before the beginning of the XIX century. The collegial principle of discussion and solution of cases, as well as the uniformity of the organizational structure, was the basis for the activities of the collegiums; more clearly than in orders, competence is defined.
• Collectivization- the transfer by the state of formal ownership rights to the means of production to groups of citizens or collective farms under its control. In the USSR, collectivization was the name given to the mass creation of collective farms (collective farms), which was carried out in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Collectivization was accompanied by the liquidation of individual farms and the widespread use of violent methods. Terror fell upon all strata of the peasantry — kulaks, middle peasants, and even the poor. Collectivization has changed the fundamental way of life of the bulk of the population of Russia.
• Committees of the poor (kombeds)- organizations of the rural poor in the European part of Russia, created by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars in June 1918. In many regions, they actually performed the functions of state power. Disbanded at the end of 1918 - beginning of 1919.
• Condition- the conditions for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna, drawn up in 1730 by members of the Supreme Privy Council in order to limit the monarchy in favor of the aristocracy.
• Contribution- monetary payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the winning state.
• Counter-reforms in Russia- the name of the measures taken by the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s. Preliminary censorship was restored, class principles were introduced in primary and secondary schools, the autonomy of universities was abolished, and bureaucratic tutelage was established over the zemstvo and city government.
• Concern- one of the forms of monopolies, a diversified association (finance, industry, transport, trade, etc.) with preservation of independence in management, but with complete financial dependence of the enterprises in the concern from the dominant group of monopolists.
• Concession- an agreement on the lease to foreign firms of enterprises or land plots owned by the state, with the right to production activities.
• Cooperation- the form of organization of labor and production, based on the group ownership of the members of the cooperative. The main forms of cooperation: consumer, supply and marketing, credit, production.
• Feeding- the system of keeping officials (governors, volostels, etc.) at the expense of the local population in Russia. It was used by the great and appanage princes as a way of rewarding princes, boyars and other confidants for service. "Korma" was levied two or three times a year in the form of food, fodder, part of various duties on trades and shops. Initially, feeding was not limited to anything. Only from the end of the 15th century. their size and timing began to be regulated. They were eliminated in the 16th century. Ivan the Terrible.
• Kornilovshchina- the mutiny of August 25-31, 1917 with the aim of establishing the dictatorship of General L.G. Kornilov, who in July 1917 was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief. He sent troops to Petrograd, demanded the resignation of the Provisional Government, left the subordination of A.F. Kerensky, head of government. The revolt was liquidated by the revolutionary troops, the Red Guards. The Bolsheviks played an active role in suppressing the Kornilovism.
• Cosmopolitanism- the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of the narrow framework of national patriotism and the praise of their originality, the isolation of their national culture. The term was used by the Stalinist regime to persecute "rootless cosmopolitans" accused of "servility" to the West. In 1949, a wave of denigration of cultural figures resulted in a struggle for "communist ideology", persecution, repression, rampant nationalism, etc. intensified.
• Red Guard- Armed detachments, which were formed from March 1917 and consisted mainly of workers in the industrial cities of Russia. It became the military force of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution, numbered up to 200 thousand people, in March 1918 it joined the Red Army (the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army - Red Army, the official name of the Soviet Armed Forces from 1918 to 1943).
• Serfdom- the form of feudal dependence of the peasants: their attachment to the land and submission to the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Russia, on a national scale, serfdom was formalized by the Code of Laws of 1497, decrees on "reserved" and "ordained" years, and finally enshrined in the Cathedral Code of 1649. In the 17th-18th centuries. all categories of the dependent population merged into the serf peasantry. Canceled by the peasant reform of 1861
• Peasants- the bulk of rural producers, farmers. The word "hrest-anin" (etymologically "peasant" ascends to it) was known in Russia from the turn of the X-XI centuries. It denoted a person professing the Christian faith. From the end of the XIV century. the content of the word expanded, and by the 16th century. peasants were already called all the burdensome population of the village, community members.
• Cult of personality- admiration for someone, reverence, exaltation of someone. In the USSR in 1929-1953. existed is defined as the cult of personality I.V. Stalin. A dictatorial regime was established, democracy was liquidated, and Stalin was ascribed a decisive influence on the course of historical development during his lifetime. Elements of the personality cult were preserved under N.S. Khrushchev and L.I. Brezhnev.
• Cultural revolution- a number of measures carried out in the 1920s and 1930s in the USSR aimed at changing the social composition of the post-revolutionary intelligentsia and at breaking with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage through the ideologization of culture. The main task was considered to be the creation of the so-called proletarian culture based on Marxist-class ideology, “communist education”, and the mass character of culture. Provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a new Soviet school, the training of "people's intelligentsia", the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, art under party control. Along with the positive results (the elimination of illiteracy, the development of education, etc.) contributed to the consolidation of the dictatorial regime of I.V. Stalin.

• Left communists- a group of members of the RSDLP (b) headed by N.I. Bukharin, who actively opposed the conclusion of the Brest Peace in 1918.
• Life Guards- personal protection of the monarch and the name of selected military units. Established in Russia by Peter I at the end of the 17th century. Later, many of the guards units of the Russian army were called the Life Guards.
• Lend Lease(English lend and lease) - the policy pursued by the United States during the Second World War. It included the transfer of loans and leases of weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, foodstuffs to the allied countries of the anti-Hitler coalition. Lend-lease deliveries to the USSR amounted to $ 9.8 billion.
• Livonian Order- Catholic state and military organization of the German knights-crusaders in the Baltic States. It arose in 1237. He actively waged wars of conquest. It was defeated during the Livonian War and liquidated in 1561.
• The League of nations- an international organization for the cooperation of peoples for peace and security (1919-1946). In 1934 the USSR joined the League of Nations, but in 1939 due to the Soviet-Finnish war it was expelled from it. She pursued a policy of connivance towards the countries of the fascist bloc. In fact, it ceased to exist since the beginning of the Second World War. The dissolution was officially announced in 1946.

• Manufactory- a large enterprise based on the division of labor and mainly manual production. It appeared in Russia in the 17th century.
• Menshevism- current in Russian social democracy, which was formed at the II Congress of the RSDLP (1903) from a part of the delegates who received a minority during the election of governing bodies. Leaders - G.V. Plekhanov, Yu.O. Martov, I.O. Axelrod and others. The Mensheviks denied the strict centralism of the party and the endowment of the Central Committee with great powers; in the bourgeois-democratic revolution they considered the liberal bourgeoisie an ally of the proletariat, did not recognize the revolutionary role of the peasantry, advocated legal methods of struggle, against the establishment of a revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry. In 1908-1910. split into liquidators (for legal work and the liquidation of an illegal party) and party Mensheviks (for illegal struggle). During the First World War, three currents emerged - defencists, internationalists and inter-rayons. After the February Revolution, they supported the Provisional Government, did not recognize the October Revolution, believing that Russia was not ripe for socialism. Some of the Mensheviks became Bolsheviks.
• Localism- a special procedure for appointment to military, administrative and court service, taking into account the nobility of origin and personal merits of the ancestors. It arose at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. and canceled in 1682 the Month - in Russia of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. a six-day corvee of serfs, primarily courtyards, deprived of land plots. Remuneration for labor was carried out in kind, issued monthly. The most severe form of serfdom.
• Ministries(lat. I serve, I manage) - the central government bodies in charge of individual sectors of the economy and the life of the state. The first ministries were formed in 1802 and existed until 1917. In 1946, the name “ministry” was restored.
• Monopoly- the exclusive right to manufacture or sell something. With the introduction at the end of the XIX century. capitalism in the monopoly stage, the unions of capitalists seized the exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods to dominate the market. The main forms of monopolies: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. In Russia, monopolies emerged in the 1880s. The most common were syndicates. The "Society for the Sale of Products of Russian Metallurgical Plants" ("Prodamet") by 1908 sold 90% of the metallurgical products of the South and 45% of the total production of the empire. Syndicates were created in the coal industry (Pro-Dugol in 1904), in the car-building and oil-extracting industries.

• Viceroy- in the Russian state in the XII century. governors - officials who ruled individual territories. They were appointed by the princes for "feeding". They were in charge of the administrative-territorial units of the empire, consisting of two or three provinces. In the XIX century. governorship existed in the kingdom of Poland and in the Caucasus. Russia XIX century. It was based on a system of views about the original path of development of Russia, capable, bypassing the stage of capitalism, to create, relying on the peasant community, a socialist society. This ideology is a social utopia. At the end of the 60s of the XIX century. three trends are formed in populism: rebellious, or anarchist (M.A. Bakunin), propaganda (P.L. Lavrov), conspiratorial (P.N. Tkachev). They disagreed on tactics. In the years 1860-1880. the main organizations of the populists were "Chaikovtsy" (organizers of going to the people), "Land and Freedom", which split in 1879 into " The will of the people"And" Black redistribution ". From the second half of the 80s. populism is going through a crisis because of the negative reaction of society to the murder of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya. The Socialist-Revolutionary Party became the heir to the populist ideology.
• People's Commissariats (Commissariats)- in the Soviet state in 1917-1946. central government bodies of a separate branch of the national economy or a sphere of state activity. They were headed by People's Commissars. Transformed into ministries.
• Natural economy- a type of economy in which products and things are produced for their own use, and not for sale.
• Nationalization- the transfer of private enterprises and other private property into state ownership both through expropriation and on the basis of redemption transactions.
• Non-covetous- a religious and political trend in Russia at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. Preached asceticism, withdrawal from the world. They demanded the refusal of the church from land ownership. The main ideologist of non-acquisitiveness was the elder of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Nil Sorsky. The Josephites came out against the non-possessors. Non-covetousness was condemned by the church councils of 1503 and 1531 New Economic Policy (NEP) - introduced by the Soviet leadership in March 1921 at the X Congress of the RCP (b). It provided for a way out of the economic and political crisis by returning to state-controlled and state-regulated private property in industry, replacing the food appropriation tax, proclaiming freedom of trade, and using foreign capital in the form of concessions and laborer labor in the countryside. At the same time, the monetary reform of 1922-1924 was carried out, Soviet enterprises, cooperation were developing, and National economy... However, as a result of the contradictions that arose in the late 1920s, NEP was completely abandoned.
• Nomenclature(lat. list) - a list of officials, the appointment or approval of which is within the competence of any body. In the USSR, such bodies were party committees of various levels. The ruling elite in the USSR was called the nomenclature.
• "Norman theory"- arose in the second quarter of the 18th century. Its supporters considered the Normans (Varangians) to be the creators of the state in Ancient Rus. Based on the chronicle legend about the vocation of the Varangians.

• "The secularization of culture"- the acquisition of a secular character by culture: an increasing variety of secular themes and subjects in literature and art.
• Rent- a form of feudal rent. In Russia - an annual collection of money and food from serfs by landowners. The grocery quitrent was abolished by the reform of 1861, the monetary quitrent remained until 1863.
• Community- a form of uniting people that arose in ancient times. Distinctive features of the community - common ownership of the means of production, full or partial self-government. In Russia, the community was a closed estate unit used for collecting taxes and police control. After the reform of 1861, the community became the owner of the land. Was destroyed by the reforms of Stolypin.
• Commoners- the official name of the class of townspeople in the Russian Empire.
• Octobrists- members of the right-wing liberal party "Union of October 17", created after the publication of the Manifesto by Nicholas II on October 17, 1905. According to the Octobrists, this document marked the transition of Russia to a constitutional monarchy. The party considered its main task to assist the government if it takes the path of social reforms. Octobrists' program: constitutional monarchy, one and indivisible Russian state, the solution of the agrarian question without alienating the landowners' lands, the limited right to strike and an 8-hour working day. The party represented the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, liberal-minded landowners, some officials and the wealthy intelligentsia. The leaders of the Octobrists - A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, D.N. Shipov and others.
• Opposition(lat. opposition) - a party or social group that opposes the opinion of the majority or the dominant point of view, putting forward its own way of solving problems.
• Oprichnina(oprich - Old Russian except) - in 1565-1572. the name of Ivan IV's inheritance, into which a number of lands were allocated, as well as part of Moscow. In the oprichnina, its own administration was introduced: the Boyar Duma, orders, the army. It is also customary to call the oprichnina the entire system of measures of Ivan the Terrible - mass repressions, land confiscations, etc. - which was used by the tsar to fight the alleged betrayal and the remnants of specific separatism.
• Horde exit- tribute, quitrent paid by the Russian princes to the khans of the Golden Horde.
• Ransom- the exclusive right granted by the state for a certain payment to individuals (tax farmers) to collect taxes or sell certain types of goods (wine, salt, etc.). In Russia, the system of ransoms existed until 1863.
• Segments- plots of land cut off from the allotments used by the peasants in the course of the peasant reform of 1861 and transferred to the landowners. The stretches were interspersed with peasant lands, creating a patchwork and forcing the peasants to rent them from the landowner for various labor services. The stretches accounted for a total of about 20% of the pre-reform land use of the peasants.
• Cut- in Russia at the beginning of the XX century. a land plot allocated to a peasant to replace the communal lands previously assigned to him, located in various places. At the same time, the estate remained within the village. The creation of cuts was the result of the implementation of the Stolypin agrarian reform
• "Thaw"- a common designation for the changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR, outlined after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term "thaw" goes back to the title of I. Ehrenburg's story. The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s and early 1950s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned the personality cult of Stalin. The Thaw contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, the positive developments in the mid-1950s did not develop further.
• Otkhodnik- in Russia, the temporary departure of peasants to work in cities or to agricultural work in other areas. It was common among landlord quitrent peasants.
• "Official nationality theory"- the national state doctrine of the Russian Empire, put forward during the reign of Nicholas I. The main principles of the theory were formulated by the Minister of Education, Count S.S. Uvarov in 1832: "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality."
• Security departments, secret police - local authorities police departments created to protect public safety and order. They were in charge of political investigation, had secret agents sent to political parties and opposition organizations. They first appeared in St. Petersburg (1866) and Moscow (1880). By 1907, they already existed in 27 industrial and cultural centers of the country. Abolished after the February Revolution of 1917.

• Patriarchate- a form of church government in Orthodoxy, in which the patriarch is at the head of the church. It originated in the early Middle Ages. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the patriarchate was established in 1589, abolished in 1721, and revived at the beginning of 1917.
• Resettlement- relocation of the (peasant) population of the central regions of Russia to a new place of residence in sparsely populated outlying areas - Siberia, the Far East, etc. Migration was the main means of internal colonization and solving the problem of peasants' land shortage. It was an integral part of the Stolypin agrarian reform.
• "Perestroika"- the transformations carried out in the USSR from the mid-1980s to 1991 under the slogan of overcoming obsolete forms of social life and methods of work. The most important direction of this policy was democratization, including the expansion of publicity. The other side of "perestroika" was economic transformation. In foreign policy, a system of international security and non-violent peace has been established. Reforming society within the framework of the existing socialist system ended in failure.
• Plan "Barbarossa"- the code name for the plan of aggressive war of Nazi Germany against the USSR. It began to be developed in July 1940. The plan provided for the defeat of the USSR in a quick campaign, while the main forces of the Red Army were supposed to be destroyed west of the Dnieper-Western Dvina line, preventing them from retreating into the interior of the country. In the future, it was planned to capture Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Donbass and go to the Astrakhan - Volga - Arkhangelsk line. The Barbarossa plan was thwarted by the heroic struggle of the Soviet people.
• Churchyard- originally the center of a rural community in the northwest of Ancient Rus. From the second half of the 10th century. place of collection of tribute, later - the center of the administrative district.
• Household taxation- in Russia in the 17th - early 18th centuries. a system for the allocation of direct taxes on the taxable population. Replaced by side taxation. The state determined the amount of the tax, and the urban and rural communities distributed it to each household. Replaced by capitation tax.
• Captive filing- the main direct tax in the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Replaced the household taxation in 1724. This tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80s and 90s years XIX v.
• "Elderly"- in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries. cash collection from peasants when they leave the landowner on St. George's Day. Introduced by the Code of Laws of 1497. Disappeared with the complete enslavement of the peasants.
• "Police socialism"- accepted in historiography the name of one of the methods of implementing domestic policy, under which government-controlled workers' organizations were created. At the beginning of the XX century. such organizations appeared in Russia, a large role in their creation and distribution was played by the gendarme colonel, the head of the Moscow security department and the Special Department of the Police Department S.V. Zubatov. The Russian version of "police socialism" is also called "Zubatovism" in literature.
• "Foreign order" shelves, or "new order" shelves- military units formed in Russia in the 17th century. modeled on Western European armies. Used by Peter I to form a regular army.
• Polyudye- a detour by the Russian prince with a retinue of his vassal possessions in order to collect tribute.
• Estate- a form of conditional land ownership in the Russian state at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 18th century. The estate was not subject to sale, exchange and inheritance. In the XVI-XVII centuries. gradually drew closer to the patrimony, and in 1714 merged with it completely.
• Landlord peasants(serfs) - peasants who belonged to the landowners before the peasant reform of 1861.
• The planter- an elected official in an ancient Russian city, the head of the executive branch. Together with the prince, he was in charge of management and court issues, commanded an army, led a veche meeting and a boyar council.
• Posad people- the commercial and industrial population of Russian cities, bearing the state tax - trade taxes, trade duties, participation in city-wide work, in-kind duties, etc. They were divided into hundreds - the Living Room, the Cloth, the Black. In 1775 they were divided into merchants and burghers.
• Possessional peasants- in Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. the category of peasants who belonged to the private enterprises in which they worked. The category of possessory peasants was introduced under Peter I by a decree of 1721 on the purchase of people for factories in connection with the need to provide growing manufactories with workers. The position of the possessory peasants was somewhat different from the position of the serfs: they were not allowed to be transferred to agricultural work, given to recruits, etc. The peasants were freed by the reform of 1861 Pososhnoye - in the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. the state land tax from the plow, yamskie, pentatny, polanyanny money and other fees. Replaced by courtyard taxation.
• Privatization- transfer of state or municipal property to private ownership.
• Order control system- formed in the middle of the 16th century. system of permanent government bodies - orders. It arose on the basis of the performance of certain state functions by the boyars on the instructions (orders) of the tsar. The order system flourished in the 17th century. Abolished at the beginning of the 18th century. Peter I.
• Registered peasants- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th century. state, palace and economic peasants, who instead of paying the poll tax, worked at state and private factories, that is, attached (assigned) to them. Released by the peasant reform of 1861
• Tax in kind(food tax) - introduced in 1921 to replace food appropriation, marked the beginning of the NEP. The amount of the tax in kind was set before the spring sowing, depending on the prosperity of the economy and was significantly less than the surplus appropriation, the surplus was allowed to be sold, which stimulated the growth of production. Operated until 1923.
• "Food dictatorship"- the system of emergency measures of the Soviet government (1918-1921), taken in the context of the food crisis to supply the Red Army with bread, the population of cities, the poor in the countryside. Provided for the centralization of procurement and distribution of food, the steady implementation of the grain monopoly, the fight against baggage and speculation, suppression of the resistance of the kulaks. The Soviet government declared enemies of those who concealed surplus grain, did not take them out to the dumping points. The perpetrators were sentenced to imprisonment, execution, and their property was confiscated. The food dictatorship caused discontent among the peasants. Canceled with the introduction of the New Economic Policy.
• Food squads(food detachments) - armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1920. Created by the organs of the People's Commissariat of Food, trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets. We carried out surplus appropriation in the countryside; acted in conjunction with the commanders and local Soviets.
• Food appropriation(food allocation) - a system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism" (1919-1921), established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Obligatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (except for those necessary for personal and economic needs) of grain and other products. It was carried out by the organs of the People's Commissariat for Food, food detachments, commissaries, local Soviets. Planned tasks were deployed in counties, volosts, villages, peasant households. The food appropriation system aroused the discontent of the peasants and in 1921 it was replaced by a food tax.

• Raznochintsy- in Russia at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. an inter-class category of the population, people from different classes, cut off from their class environment (clergy, bourgeoisie, merchants, petty bureaucracy). This category was not legally formalized in any way. Raznochintsy were mainly engaged in mental labor. "Razryadka" - a period in the relationship between the world systems of capitalism and socialism, which began at the turn of the 60-70s of the XX century. It arose on the basis of the military-strategic parity (equality of the parties) achieved by the USSR and the USA. It ended in 1979 with the introduction of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.
• Split- separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of some of the believers who did not accept the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653-1656. Opponents of the official church began to be called schismatics, or Old Believers.
• The revolution- deep, qualitative changes in society, economy, worldview, science, culture, etc. Social revolution is the most acute form of struggle between new and old, obsolete social relations during sharply aggravated political processes, when the type of power changes, the victors come to the leadership revolutionary forces, new socio-economic foundations of society are being established.
• Recruitment- the method of manning the Russian regular army in the XVIII-XIX centuries. The tax-paying estates (peasants, burghers, etc.) were obliged to send a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874 it was replaced by general military service.
• "Rail War"- the name of a major operation of the Soviet partisans in August - September 1943 to disable railway tracks in the territories occupied by the Nazis.
• Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth- the official name of the united Polish-Lithuanian state from the time of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin (1569) until the partition of Poland in 1795.
• Russian Orthodox Church- the largest of the Orthodox churches. Founded in the X century. From the end of the XI century. it was headed by the Kiev Metropolitan, from the end of the XIII century. - Metropolitan of Vladimir, who from 1328 lived in Moscow. Initially, it was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1448 it became independent. The Patriarchate was established in 1589 and abolished in 1721, restored in 1917.
• Ryadovichi- the category of dependent people in Kievan Rus. Ryadovich is a person who has entered into a certain contract - a number and is obliged to perform work under this contract.

• Diet- the body of estate representation in some states of Eastern Europe, for example, in Poland.
• Secret committees- in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. temporary state institutions created by the emperor to discuss reform projects, and in 1857-1858. - to discuss the preparation of projects for the abolition of serfdom. Secularization - the transformation of church property into state property. In Russia, large-scale secularization was carried out during the reign of Catherine II in 1764 and after 1917.
• "Seven Boyarshina"- the government of the Russian state during the Time of Troubles (1610-1613). Formed after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily Shuisky. Consisted of seven boyars, headed by F. Miloslavsky. This government agreed to the calling of the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne. It also let the Polish troops into Moscow.
• Senate- the supreme body of government in the Russian Empire from 1711 to the beginning of the 19th century. After 1810 - the highest judicial and administrative body. Abolished in 1917.
• Separate world- a peace treaty with the enemy, concluded by one of the states that make up the coalition, without the knowledge and consent of the allies.
• Syndicate- one of the forms of monopolistic associations. The syndicate undertakes the implementation of all commercial activities, while maintaining the production and legal independence of its enterprises.
• Synod- the highest legislative administrative and judicial institution for the Russian Orthodox Church. It existed from 1721 to 1917.
• Slavophiles- representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought of the 40-70s of the XIX century. A feature of their views was their commitment to the original development of Russia, the model of which was pre-Petrine Russia. State XIV- the beginning of the XVIII century. persons in public service. From the middle of the XVI century. were divided into service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the device" (Cossacks, archers, gunners, etc.). The service "according to the fatherland" was hereditary. "By device" was recruited, as a rule, from the townspeople. Servicemen were exempted from state taxes and duties.
• Smerds- the general name of the rural population of Ancient Rus.
• Advice- the authorities that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. According to V.I. Lenin, the Soviets had to concentrate in their hands the functions of all branches of power and become "sovereign" bodies. In fact, from the very first months of the proclamation of Soviet power in October 1917, they turned into an appendage of the Bolshevik Party.
• Estates-representative monarchy- a form of the feudal state, in which the power of the monarch is combined with the bodies of estate representation. In Russia, the estate representation existed in the form of Zemsky Sobors (XVI-XVII centuries).
• Socialization of the earth- the main requirement of the agrarian program of the Socialist Revolutionaries (Socialist Revolutionaries), which implied the abolition of private ownership of land and the transfer of it to the use of the community.
• Socialist revolutionaries (SRs)- the largest party in Russia (1901-1923). They advocated the liquidation of the autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the transfer of land to the peasants, democratic reforms, etc. They used the tactics of terror. Leaders - V.M. Chernov, A.R. Gots and others.
• Sagittarius- in the 16th - end of the 17th century. the category of service people "according to the device", constituting a permanent irregular army. They received a state salary, but the main source of income was crafts and trade.

• Totalitarianism- a form of government, which is characterized by the complete subordination of the life of society to the interests of power and control over it, the actual elimination of constitutional rights and freedoms, repression of political opposition and any manifestations of dissent.
• Traditional society- a society in which a person does not think of himself outside of nature; age-old traditions and customs (rituals, prohibitions, etc.) completely rule over him. Such a society is not inclined to accept any innovations.
• Trusts- one of the forms of monopoly associations, within which the participants lose production, commercial and legal independence. Power in them is concentrated in the hands of the board or the parent company. Most often, trusts arose in industries producing homogeneous products.
• 3rd June coup(the third June monarchy) - the dissolution of June 3, 1907, the Second State Duma and the publication of a new electoral law in violation of the Manifesto, October 17, 1905. It was the completion of the 1905-1907 revolution, after which the June Third monarchy was established - an alliance of the tsar, nobles and the big bourgeoisie, united The State Duma, which pursued a policy of maneuvering.
• Trotskyism- the direction in the Russian and international revolutionary movement, named after its ideologist L.D. Trotsky. Trotsky put forward the theory of "permanent revolution" (in the revolution of 1905-1907 he advocated jumping over the stage of the bourgeois-democratic revolution, denied the revolutionary role of the peasantry). In Soviet times, Trotsky advocated the nationalization of trade unions, questioned the possibility of building socialism in the USSR without the help of developed countries. Under the conditions of an acute internal party struggle, Trotsky's ideas were called Trotskyism. The views of Trotsky and his supporters were characterized as a "petty-bourgeois deviation" in the RCP (b) and were defeated at the 15th Party Congress. In 1929 he was expelled from the USSR, in 1938 he created the IV International, waged a stubborn struggle in the press against Stalin, on whose orders he was killed in 1940 in Mexico. In the USSR, Trotsky's merits as an active participant in the October Revolution, the creator of the Red Army, the organizer of the victory in the Civil War, etc., were diminished.
• Trudoviks- "Labor group" in the I and IV State Duma of the deputies-peasants and the populist intelligentsia, acting in a bloc with the left forces for the nationalization of the land and its transfer to the peasants according to the labor norm, for democratic freedoms (1906-1917).
• Tysyatsky- military leader of the city militia ("thousand") in Russia until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected at the veche and was the closest assistant to the mayor - he studied trade, tax collection, and the merchant court.
• Tax- in the Russian state of the 15th - early 18th century. monetary and natural state obligations of peasants and townspeople. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. A tax was a unit of taxation of peasants with duties in favor of landlords.

• Lot, appanage principality - in Russia in the XII-XVI centuries. an integral part of large great principalities, ruled by a member of the grand ducal family.
• Ulus- nomad camp, settlement. In a broad sense, a tribal association with a certain territory, subject to a khan or a leader among the peoples of Central and Central Asia and Siberia. After the collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan, a country or region subordinated to one of the Chingizid khans was called an ulus.
• "Lesson summers"- established by royal decrees from the end of the 16th century. terms of search and return of fugitive peasants to their owners (from 5 to 15 years). Canceled in the middle of the 17th century, when the search became indefinite, by the Cathedral Code of 1649.
• constituent Assembly- a representative, parliamentary institution in Russia, convened for the first time on the basis of universal suffrage to establish a form of government and draft a constitution. The convocation of the Constituent Assembly is a programmatic demand of all revolutionary, democratic, liberal parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, including the Bolsheviks. The government created after the February Revolution was called Provisional until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. The elections were held in November - December 1917. The Bolsheviks received only 24% of the vote. This meant the impossibility of implementing the decisions of the Bolsheviks through this authority. The Constituent Assembly was opened on January 5 (18), 1918 in the Tauride Palace in Petrograd. The majority of the elected deputies were Social Revolutionaries (59%). The meeting did not recognize the legitimacy of the Council of People's Commissars and the decrees of the Soviet government. The Bolsheviks left the meeting room, and at 5 am on January 6 (19), 1918, the Constituent Assembly was dispersed. Officially, the decree on its dissolution was adopted by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets on the night of 6 (19) to 7 (20) January 1918.

• Feudal rent- one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor (corvee), food (natural quitrent) and monetary (monetary quitrent) rent.
• Fiscal- in the Russian Empire in 1711-1729. supervising civil servant government agencies(mainly financial) and officials. Collected information about violations of laws, bribery, embezzlement, etc. The head of the fiscal was Ober-fiscal, who was a member of the Senate.

• "Walking to the people"- a unique phenomenon in Russian history: a spontaneous mass movement of radical youth, inspired by the ideas of revolutionary populism, in 1873-1874. More than 2 thousand propagandists rushed to the village hoping to rouse the people to a "general revolt". Going to the People failed. Over a thousand people were arrested, 193 of the most active participants in the movement were brought to justice.
• Cold War- the state of confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States with its political partners, on the other. It lasted from 1946 until the end of the 80s. It got the name "cold war" because, unlike "hot wars" (open military conflicts), it was carried out by economic, ideological and political methods.
• Slaves- the category of the dependent population in Ancient Russia, known from the 10th century. Serfs were close in status to slaves. In the XVII century. gradually merged with the serf peasantry.
• Khutor- a rural settlement, which most often consisted of one courtyard. As a result of the agrarian reform carried out by the government of P.A. Stolypin, - a detached peasant estate located outside the community.

• Black Hundred organizations- extreme right-wing social and political associations in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. They performed under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism, anti-Semitism ("Union of the Russian people", "Union of Michael the Archangel", etc.).
• Black-moss peasants- in the Russian state of the XIV-XVII centuries. free peasants who owned communal lands and carried government duties. In the XVIII century. became state peasants.
• Pale of Settlement- in 1791-1917. limited territories of the Russian Empire, outside of which Jews were prohibited from permanent residence.

• Nobility- in Poland, Lithuania, Czech Republic, the name of secular feudal lords, corresponding to the nobility.

• Expropriation I (lat. deprivation of property) - compulsory deprivation of property, gratuitous or paid.

• Paganism- the general name for polytheistic religions ("polytheism").
• Label- a preferential certificate issued by the Golden Horde khans to the secular and spiritual feudal lords of the subordinate lands.
• Trade fairs- trades, markets, periodically organized in the established place.
• Yasak- in Russia XV-XX centuries. a tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia, which was collected mainly by furs.

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Vanguard(from the French "avant" - "forward" and "garde" - "guard") - a military unit sent forward in order to prevent a surprise enemy attack on the main forces.

Agora- city square in Greek cities, including Athens.

Hades- according to the ideas of the ancient Greeks, the underworld of the dead.

Akinak- The traditional weapon of the Iranian peoples (including the Scythians) is a short sword, which is more accurately called a long dagger.

Acropolis(from the Greek "akropolis" - "upper city") - an elevated and fortified part of an ancient Greek city, the so-called upper city; fortress (shelter in case of war). The acropolis usually housed temples of the city's patron deities. The most famous is the Acropolis in Athens.

Ala("wing") - before the beginning of the 1st century. BC. this was the name of the infantry or equestrian unit of the Italic allies of Rome. After receiving as a result of the Allied War 91-88. BC. the majority of the population of Italy of Roman citizenship aloi began to be called exclusively an equestrian unit of auxiliary troops, numbering from 500 to 1000 people.

Alans- nomadic Iranian tribes related to the Sarmatians. In the 1st century. AD came from Inner Asia and settled on the South Russian Plain, east of the Don and north of the Caucasus. In the III century. Alans repeatedly invaded the Roman province of Thrace; about 370 were driven to the west by the Huns. In the V century. some of them joined the Suevi and Vandals in Gaul and Spain, others crossed in 429, together with the vandals in North Africa.

Gait- the move or movement of the horse: walk, trot, gallop, quarry.

Amon- the ancient Egyptian sun god, whom the Greeks and Macedonians identified with Zeus.

Anglo-Saxons- the common name of the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, who conquered in the 5th-6th centuries. Britain. Later, the Anglo-Saxons, mixing with the Danes, Norwegians and immigrants from the Duchy of Normandy, laid the foundation for the English people.

Crossbow- throwing weapons used in European countries in the Middle Ages: steel or wooden bow, fortified on a wooden machine (bed); the bowstring was pulled by the collar. In Russia, it was called a crossbow.

Argeads- the royal family in Macedonia, to which the ancient Macedonian kings belonged, including Alexander the Great.

Ariane- supporters of the teachings of the Alexandrian priest Arius, who argued that God is the son, i.e. Jesus Christ is not equal to God the Father, but only like him. At the I Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church, which was held in 325 in the Asia Minor city of Nicea under the chairmanship of Emperor Constantine, the Nicene Creed was adopted, according to which God is one in three persons and all these three incarnations (God the Father, God the Son and God -Holy Spirit) are equal. The doctrine of Arius was declared heresy, and he and his most prominent adherents were sent into exile. Some of them preached Christianity to barbarian tribes, including the Goths. Ironically, a significant part of the Visigoths who fought at Adrianople professed Arianism, like their adversary Valens.

Arshak(in Greek transcription, where the sound "sh" is absent, Arsak) - the throne name of all the Parthian kings of the Arshakid dynasty, which they adopted in honor of the founder of the dynasty. Here we are talking about Arshak XIII Orode.

Arshakids- Parthian dynasty 250 BC - 224 AD

Rearguard- part of the army, following behind the main forces to cover the rear.

Achaemenids- dynasty of ancient Persian kings in 558-330 BC Founder - Cyrus II. The Achaemenid state, which included most of the countries of the Near and Middle East, reached its greatest flourishing under Darius I; conquered by Alexander the Great.

"Immortals"- the guard of the Persian king, the most efficient part of his army. They are so nicknamed for the uniformity of equipment: when one guardsman died in battle, another one, indistinguishable from the first, immediately took his place. The number of "immortals" was equal to ten thousand.

Armor- type of armor. It consisted of a leather long-brimmed shirt, on which metal rings or plates were sewn. For the convenience of riding, cuts were made in the front and back from the waist to the bottom. Since the XII century. gradually replaced by chain mail.

Bull- in the Middle Ages, a round metal seal, usually fastening papal, imperial, royal acts, as well as the name of the acts themselves.

Burgundy- Germanic tribe. Formed kingdoms: in the Rhine basin - at the beginning of the 5th century. (conquered by the Huns in 436), in the Rhone basin - in the middle of the 5th century. (conquered by the Franks in 534). The name of the historical region of Burgundy comes from the Burgundians.

Vandals- Germanic tribes. In 429-439. conquered North Africa. In 455 they sacked Rome, destroyed many monuments of ancient culture (hence - vandalism). By 534 the state of the Vandals was conquered by Byzantium.

Barbarians- the ancient Greeks and Romans have a common name for all foreigners who speak a language they do not understand.

Grand Master, Master- the head of the spiritual knightly order.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania- a state that existed on part of the territory of modern Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine in the XIII-XVI centuries. In order to fight the German knights, they approached Poland (Krevsk Union, 1385). During the Livonian War, it united with Poland into one state - Rzeczpospolita (Union of Lublin, 1569).

Velites- lightly armed soldiers, dressed in canvas shirts, the youngest and poorest in the Roman army of the republican period; before the reform of Mary (107 BC), there were 1200 velites in each Roman legion; they armed themselves with six two-meter darts, a bow or a sling; were widely used against war elephants.

Visigoths- Germanic tribe, the western branch is ready. Since the III century. occupied the territory from the Dniester to the mouth of the Danube. In 376, fleeing from the Huns, they received permission to settle in the territory of the Roman Empire. In 377, they revolted against the Romans and defeated the troops of the emperor Valens at Adrianople (378). After that, they received permission to settle on the Balkan Peninsula and occupied the territories of Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia. From here they undertook devastating raids on Constantinople, and under King Alaric I (395-410) - campaigns in Italy. They settled in Aquitaine, where they founded the first barbarian kingdom on the territory of the Roman Empire. In the VIII century. the state of the Visigoths fell under the onslaught of the Arabs.

Byzantium(Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, capital - Constantinople) - the state of the IV-XV centuries, formed during the division of the Roman Empire in its eastern part (Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Southeast Mediterranean). Byzantium reached its greatest territorial expansion in the 6th century. under Justinian I. The conquests of the Arabs, Slavs, Lombards in the 7th-9th centuries. reduced its territory mainly to part of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. The capture of Constantinople in 1453 by Turkish troops put an end to Byzantium.

"Crow"- a lifting boarding ladder-bridge on a Roman warship.

Riders- in Rome, initially, in the tsarist era and in the early republican period, the nobility who fought on horseback. Subsequently, the horsemen turned into the second (after the senators) estate with a property qualification of 400 thousand sesterces. The usual occupation of the horsemen was large-scale trade and the collection of taxes from the provinces.

Gauls- the Roman name of the Celtic tribes who inhabited from the VI century. BC. a significant part of modern France, northern Italy and other areas.

Gastats- soldiers of the first line of battle formation of the legion.

Gethaira- Macedonian nobility, who served in the army of Alexander the Great in the heavily armed cavalry. The original meaning of the word is "friends, comrades".

Hetman(or captain) - the commander of an independent detachment.

Hypaspists(literally "shield-bearers") - light-heavy infantry, which was usually built on the flanks of the phalanx and had to protect them.

Gladius- legionnaire double-edged sword.

Hoplite- a warrior of the ancient Greek heavily armed infantry in the V-IV centuries. BC. He wore a shell, helmet, leg armor (leggings), in his left hand he held a round shield (all made of metal, bronze or iron), in his right - a spear with an iron tip, which was the main type of offensive weapon. A sling thrown over his shoulder hung a short sword, which was used if the spear became unusable.

Goths- a group of Germanic tribes who came from Scandinavia to Eastern Europe approximately at the end of the II-beginning of the III century. AD and inhabited territories up to the Black Sea coast in the south, the lower Don in the east and the Danube in the west. The Goths were divided into two main groups: the Eastern, or Ostrogoths, and the Western, or Visigoths.

Huns- a nomadic people, formed in the II-IV centuries. in the Urals from the Turkic-speaking Xiongnu and local Ugrians and Sarmatians. The massive movement of the Huns to the west (from the 70s of the 4th century) gave impetus to the Great Migration of Nations. In 451, Attila, the leader of the Huns, with all the tribes subject to him invaded Gaul, but was stopped and defeated by the troops of the Western Roman Empire and its allies in the Catalaunian fields.

Hussite movement- the struggle of the Czech people (partly the Slovak people) against the Catholic Church, feudal oppression and German dominance, which resulted in the so-called. Hussite wars 1419-1437

Dorpat bishopric- ecclesiastical principality in Livonia (southeast of modern Estonia) in 1224-1558. The head is a Catholic bishop. It was liquidated at the beginning of the Livonian War after the capture of Dorpat and other cities by the Russian troops.

Jihad- title religious war among Muslims. Initially, the word "jihad" meant only "an appeal to the unbelievers to accept Islam." He is unlawful against those with whom the Muslim sovereign had previously concluded a peace treaty. Any Muslim capable of carrying a weapon must participate in jihad. The one who fell in battle is revered as a martyr, who is awaited in paradise by rewards, described in detail in the Koran and folk legends.

Dictator- in Rome, during the era of the Republic, an official who received emergency powers for a period not exceeding 6 months. Appointed by order of the Senate.

Dominat- unlimited monarchy established in Ancient rome at the end of the III century. since the time of the emperor Diocletian.

Ancient kingdom- the name of one of the periods in the history of Ancient Egypt (2800-2250 BC)

Dart- short and light throwing javelin.

Eat- a Baltic-Finnish tribe that lived from the middle of the 1st millennium A.D. in the interior of Finland. Paid tribute to Russia, from the XIII century. under the rule of Sweden.

Visor- the part of the helmet that covered the face.

Golden Horde- a state founded in the early 40s. XIII century Khan Batu. The Golden Horde included Western Siberia, North Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, North Caucasus, Crimea, Desht-i-Kipchak. The Russian principalities were vassal from the Golden Horde. Capitals: Saray-Batu, from the I half of the XIV century. - Saray-Berke (Lower Volga region). In the XV century. split into Siberian, Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan and other khanates.

Hieroglyph- non-letter writing, allegorical style, "idea recording", a representative image that plays the role of letters or letters.

Iconian (Ruman) Sultanate- a state created by nomads, Seljuk Turks, on the lands of Asia Minor captured from the Byzantines after 1071, the Sultanate disintegrated by the beginning of the XIV century.

"Iliad" is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer. Apparently, it arose in the IX-VIII centuries. BC. based on legends about Trojan War(hence its name - the poem about Ilion, i.e. Three).

Helots- government slaves in Sparta. Each Spartan was accompanied by seven helots to the war. Thus, under Thermopylae there were 2,100 of them.

The emperor- an honorary Roman title, which during the period of the Republic was given to a military leader who won a serious victory over enemies, as a rule, after winning a general battle. After the triumph (solemn entry into Rome), the military leader lost the right to be called emperor. After the establishment of autocracy in Rome, the ruler made this title permanent, starting with him his personal name.

Ipatiev Chronicle- the annalistic collection of the 13th - early 14th centuries, preserved in the list of the 15th century.

Caligi- Roman high sandals for soldiers, leaving the toes open.

Karakitaev state- a state in Central and Central Asia (about 1140-1213). The rulers bore the title of gurkhans. Conquered by the Naimans, then under the rule of the Mongol-Tatars.

Square- a rectangular formation of infantry, capable of fighting in any direction. It was usually used to repel cavalry attacks.

Carthage- a city founded by immigrants from the Phoenician Tire on the northern coast of Africa, opposite Sicily. The Carthaginians created a powerful naval power, their fleet dominated the entire Western Mediterranean. Carthaginian ships went beyond the Pillars of Melqart (Strait of Gibraltar) and sailed to Britain and West Africa. It is even suggested that Phoenician sailors could have reached America.

Catapult- a throwing weapon in antiquity, used to throw large arrows, which were directed not upwards, but horizontally. It looked like a crossbow; the arrow lay in a groove, the bowstring was made of twisted guts and was pulled with the help of a special gate.

Cataphractaria(from the Greek "kataphractes" - "closed") - heavily armed cavalry, chained in full metal armor; from the 1st century BC. cataphracts appear among the Parthians, and later in the Roman army.

Quaestor- in the Roman army, deputy commander, in charge of its supply and financing. In the event of the death or serious injury of the chief, the quaestor could take command.

Cimbry- Germanic tribes. At the end of the II century. BC. together with the Teutons invaded the territory of the Roman Republic, in 101 BC. defeated by Guy Marius at Vercellus.

Kishketen- personal warriors of Genghis Khan.

Wedge(pig) - a battle formation used by the German crusaders. It was a trapezoid that turns into an elongated triangle. At the tip of the wedge and along its flanks (sometimes in the rear) were mounted knights. Infantry was marching inside the formation.

Coalition- a military-political alliance created with the aim of achieving certain one-time goals.

Cohort- a subdivision of the Roman army, which consisted of 6 centuries (3 maniples, 2 centuri each); usually its number ranged from 450-700 people.

Chariot- a two-wheeled combat vehicle, in which the driver (and the passenger) stood during movement. Its stability was ensured by the displacement of the axle to the rear of the body and the wheels extended to the sides. For ease of use, the chariot was equipped with spoked wheels. Harnessed by a couple or four horses.

Comit("companion" of the emperor) - one of the highest court titles.

Comitia- People's Assembly, the main legislative body of the Roman Republic, which also had electoral and judicial rights. They were divided into curiate comitia - gathered by curiae, tributary comitia - by tribes, centuria comitia - by centuri.

Consul- consuls were the names of two senior officials of the Roman Republic, elected by the People's Assembly for a period of one year. During the period of the republic, the consuls convened the Senate and the National Assembly, monitored the implementation of the decisions made. During the war, they commanded armies. At the end of the term of office, the consuls received the administration of a province and the title of proconsul.

Kurultay- Congress of the Mongol nobility to discuss important matters.

Curonian- Old Latvian people in the western part of Latvia. In the VII-VIII centuries. repelled the raids of the Scandinavians. After stubborn resistance (1210-1267), they were conquered by the German crusaders.

Laurentian Chronicle- written by the monk Laurentius and other scribes in 1377. It is based on the Vladimir vault of 1305. It begins with the "Tale of Bygone Years" (the oldest list).

Legate- Roman officer, commander of the legion.

Legion- the main organizational unit of the Roman army throughout its existence; the standard legion consisted of ten cohorts (a total of 4.5-6 thousand legionnaires), an equestrian detachment of 300 horsemen, as well as the throwing machines attached to it, auxiliary units of archers, slingers and doth throwers; depending on the historical period and the specific military-political situation, the Roman army could consist of 4-30 legions.

Letty (Latgalians)- an ancient Latvian people in the eastern part of modern Latvia.

Livonian landmastership- possession of the Teutonic Order in Livonia. Often called the Livonian Order. Defeated by Russian troops during the Livonian War in 1561.

Do you- the Baltic people inhabiting the lower reaches of the Western Dvina.

Lorica- type of armor. It was a tight-fitting leather jacket with metal badges sewn onto it.

Mazovia- one of the historical regions of Poland, located in the extreme north-east of the country. During the period of feudal fragmentation, it was, in fact, an independent state, by its very own geographic location confronted with the need to resolve complex foreign policy issues.

Mayord(head of the house; palace steward) - an official in the Frankish state under the Merovingians (late V-mid-VIII centuries). From the middle of the 7th century. Majordoms have largely concentrated state power in their hands. Mayord Pepin the Short became king in 751 and laid the foundation for the Carolingian dynasty.

Maniple- Roman military unit, consisting of 2 centuries.

Margiana- a region in Central Asia, located on the Marg River (modern Murghab).

Brand- a monetary unit common in medieval Western Europe. In different places it could be about 210-290 grams of silver.

Medes- a people subject to the authority of the Persian king. Median warriors made up a significant part of the military forces of the Persian state.

Cavalry Chief- in Rome, the assistant to the dictator, the first person with him. Was appointed by the dictator.

New kingdom- the period of the history of Ancient Egypt (1580-1070 BC)

Noyon- the name of the leaders of the ancient Mongolian aristocratic families (XI century-first half of the XII century), then representatives of the nobility (before the formation of the Mongolian People's Republic).

Normans- North Germanic tribes that inhabited Scandinavia and made in the VIII-XI centuries. predatory trips to many European countries.

Nuker- vigilante, bodyguard of the Mongol noyon or khan.

Obelisk- a monumental structure in the form of a quadrangular pillar, which tapers upwards and ends in a small pyramid. Egyptian obelisks were hewn from red granite, smoothly polished and covered with hieroglyphs on all sides. Usually they were erected in front of palaces and temples in honor of any significant events.

"Odyssey"- an ancient Greek epic poem about the wanderings of Odysseus, attributed to Homer. Created somewhat later than the Iliad (consists of approximately 12,100 verses).

Ecumene- in the ideas of the ancient Greeks, a part of the Earth inhabited by man. For the first time, a description of the ecumene is found in the Greek geographer of the 6th - early 5th century. BC. Hecateus of Miletus, who included in this concept Europe (except for North), Asia Minor and Western Asia, India and North Africa.

Oirat- a non-noble Mongol nomad warrior.

Hospitaller Order(Johannites) - a spiritual-knightly order, founded in Palestine by the crusaders at the beginning of the XII century. The original residence was the Jerusalem Hospital (home for pilgrims) of St. John. In 1530-1798. Johannites on the island of Malta (Order of Malta). Since 1834, the residence of the Johannites in Rome.

Order of the Swordsmen- a spiritual knightly order that operated in the Baltic States in the first half of the 13th century. After being defeated by the Lithuanians at Shauliai (1236), he became a member of the Teutonic Order (1237).

Order of the Knights Templar(Templars) - a spiritual-knightly order, founded in Jerusalem around 1118 or 1119. The name was given to the location of the residence of the Grand Master of the order (near the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem). In addition to military activities, members of the order were engaged in trade, usury (in the 13th century they were the largest bankers in Western Europe). In 1312 the Pope abolished the order.

Ostrogoths- Germanic tribes who came from Scandinavia to Eastern Europe around the end of the 2nd-beginning of the 3rd century. AD and captured territories up to the Black Sea coast in the south, the lower Don in the east and the Danube in the west. After being driven out of the Northern Black Sea region by the Huns, they moved to the West and created a state in the northwest of the Balkan Peninsula, and then captured Italy. The state of the Ostrogoths fell in 555 under the blows of the Byzantines.

Pan- the deity of the wild nature among the Greeks, capable, among other things, to bring unreasonable fear to people who did not please him in any way (hence the word "panic").

Panstvo- the name of the highest nobility in the Czech Republic and Poland

Parthian kingdom- the state in 250 BC-224 AD southeast of the Caspian Sea. During its heyday (mid-1st century BC) it occupied the space from Mesopotamia to the Indus River. Rival of Rome in the East. Since 224 A.D. its territory was part of the Sassanid state.

Patricians- (from the Latin "pater" - "father"), in Ancient Rome, originally all indigenous population, which was part of the tribal community, and then the privileged part of the citizens, the aristocracy.

Pedzetairas- foot soldiers of the Macedonian phalanx.

Pentera(or quinquereme) - a type of warship with five rows of oars. The battle line consisted mainly of penters in naval battles of this time. Thus, in the Hellenistic era, the pentera became the main type of warship, which in the classical era was the trière (the Roman name is trireme).

Persian kingdom- a state-political entity founded by the Persians in 553-550. BC. and lasted until 330, when it collapsed under the blows of Alexander the Great. In the period of its greatest prosperity, it included the territory of the Near and Middle East. It was under the rule of the Achaemenid royal dynasty.

"Song of Roland"- a medieval French epic poem (the earliest and most perfect edition is Oxford, around 1170); historical background make up legends about the campaigns of Charlemagne in Spain against the Arabs. Roland, the protagonist of the poem, is the embodiment of chivalry and patriotism.

Pechenegs- unification of Turkic and other tribes in the VIII-IX centuries. in the trans-Volga steppes, in the IX century. in the southern Russian steppes; nomadic pastoralists. They raided Russia. In 1036 they were defeated by Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Part of the Pechenegs moved to Hungary.

Pilum- a Roman throwing spear on a thick wooden shaft, one and a half to two meters long.

Pythia- a priestess-soothsayer in the famous temple of the ancient Greek god Apollo in the city of Delphi. Sitting on a tripod, she uttered in a state of ecstasy predictions, which the priests wrote down in poetic form.

Plebeians- in Rome, the originally free population, which was not part of the tribal community. As a result of a stubborn struggle with the patricians (early V-early III centuries BC), they achieved inclusion in the Roman people, equal rights with the patricians. In a figurative sense, they are commoners.

Later kingdom- one of the periods in the history of Ancient Egypt (1070-525 BC).

Policy- Greek city-state, which was at the same time a civil community of full citizens. The territory of the polis usually included the city center itself and the chora - the neighboring agricultural district.

Polovtsi- a nomadic Turkic-speaking people who entered the 9th-early 11th centuries. to the Kimak Kaganate (in South-Western Siberia). From the middle of the 11th century, the Polovtsians occupied the Eastern European steppes, invaded the Northern Black Sea region, displacing the Pechenegs from there. Since the end of the XII century. they settle in the Volga-Dnieper interfluve, nicknamed the "Polovtsian steppe" (Desht-i-Kipchak). From the end of the XI to the beginning of the XIII century. controlled almost the entire territory of Taurica, made constant raids on the Russian lands. The Byzantines called them Comans, Kumans, and Russian sources called them Kipchaks. Later, the Polovtsians entered the Tatar The Golden Horde, making up one of the main components of its population.

Sling- throwing weapons. It was a rope or leather belt approximately one and a half meters long with a braided, sewn or made entirely belt, a bowl-shaped widening in the middle. One end of the sling was made smooth, and the other - with a loop, which was put on the wrist.

Praetor- in Rome, the second rank of state office (after the consul). The praetor was in charge of judicial proceedings in Rome. After the expiration of the term, he was given control over one of the provinces with the right of commander-in-chief.

Prefects- at different times the commanders of auxiliary detachments, military bases, formations of warships; Praetorian Prefect - Chief of the Praetorian Guard.

Primipil- First Centurion of the First Cohort, Senior Centurion of the Legion.

Principate- in ancient Rome, a specific form of monarchy, in which republican institutions are formally preserved. The period of the principate, or early empire, spans from 27 BC. until 193 A.D. [the reign of the Julian-Claudian dynasties (27 BC - 68 AD), Flavius ​​(69-96), Antonines (96-192)]. Augustus and his successors, as princeps of the Senate, simultaneously concentrated in their hands the highest civil and military power. Formally, the republican structure continued to exist: the senate, popular assemblies (comitia), magistracy, but the actual power was in the hands of the princeps.

Principles- soldiers of the second line of battle formation of the legion.

Provinces- a territory that was under the rule of Rome and located outside Italy.

Prussians- a group of Baltic tribes that inhabited part of the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. In the XIII century. subjugated by the Teutonic Order, and then merged with the German settlers. According to the name of the Prussian tribes, it received the name Prussia.

Pune- Roman name for the Carthaginians; hence the wars of Rome against Carthage are called Punic.

Early kingdom- one of the periods in the history of Ancient Egypt (2000-2800 BC).

Regent- a person actually governing the state on behalf of a minor ruler.

Saxons- a group of Germanic tribes. Lived between the lower reaches of the Rhine and Elbe rivers. In the V-VI centuries. part of the Saxons participated in the conquest of Britain. Mainland Saxons 772-804 were subdued by the Franks.

Samnites- the ancient Italian mountain tribes, who were mainly engaged in cattle breeding. In the V century. BC. part of the Samnites settled in the west and southwest of the Apennine Peninsula. In the second half of the IV-early III century. BC. fought wars with Rome, which ended in their conquest. The Samnites supported the generals Pyrrhus and Hannibal in the fight against Rome. Almost completely destroyed by the Roman commander Sulla (1st century BC).

Saracens- in the Middle Ages in Europe, the Arabs and some other peoples of the Middle East, as well as Muslims in general, were called so.

Sarissa- a long spear (up to 5.4 meters) with a lead counterweight at the blunt end of the shaft, which the soldiers of the Macedonian phalanx were armed with.

Sassanids- the dynasty of the Persian shahs (kings) in 224-651. Founder - Ardashir I. The Sassanid state was conquered by the Arabs (VII century).

Satrapy- the military-administrative district of the Persian kingdom, ruled by a satrap.

Shogun- the title of the rulers of Japan in 1192-1867, under which the imperial dynasty was deprived of real power.

Shogunate- the government of the shoguns in Japan in 1192-1867. It was also called bakufu.

Sela(Selons) - an ancient Latvian tribal union, which occupied by the XIII century. land in the south of modern Latvia and a neighboring region in the north-east of modern Lithuania. Subordinated in the 30s. XIII century German crusaders.

Semigaly (Semigallians)- an ancient Latvian tribe in the middle part of Latvia, in the basin of the Lielupe River. In the XIII century. fought stubbornly against the German crusaders, by 1290 they fell under the rule of the crusaders. Subsequently, having merged with other Latvian tribes, they became part of the Latvian people.

Senate- in Rome, a government body, consisting of 600 senators - former military officials, a magistrate. The Senate approved laws and election results, supervised the activities of magistrates and gave them advice, resolved issues of foreign policy, supervised finances and the observance of sacred rituals.

Syracuse- the most powerful of the Greek states of Sicily. The ruler of Syracuse owned most of the east coast of the island.

Scutarii ("shield-bearers")- the bodyguards of the emperor.

Scutum- large legionary shield; as a rule, it had a rectangular or oval shape in plan and rounded when viewed from above.

Middle kingdom- one of the periods in the history of Ancient Egypt (2050-1700 BC).

Hundred Years War (1337-1453)- the war between England, France and their allies over the English possessions on the continent. It ended with the victory of France.

Strategists- officials in Athens; in the number of ten people were elected annually by the people's assembly and represented the executive branch. Their main task was to lead the Athenian militia and fleet. The word "strategist" itself means "warlord".

Strategy- development and implementation in practice of military policy, military doctrine and military concepts; the highest field of military art, covering the planning, organization and conduct of war, campaigns and operations.

Sum(Suomi) is an ancient Finnish tribe. Since the conquest in the middle of the XII century. Sumi, who lived on the southwestern coast of the country, began the conquest of Finland by Sweden. Subsequently, together with other tribes, it formed the Finnish nation.

Surena- Commander-in-Chief of the Parthian army.

Taborites- a radical trend among the followers of Hus, which had the majority of supporters among the peasant poor and was named after its main stronghold - the fortress city of Tabor, which was founded by peasants who fled from their estates on one of the most inaccessible peaks of the South of Bohemia. At the head of the military detachments of the Taborites were elected hetmans.

Taxiarch- the commander of a taxis, an infantry unit in the Macedonian army, numbering approximately 1,500 people.

Tactics- an integral area of ​​military art, covering the theory and practice of preparing and conducting combat by subunits, units (ships) and formations of all branches of the armed forces, combat arms and special forces. The theory of tactics examines the patterns, nature, content and methods of conducting combat operations.

Talent- weight and counting unit in antiquity. The most common was the account for Attic talents (26.196 kg).

Tanguts- the people of the Tibeto-Burmese group. In the X century. created the Xi-Xia state in northern China. After the defeat of the state by the Mongols, they disappeared as an independent ethnos, part of the Tanguts became part of the Tibetans of the Qinghai province.

Warband- Catholic spiritual knightly order, founded at the end of the XII century. in Palestine during the Crusades. In the XIII century. in 1525 in the Baltics on the lands seized by the order from the Prussians, Lithuanians, Poles, there was a state of the Teutonic Order. The order suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. From 1466 - a vassal of Poland. In 1525, his possessions in the Baltics were turned into the secular Duchy of Prussia.

Teutons- a Germanic tribe that lived during the time of Julius Caesar near the northeastern Roman borders. Simultaneously with the Cimbri they made a major invasion - the "invasion" of Gaul and Italy in 113-101. BC.

Tyranny- in Ancient Greece, a form of state power established by force and based on sole rule.

Triarii- soldiers of the third line of battle formation of the legion.

Trier- the main type of warship of that time. It had three rows of oars on each side and a bronze ram. In addition to the sailors, there was a boarding team on each trire. Among the Athenians, it consisted of 14 hoplites (heavily armed soldiers) and 4 archers.

Thirteen Years' War (1454-1466)- Poland's war with the Teutonic Order. Poland's victory was secured by the Peace of Torun in 1466, according to which Eastern Pomerania (with Gdansk), the lands of Chelminskaya, Mikhailovskaya and others were transferred to Poland; The Teutonic Order recognized itself as a vassal of the Polish king.

Triumvirate- during the period civil wars 1st century BC. an alliance of three influential politicians and generals with the aim of seizing state power. The 1st Triumvirate arose in 60 (or 59) as a private agreement between Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey and Mark Licinius Crassus; in 56, in the city of Luke, at the meeting of the triumvirs, the union was confirmed. The initiative and the leading role in the alliance belonged to Caesar. In fact, shortly after its creation, the 1st triumvirate became a Roman government. Disbanded after the death of Crassus in 53, the 2nd triumvirate arose at the beginning of the civil wars after the death of Caesar in November 43. It included Octavian (Augustus), Mark Antony and Mark Aemilius Lepidus - Caesarians who united against Caesar's assassins - Brutus, Cassius , other Republicans and the Senate. The 2nd triumvirate, in contrast to the 1st, was approved by the comitia, the triumvirs received extraordinary powers "for the organization of state affairs." In fact, it disintegrated in 36 (formally existed until 31 BC).

Tumen- the highest organizational and tactical unit of the Mongol-Tatar army in the XII-XIV centuries. numbering 10 thousand soldiers; subdivided into thousands, and those into hundreds and tens; headed by a temnik.

Turks- Seljuks - a people that emerged in the 10th century. in Central Asia on the basis of a small Turkmen tribe of Oghuz Turks, led by a leader from the Seljuk clan. By the middle of the XI century. they conquered part of Central Asia, the lands of Iran, Transcaucasia, Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor.

Turkopoli- in the Christian states of the East, light cavalry (often horse archers), recruited, for the most part, from the local population.

Tysyatsky- the commander of the city militia in Novgorod, at the same time was in charge of the court for commercial affairs and tax collection.

Umbon- metal top of the shield; actually umbo - the top of the Roman legionary shield; on its outer side, various figures and signs were often engraved or engraved, for example, the personal emblem of the owner of the shield; inside were the data identifying the legionnaire: name, unit number, etc .; it is believed that in cases where the umbon was made not hemispherical, but conical, it could serve in hand-to-hand combat as an auxiliary striking element

Pharaoh- literally "Great House", allegorical designation of the Egyptian king.

Phalanx- a close combat formation of the Greek army, consisting of several rows (usually from 8 to 12) hoplites. When attacking, the rear ranks pressed against the front, thereby increasing the force of a frontal impact on the enemy. In place of the fallen in the front row of the warrior immediately stood another, from the next row. To keep the alignment in line, the phalanx usually went on the attack to the sound of a flute.

Francs- Germanic tribes who lived in the III century. along the Lower and Middle Rhine. They were divided into salic and ripoir. Under Clovis I (486-511), the Frankish state was formed.

Canaan is the ancient name of Palestine.

Hittites- an ancient people who lived in the central part of Asia Minor. The Hittite kingdom was founded. The Hittites were the first people known to us to smelt iron and traded in iron implements.

Gonfalon- 1. Battle banner. 2. Structural and tactical unit of the medieval army, a detachment of knights who fought under one banner. The number of gonfalons ranged from 180 to 300 people.

Centurion- the commander of a Roman combat unit of 100 people, a centuria, chosen from experienced soldiers or appointed commander.

Cups- the moderate wing of the Hussites. Having concluded in 1433 an agreement (Prague Compactates) with Catholic forces, they inflicted (1434) a decisive defeat on the Taborites at Lipan.

Black earth(Ta-Kemet) - this is how the Egyptians called their country, thereby emphasizing its difference from the kingdom of the evil god Set, the red and yellow sands of the desert outside the Nile Valley.

Scaled carapace- armor, consisting of a leather base and sewn on it, like a tile, metal plates-scales.

Electr(or White gold) - an alloy of gold and silver, in ancient times widely used in jewelry, and later in coinage. Could be both natural and artificial.

Hellas is the traditional name for Greece.

Hellenes- self-name of the ancient Greeks.

Emir- in Muslim countries, the title of ruler or person who belonged to the ruling dynasty.

Esty is the ancient name of Estonians.

Echelon- a military unit of the combat formation of troops or a marching column, in which the second echelon is located in depth or in a ledge behind the first, the third behind the second, etc.

List of dates on the history of Russia 862 - 1618

• 1.862 year Calling of Rurik to Novgorod
• 2.879 Death of Rurik
• 3.882 Unification of Novgorod and Kiev under the rule of Oleg
• 4.882-912 The reign of Prince Oleg Kiev
• 5.912 - 945 Prince Igor's reign in Kiev
• 6.945 The murder of Igor by the Drevlyans
• 7.945 -957 reign of Princess Olga in Kiev
• 8.957-972 years the reign of Prince Svyatoslav in Kiev
• 9.980 - 1015 years the reign of Prince Vladimir in Kiev
• 10.988 Baptism of Rus
• 11.1019 - 1054 reign of Prince Yaroslav the Wise
• 12.1043 The last military clash between Russia and Byzantium
• 13.1097 year Lyubech Congress - the beginning of fragmentation in Russia
• 14.1113-1125 The reign of Prince Vladimir Monomakh in Kiev
• 15.1125-1157 The reign of Prince Yuri Dolgoruky in Suzdal
• 16.1147 The first mention of Moscow
• 17.1157 - 1174 The reign of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky in Vladimir
• 18.1176 - 1212 The reign of Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest in Vladimir
• 19.1185 campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians,
• 20.1123 Battle on Kalka
• 21.1237 - 1242 Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia, beginning of Mongol-Tatar rule
• 22.1240 Battle of the Neva
• 23.1242 Battle of the Ice
• 24.1315 - 1341 Gediminas' reign in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
• 25.1327 Uprising in Tver against Baskak Chol-Khan
• 26.1325 - 1340 The reign of Prince Ivan Kalita in Moscow
• 27.1359-1389 The reign of Prince Dmitry Donskoy in Moscow
• 28.1378 Battle on the Vozha River
• 29.1380 Battle of Kulikovo
• 30.1389-1425 reign of Vasily I in Moscow
• 31.1410 Battle of Grunwald
• 32.1433 The construction of the Faceted Chamber is completed
• 33.1462-1505 The reign of Prince Ivan III in Moscow
• 34.1478 annexation of Novgorod to Moscow
• 35.1480 Standing on the Ugra, the end of the Mongol-Tatar rule over Russia
• 36.1485 Annexation of Tver to Moscow
• 37.1497 year of the Code of Law of Ivan III
• 38.1505 - 1533 The reign of Prince Vasily III
• 39.1514 capture of Smolensk by Russian troops
• 40.1533 - 1584 The reign of Ivan IV the Terrible
• 41.1547 Ivan IV the Terrible is proclaimed tsar
• 42.1549 First Zemsky Sobor
• 43.1550 Code of Law of Ivan IV the Terrible
• 44.1550 Military reform of Ivan IV the Terrible
• 45.1552 Capture of Kazan by Russian troops
• 46.1556 Accession of the Astrakhan Khanate to Russia
• 47.1558 - 1583 Livonian War
• 48.1564 The first printed book in Russia "Apostle" by Ivan Fedorov
• 49.1565 - 1572 Oprichnina of Ivan IV the Terrible
• 50.1581 - 1584 Yermak's campaign to Siberia
• 51.1581 Decree on the introduction of protected years
• 52.1576-1584 reign of Ivan the Terrible
• 53.1584 - 1598 of the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich
• 54.1598 - 1605 of the reign of Boris Godunov
• 55.1603 Cotton Rise
• 56.1605 Appearance of False Dmitry I
• 57.1608 - 1610 The Board of False Dmitry II
• 58.1598 - 16013 Time of Troubles in Russia
• 59.1612 Liberation of Moscow from Polish invaders
• 60.1613 Election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom

List of terms

memorable historical date term

• 1. VECHE - People's Assembly in Russia.
• 2. PEOPLE'S SUPPORT - a military formation, consisting of citizens and created on a voluntary basis in the event of hostilities.
• 3. MORES - customs, ways of social life.
• 4. LANGUAGE - religious beliefs, characterized by the fact that each tribe, people had many of their own gods.
• 5. Tribute - natural or monetary extortion from the conquered tribes and peoples.
• 6. COLONIZATION - settlement, development of vacant land.
• 7. DRUZHINA - an armed group of people that make up the army of the prince.
• 8. PRINCE - military leader, stood at the head of the squad
• 9. POLUDYE - detour the prince of Kiev with the retinue of their lands to collect tribute.
• 10. POSTS - places of collection of tribute. They were established by the reform of Princess Olga.
• 11. LESSONS - the size of the tribute and the tribute itself in Ancient Russia. They were established by the reform of Princess Olga.
• 12. BISHOP - the highest cleric in the Orthodox and other churches, the head of the church district.
• 13. HERESY - a teaching that has deviated from the dominant provisions of religious teaching, which are considered an immutable truth and not subject to criticism.
• 14. MITROPOLIT - the title of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church.
• 15. CHURCH REGULATIONS - a set of rules governing the activities of the church.
• 16. BOYARIN - senior warrior, large landowner, owner of a fiefdom.
• 17. VOTCHINA - hereditary land tenure.
• 18. DYNASTIC MARRIAGE - marriage between representatives of the ruling dynasties of different states.
• 19. REFEREE - the head of local government, appointed by the central government.
• 20. BASKAK - the representative of the Horde Khan in Russia.
• 21. EXIT - a regular tribute collected in Russia for the Khan of the Golden Horde.
• 22. YARLYK - khan's charter, which gave the right to Russian princes to rule in their principalities.
• 23. BOYARSKAYA DUMA - the supreme advisory body under the Grand Duke.
• 24. FEEDING - a system of keeping officials at the expense of the local population.
• 25. LOCALITY - the procedure for filling senior positions, depending on the nobility of the family and the importance of the positions held by ancestors.
• 26. TAXES - compulsory payments established by the state and levied from the population.
• 27. OKOLNICHIY - the second most important rank of a member of the Boyar Duma.
• 28. ELDERLY - cash collection from peasants when leaving the feudal lord on St. George's Day.
• 29. ESTATE - conditional land holding, given for military and government service without the right to sale, exchange, inheritance.
• 30. LANDER - the owner of the estate.
• 31. Nobles - people who received a land allotment for their service to the sovereign.
• 32. CHILDREN BOYARSKIE - landowners, nobles.
• 33. ZEMSKY CATHEDRAL - a body consisting of representatives of various strata of the population under the tsar, convened to solve the most important state affairs.
• 34. ORDERS - central government bodies of Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries.
• 35. CENTRALIZED STATE - a state in which there is a political and economic unification of all lands around a strong central government.
• 36. OSTROG - a point for the deployment of military detachments, reinforced with a wooden fence in the form of vertically dug pointed pillars.
• 37. VSPOLIE - the outskirts of Moscow, where fields and meadows began.
• 38. RULE LAW - such social order in which the owner of the land had the right to forced labor, property and identity of the peasants attached to his land and belonging to him.
• 39. OPALA - punishment (disfavor) of the king, which was expressed in various forms, for example, in the prohibition to appear at the palace, house arrest, deprivation of ranks, exile, imprisonment.
• 40. OPRICHNINA - a special procedure for governing the country under Ivan IV.
• 41. POSAD - a part of a Russian city, usually outside the city wall, inhabited by merchants and artisans.
• 42. CHELOBITNAYA - written application, complaint.
• 43. RYADOVICH - in the Old Russian state, a feudal-dependent person from the master, with whom he was bound by the obligations under the “row” agreement.
• 44. Serf - a category of feudal-dependent people in Russia 10 - early 18 centuries. According to the legal status, they approached the slaves.
• 45. SMERD is a category of the population according to Russian Truth. A peasant outside the communal organization, directly dependent on the prince in Kievan Rus during the 11th - 14th centuries.
• 46. ​​VARIANS - settlers from the Baltic region, whose representatives were present as mercenary warriors or traders in the Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries)
• 47. TIME OF EMERGENCY - designation of the period in the history of Russia from 1598 to 1613, marked by natural disasters, the Polish-Swedish intervention, the most difficult political, economic, state and social crisis.
• 48. MANUFAKTURA - a form of industrial production based on the division of labor and handicraft techniques, preceding large-scale machine industry.
• 49. SEMIBOYARSHINA - accepted by historians the name of the transitional government of seven boyars in 1610-1613.
• 50. GOLDEN HORDE - an artificial state formation, formed by the forcible seizure of foreign land.
• 51. NUMBERS - they rewrote the population from house to house, set levies in the form of tribute, submarine and military duties.
• 52. ULUS - tribal association with a certain territory, subject to the khan or the leader among the peoples of Central and Wed. Asia, Siberia
• 53. PODOL - a part of an ancient Russian city located at the foot of a mountain in a low-lying place, usually near a river.
• 54. ICONOPSIS is the art of depicting saints according to strictly defined canons.
• 55. PODOL - a part of an ancient Russian city located at the foot of a mountain in a low-lying place, usually near a river.
• 56. CITY - large settlement, the inhabitants of which are employed, as a rule, outside of agriculture.
• 57. THE WAY "FROM THE VARIANS TO THE GREKS" - the name of the water trade route in Kievan Rus, connecting Northern Russia with the South, the Baltic States and Scandinavia with Byzantium.
• 58. TYSYATSKY - the head of the city administration in Novgorod.
• 59. THE GREAT PRINCE - the head of the great principalities in Russia X-XV centuries. and the Russian state of the 15th - mid-16th centuries.