Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Semantic interpretation. Semantic dictionaries

Russian semantic

Russian semantic - Sixtomic edition (4 volumes published, 1998-2007), in which the system of modern Russian commonly used vocabulary is presented in the multistage classes of words.

The primary unit description in the dictionary is the meaning of the word; Such values \u200b\u200bare grouped by parts of speech and further - according to the lexical and semantic classes of words and their individual sites. The dictionary in general covers about 300,000 lexical units - the values \u200b\u200bof words and phraseologism. Each vocabulary volume is a separate completed work and can be used as an independent lexicographic study.

Bibliography

• Karaululov Yu. N., Molchanov V. I., Afanasyev V. A., Mikhalev N. V. Russian Semantic Dictionary: Experience Avtomat. Building thesaurus: from the concept to the word / answer. ed. S. G. Barhudarov. M.: Science, 1983. 566С. extra. Circulation 5000 copies. 1600 Themes, OK. 10,000 Lex. units.
• Russian semantic dictionary. Dictionary, systematized by classes of words and values \u200b\u200b/ IN-T RUS. Yaz. them. V. V. Vinogradova RAS. Under total. ed. N. Yu. Swedovaya.
  • T. 1: words indicating (pronouns). Words are called: Nouns names (all living things. Earth. Space). Belousova A. S., Youth V. K., Kaminskaya Yu. A. M.: Azbukovnik ,. Xxv, 807c. 3000 copies 39000 words and phraseological expressions. Word-declaration..635-714.
  • T. 2: Nouns names with a specific value. Everything created by the hands and mind of the person (settlements, processed areas of the road; material products); Organizations and institutions. The names of objects in form, state, composition, location, use. Swedov N. Yu., Dmitrenko S. N., Koporskaya E. S., Lyapon M. V., Agafonova L. L., Belousova A. S., Gabachan K. V., Mikhailova M. S., Plotnikova . A., Safonova Yu. A., Khodakova E. P., Kaminskaya Yu. A., Rogova M. V., Junoon V. K. M.: Azbukovnik. . Xxxi, 762c. 3000 copies 40000 words and phrases. Sloudcase..611-674.
  • T. 3: Nouns Nouns with an abstract value: Genesis. Matter, space, time. Communication, relationships, dependence. Spiritual world. The state of nature, man. Society. M.: Azbukovnik ,. 720 p.
  • T. 4: verb. Verbs with a weakened significant meaning: ligament verbs and semi-significant verbs, verbs phase, verbs modal, verbs of connections, relationships and naming. Dective verbs. Female verbs. Verbs with the meaning of actively active, activity, activity. M.: RAS Iir, 2007. 952 p.

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The content of the article

SEMANTICS,in the broad sense of the word - the analysis of the relationship between the language expressions and the world, real or imaginary, as well as this ratio (cf. type expression semantics words) and a set of such relationships (so, we can talk about the semantics of some language). This attitude is that language expressions (words, phrases, suggestions, texts) denote what is in the world - objects, quality (or properties), actions, ways to perform actions, relationships, situations and their sequences. The term "semantics" is formed from the Greek root associated with the idea of \u200b\u200b"designation" (cf. semantikos "denoting"). The relationship between the expressions of the natural language and the actual or imaginary world explores the linguistic semantics, which is the section of linguistics. Semantic is also called one of the sections of formal logic, describing the relationship between the expressions of artificial formal languages \u200b\u200band their interpretation in a certain model of the world. This article deals with linguistic semantics.

Semantics as a section of linguistics answers the question of how the person, knowing the words and grammatical rules of any natural language, it turns out to be able to transfer the most diverse information about the world with their help (including about its own inner world), even if it faces With such a task, and understand what information about the world contributes to any statement facing him, even if he hears him for the first time.

The semantic component has already been recognized as a necessary part for a long time. complete description Language - grammar. Different theories of the semantic description contributes to the formation of general principles of semantic description. For example, for generating grammar, the principles of construction of the semantic component are laid by American linguists J. Katts and J.Fodor and further developed by R.Jackendoff, and, let's say, for grammar (models) of the "meaning - text" type, the corresponding component was developed by representatives of the Moscow Semantic School: .D.Apresyan, A.K.zholkovsky, I.A. Melchuk and others. The semantic component necessarily includes a dictionary (lexicon), in which every word is reported that it is indicating, i.e. Each word is compared its value in this language, and the combination rules (interaction) word values \u200b\u200bfor which the meaning of more complex designs is formed, primarily proposals.

The meaning of the word in the dictionary is described using dictionary definition, or voltage, which is an expression on the same natural language or on a special semantic language specifically designed for this purpose, in which the meaning of the interpreted word is presented more deployed (explicitly) and, ideally, strictly. So, the meaning of the Russian word bachelor In the semantic component of the description of the Russian language, it can be represented as it is done in conventional explanatory dictionaries, in the form of ordinary Russian phrases "a man who has reached the marriage age and has never consisting of marriage" or in the form of a record in a special semantic language, for example , (L. x.) [Human ( x.) & Male ( x.) & Adult ( x.) & (Consisted of marriage ( x.)]. There are quite a lot of different artificial semantic languages, and they are arranged quite differently.

As can be seen from the above examples, with interpretation of words and phrases with the help of the natural language, the resulting expressions, as well as their individual components, if they are mentioned separately, is accepted in the letter to record in single quotes; In the dictionaries, this is not done, for from the structure itself vocabulary article And so it is clear that to the right of the word, which is the entrance to the article of an intelligent dictionary, is worth the interpretation of this word (). Natural language expressions that interpret the value of the proposals are usually written in double quotes. Word recording of the natural language capital letters and using hyphens on unusual places means that these words in this entry are elements of an artificial language that can and not coincide with the natural language; So, a marriage is one element, and not three words; variable x. And the sign of the conjunction & is also the elements of an artificial language. Artificial languages \u200b\u200bcan be used to interpret the values \u200b\u200bof both words and proposals. No matter whether natural or artificial language It is used for interpretation, it is in relation to the language, the expressions of which are interpreted, has the status of a meta language (from Greek. Meta "after"), i.e. language talking about language; natural language Thus, it can be a methanewoman in relation to itself. Elements of the methane language can also be (and are often, for example, in illustrated dictionaries) of various kinds graphic Images - schemes, drawings, etc.

About how vocabulary definitions create and what requirements for them are presented, will be described below.

The semantic component of the complete description of the language is a model of the part of the knowledge of the language, which is associated with the relationship between the words and the world. This model should obtain an explanation of such empirical methods established by phenomena, as equivalent to (synonymy), ambiguity (polysemia), semantic abnormality (including inconsistency and tautology) language expressions. So it is easy to verify that for all carriers of the Russian language offer It was a broad-grade hat Indicates the same state of affairs as the offer He was in a hat with wide fields.It is believed that this fact is adequately reflected in the semantic component of the description of the language, if, taking the interpretation of the values \u200b\u200bof the corresponding words from the dictionary and acting on the explicitly agreed rules for combining values, we will receive the same semantic records called "semantic ideas" or "semantic interpretations" of these proposals. Similarly, all carriers of the Russian language will agree that the proposal Visiting relatives may be tediousindicates two different features: the ability to tire, visiting relatives, and the opportunity to tire, taking relatives who visited you. It means that in the semantic component, this proposal should be compared with two semantic ideas differing from each other, otherwise it will not be an adequate reflection of semantic knowledge about Russian.

As an independent linguistic discipline, the semantics was released relatively recently, at the end of the 19th century; The term "semantics" itself for the designation of the science section was first introduced in 1883 by the French linguist M. Brealam, who was interested historical development Language values. Until the end of the 1950s, along with him, the term "SemaSiology" was also widely used, now preserved only as not too commonly used by one of the semantics sections. However, issues related to the conduct of semantics were raised and, one way or another, were already solved in the oldest of the linguistic traditions known to us. After all, one of the main reasons forcing us to pay attention to language is the misunderstanding of what the oral or written statement referred to us (text) or some part of it. Therefore, in learning the language interpretation of individual signs or entire texts - one of of the most important species Activities in the field of semantics - has long been an important place. So, in China, in antiquity, dictionaries were created containing the interpretations of hieroglyphs. In Europe, antique and medieval philologists amounted to glossy, i.e. Interpretation of incomprehensible words in writing monuments. Truly rapid development of linguistic semantics began since the 1960s; Currently, it is one of the central in their meaning of the sections of the science of language.

In the European scientific tradition, the question of the attitude between the words and "things", the subjects to which they treated, was first delivered by the ancient Greek philosophers, but to this day, various aspects of this relationship continue to be refined. Consider the ratio of the word to "things" more carefully.

Words allow us to mention things both in their presence and in their absence, - to mention not only what is "here", but also what is "there," not only the present, but also the past. Of course, the word is just a noise that began to be used for speaking about something; By itself, this noise does not matter, but it acquires it due to its use in the language. Learning the meaning of the words, we will not know any fact of nature, such as the law of grave, and a kind of agreement on what noises with what things are usually correlated.

The words of the language, being consumed in speech, acquire the classroom, or reference to the objects of the world, about which statement is made. In other words, they have the ability to "send" to objects, introducing these objects (of course, in perfect form) into the consciousness of the addressee. (Of course, it would be more precise to say that the speakers using words can "refer" to a particular fragment of the world.) The essence in the world to which the word belongs is called its reference. So, if I describe someone what happened, I say: Yesterday I planted under my window tree, then word woodsends to a single individual entity - the very only one in its kind tree, which I planted yesterday under my window. We can quite say that the word wood In this statement, it denotes this the most planted tree. You can be, this real individual essence is the meaning of the word wood?

Representatives of that relatively young directions in the semantics, which is called "strong semantics" (to it can be attributed formal semantics»And other varieties of the theoretical semantics, following the formal logic in solving the question of the nature of the relationship between the language and the world), would give a positive response to this question. In any case, from the point of view of "strong semantics", the purpose of the semantic description of the language is that each language expression receives interpretation in a particular model of the world, i.e. To be installed, it corresponds to this expression any element (or configuration of elements) of the model of the world, and if it corresponds, then what (which). Therefore, the problems of reference (related to peace) are in the center of attention of "strong semantics".

In contrast, a more traditional "weak semantics" in the study of relations between the language and the world costs without directly appeal to the actual situation in this world. She recognizes the subject of its research - the meaning of the language expression is not the element (fragment) of the world, to which this expression refers, and the way it does - those rules of use, knowing which language of the language in a specific situation is able to either Shot to the world with the help of this expression, or understand what it refers to. In the future, we will consider the problems of semantics precisely from this position.

If someone wants to invent the procedure for the use of words to the world, it may first seem that for each real essence there should be some word. But if it were so, the number of words required for this would be as infinite, how infinitely the number of things and relations in nature. If a separate word was required for each tree in the world, then only for some trees would have required several million words plus the same for all insects, for all blades, etc. If the language was required by the observance of the principle of "One word - one thing", it would be impossible to use such a tongue.

In fact, there are some words (their relatively few), which will actually relate to the only thing, and are called their own names, for example Hans-Christian Andersenor Beijing. But most words are applied in relation to a separate person or things, but to a group, or class of things. Generic name woodused for each of those many billion things that we call trees. (There are also words named subclasses of trees - maple, Birch, elm etc., - but these are the names of smaller classes, not separate trees.) Run There is a name of the class of actions, distingurable from other actions - such as crawling or walking. Bluethere is the name of the class of colors, smoothly overgoing at one end to green, and on the other - in blue. Over There is a class name, and not your own name for the relationship between the lamp in my ceiling and my desk, because it also attaches to the attitude between the lamp you have on the ceiling and your desk, as well as to an innumerable set of other relations. Thus, the languages \u200b\u200bachieved the necessary savings through the use of classes names. Class, or many of those entities in relation to which this language expression can be used (in particular, the word) is called a denotate or extension of this expression (often, however, the term "denotat" is used and as a synonym for the term "referment", introduced above ). With one of the existing approaches to the definition of the word value in the semantics, the value is called denotate - a plurality of entities that can be designated with this word. But another understanding of the meaning in which it is identified with the conditions of its applicability is more common.

What allows us to use a relatively small number of words for so many things, there is similarity. Things are quite similar to each other, we call the same name. Trees differ from each other with dimensions, outlines, distribution of foliage, but they have some similar features that allow them to call them all trees. When we wish to draw attention to differences within this gigantic general class, we look for more detailed similarities within more fractional groups and thus identify specific types of trees. Finally, if we intend to repeat some concrete tree repeatedly, we can assign him your own name (for example, Elm on Povarskaya) Just as we call the child or a pet.

In addition to achievable linguistic assessment, the existence of generic names has another advantage: it emphasizes the similarities between things that are different in many ways. Pomeranian spitches and Russian dogs are not too similar to each other, however, they also belong to the class of dogs. Gottentot and the American manufacturer in many ways are physically and spiritually, but both of them belong to the class of people. However, the existence of nominal names carries in itself and the possible disadvantage: the latter dumping in a bunch of other things can make us consider only similarities between things, and not the differences and therefore thinking not about distinctive features that characterize this or that particular thing as an individual, but about a label, standing on this thing (i.e., a generic term applicable to all things of the same class). "The next pensioner," says the saleswoman, thought exclusively with labels and stereotypes.

These similarities between things, of course, exist in nature before and regardless of our language consumption. But what exactly from the countless similarities of things will be the basis for the classification depends on people and their interests. As a basis for crediting birds and mammals in certain types and subspecies, biologists usually use the structure of the skeleton: if the bird has one bone structure, then it is credited to the class X, and if another is in class Y. It would be possible to classify birds not in structure Skeleton, and in color: then all yellow birds would receive one generic name, and all red - more, regardless of other characteristics. Biologists have not yet been classified animals in this way, mainly because the offspring regularly has the same structure of the skeleton as parents, and not the same color, and biologists would like to be able to apply to the offspring the same name as to parents. But this is a decision taken by people, not by nature; Natural things do not appear in front of us with labels, which are reported to which sections of classifications they fall. Different groups of people with different interests classify things in different ways: some animal can be biologists listed in one classification heading, the producers of the fur - to another, and the tumors - to the third.

Summing up natural objects for classification headings is often the case is simple. For example, animals, referred to as dogs, usually have a long nose, nailed and mashed the tail when they are happy or excited. Things made by people are also often quite easy to sum up under the species headings: this building refers to the class (residential) houses, then to the class of garages, and turn out to the class of Sarai, etc. But there is a problem here: if a person, let's say, lives in a garage or barn, is it not this building also his home? If the garage was once used to accommodate vehicles, but in recent years it is used to store firewood, is it not a barn now? Do we assign a facility to a particular class on the basis of its appearance, or on the basis of the purpose for which it was originally created, or on the basis of what it is used in currently? Obviously, the method of attributing a specific object to the class depends on the criterion used by us, and we choose the criterion depending on what kind of grouping is interested in us more than.

Word definition

When using nominal names, the obvious question is immediately assessed, what will our criteria for using any such word: what conditions should be set to determine when we need to use this particular word, and not the other? We have convinced that the objects of reality have similarities with each other, i.e. common features. Soulding many features united this item with another subject defining (distinctive) features of the subject are only those features, in the absence of which this word is not applicable to this subject at all. We do not call geometric shape Triangle, if it does not possess the following three signs: This is a figure (1) flat, (2) closed, (3) bounded three straight lines. Signs that serve as a condition for the applicability of the Word, in their aggregate form the sygrow the words (the term is introduced into use by the medieval scholastic John Salisbury), or, in another terminology, its intensity.

Unlike the Denothat, the word representing the class referred to as the word of objects or situations, the ingunification is not the class itself, but those signs, on the basis of which these items / situations are combined into this class and are opposed to members of other classes. In the traditional semantics, the meaning of the word in the language is precisely his signnix, and not denotate. At the same time, it is believed that the word refers to "things" (Denotatu) is not directly, but indirectly, through the ingneticate, considered as the concept of this class of things existing in the consciousness of a person.

Many scientists are currently recognizing necessary to distinguish between the language importance of the Word and the Tafetentive Content associated with this word - the concept. And linguistic value, and the concept are categories of thinking. That is the essence of the world's reflection in our consciousness. But these are different types of reflection. If the concept is a complete (at this level of knowledge), reflected in the consciousness of the signs of some category of objects or phenomena, the language value records only their distinctive signs. So, in the meaning of the word river Such "differential signs" of the concept of the river, as "reservoir", "unlocked", "natural origin", "sufficiently large", for which the object, referred to riverdiffers from objects called ditch, sea, pond, lake, stream. The concept of the river includes, in addition to the data, and other signs, such as "feeding on the surface and underground drain of their pool. It can be said that the meaning of the word corresponds to the "naive", everyday concept about the subject (in contrast to scientific). It is essential that signs of the subject that are included in the meaning of a word may not coincide with the signs that make up the appropriate scientific concept. The classic example of the discrepancy between the language value in which the naive idea of \u200b\u200bthe thing is embodied, and the Russian linguist L.V. Stherba brought to him the scientific concept: "Scientific view of a straight line (line) is fixed in its definition, which gives geometry:" Direct there is a shortest Distance between two points. "But the expression straight line The literary language has a value that does not coincide with this scientific presentation. Direct, we call in a life line that does not shy away to neither right, nor left (as well as up, nor down). "

So, describe the meaning of some word in the language, or to interpret it - all the signs of "things" in one form or another, which are separately necessary, and in the aggregate of sufficient conditions to designate it with this word. It is such distinctive (defining, characteristic) signs should be included in the definition of words in sensible dictionaries.

Signs of the subject not included in his vocabulary definition are called concomitant features. If all items that this word is attached to this feature, then such a sign is called a universal concomitant feature. So, if the chemical formula H 2 O is considered as a determination of water, such signs, as a freezing at zero of degrees Celsius, transparency, possession of a certain weight per unit volume, will be universal concomitant signs of water, since any instance of water has these properties. The test for whether a special feature is distinctive: if this sign was absent, despite the fact that everyone else was present, would we still put this subject in class x? If the answer is negative, then this feature is distinctive.

There are many such combinations of signs for which we do not consider it necessary to specifically invent the word. For example, we can give the generic name to all beings having four legs and feathers; But since we have not yet found any creature, having this combination of signs, we do not consider it expedient to have any generic name for such a creature. Inventing the generic name attributed to any subject that has a given combination of features, we agree on the definition, and when we set or convey, which the character combination has already been called a certain word, we inform the definition. Contractual definitions, as well as orders and assumptions, are neither true or false; But the definitions included in the message, the property of truth / falsity, have, as the statement that a certain word is already used in this language to denote any item with a certain set of features, is either true or false.

This meaning of the term "definition", or "definition", is the most common, and dictionaries seek to provide us with definitions in the specified sense. Since such definitions are an attempt to formulate the ingnetifications of the word, they can be named with ingrowable or designable. But to define the value of the word in the widest possible sense - this means to somehow indicate that this word usually means. There are several ways to achieve this goal. Consider them in order.

Significrative, or Discount definitions.

Traditionally assumes the most accurate way to determine the word value is a task of a list of features that should have a subject that this word (or phrase) is applicable to it. That is what we did higher in examples with a "triangle" or "river". This is called the designer definition; It is said that the word denotes those signs that should have a subject that this word is applied to it.

Denotative definition.

Quite often (if not in most cases) people do not have a clear understanding of what the distinctive features of something; They only know that the word applies to one or another specific individuals. "I don't know how to determine the concept of a bird," can say anyone, "but I know for sure that the sparrow is a bird, a bodily bird, and a parrot polly - also a bird." The speaker mentions some individuals or subclasses to which this term will be attached; those. He mentions some of the spells of the word to interpret its meaning.

It is obvious that as a way of interpretation that the word usually means, such a definition is less satisfactory, rather than bringing the ingneticate. If we know the contiguity of the word, we know the rule of its use (similar to those that are trying to give in dictionaries) - we know under what conditions this word should be made to this situation. But when we learn one, two or even a hundred denotates of the word, we do not know what other things it can be attached, since we have no general rule yet. If someone knows that the sparrows and the birds are the essence of the bird, he still does not know what other things the word is applied bird. After hundreds of cases, considering what common features have all the designated things, it will be possible to come to some thought; But at best, it will be a reasonable assumption. After fixing hundreds of cases of birds appearing, you can conclude that the bird is something flying. Of course, this conclusion will be false: bats fly, but are not birds, and ostriches are birds, but do not fly. This can not be found from Denotat, unless it happened that the ostrises were listed as part of Denotat; But even it would not mean knowledge of the rule of word bird; It would only be possible to conclude that what would this rule, it does not include such a sign as the ability to fly.

Moreover, there are also such words that do not possess denotat. As far as is known, the elves and houses in nature do not exist; Consequently, these words do not have denotates at all in real world. We agree that they exist only in human imagination, - we can say that only expressions have denotat elf imageand the image of the houses. However, these words are important, and if any reader of Irish myths happened to these creatures, he would know how to distinguish one of the other. Despite the fact that these words do not possess denotatat, they have quite clear ingnetic definitions, so any creature with the required distinctive featuresMight be identified as an elf or house.

High definitions.

Hostless definition is like denotative, but instead of mentioning examples of birds (which it would be meaningless if the listener pre-knows words sparrowand thrush) It shows or imposes these examples. Any child learning the meaning of words make it with the help of hydraulic definitions. To the one who does not know any words in advance, other words will not help.

There are some words whose meanings people usually learn strongly, although they could be learned in other ways. What does the word mean hexagon, We can learn from its ingnecific definitive definition: "Any flat closed figure, having six parties that are direct lines," but we can learn this also from the picture shown to us depicting the hexagon. There are, however, and such words whose value, apparently, can be leaning only strongly, for example, the names of our simplest sensory impressions. Can a man, blind from birth, find out what the word mean redif he could never see any example of red? Can anyone understand what is pain or angerif he himself never experienced these feelings? Words cannot replace impressions, they only help us designate those impressions that we have already received.

On the other hand, there are also such words whose values \u200b\u200bcannot be shown or specified, but must be determined verbally, i.e. With the help of other words or sometimes using the combination of words with gestures: reality, being, Concept, explanation And most of the terms used in one or another abstract discipline like philosophy.

Information related to some word is not exhausted by its value. Words also possess connotations (sometimes they are also called semantic associations), which are not included in the meaning of words in a strict understanding and thereby not reflected in their interpretations. Connation words are insignificant, but stable signs of expressed concept, which in this culture are attributed to the appropriate subject or phenomenon of reality. An example of connotations are the signs of "stubbornness" and "stupidity" in the Word donkey, sign of "monotony" in the word to nag, signs of "speed" and "impermanence" in the Word wind.

So, the most accurate or, in any case, the preferred way to determine the value of the word in semantics is considered (or at least until recently it was thought to cm. Cognitive linguistics) Set the list of features that should have a subject that this word (or phrase) is applicable to it. But how are the signs that make up interpretation?

Semantic relations

The allocation of signs used by interpretation is carried out on the basis of the comparison of this word with other words close to it by value, i.e. Related to the same subject or conceptual area. To refer to a group of words related to the same area of \u200b\u200brepresentations and, without a residue of its dissenting part, corresponding to the values \u200b\u200bof these words, the German linguist y.trir introduced the concept semantic field. Examples of semantic fields: a field of time, a field of animal husbandry, a field of names of kinship, a field of color value, a field of verbs of the movement, the field of gateway prepositions, etc. Inside the semantic field, the words are interconnected by semantic relations. The establishment of types of such relations and identifying their presence between words within the framework of specific semantic fields is traditionally considered one of the main tasks of lexical semantics.

In vocabulary, it is customary to allocate the following types of semantic relations.

Synonymy.

This type includes relations based on the full or partial coincidence of values. The words connected by the attitude of synonymy are called synonyms. Depending on whether differences are allowed in the meaning of words and if allowed, which are allocated species of synonymy and synonyms. The ratio of complete or accurate synonymy binds words among themselves that no semantic differences are detected. The exact synonymy is rare, which is usually explained by the redundancy of the encoding of the same content with different formal means. Examples of candidates for accurate synonyms in Russian: hippopotamus - Hippo; throw - Keep; Look - Looking; plebiscit - referendum; everywhere - everywhere; to fall asleep. If the meant two words coincide in everything, in addition to the expression-estimated elements of their meaning, then their relationship is called (expressively) stylistic synonymies. Examples of expressive-stylistic synonyms: run away - dust - fly or eng. pOLICEMAN - COP."policeman".

Words, the values \u200b\u200bof which are quite close, but contain and distinguishing their signs are called quasinonyms. For example, quasinonimic words order and require: And that and the other indicates the impulse of the addressee to the action that one, from the point of view of the encouraging, must fulfill. But if order can only one who in one way or another controls the situation (due to its authority, social situation or just weapons in hand), require Maybe the one who is not the owner of the situation, but believes that in this case, on his side, the law or other legal norm. So, the man in the street, who has selected a passport, may demand, but not order Latest to return it. Among the types of quasinonimia, hyponimia and incompatibility are especially highlighted.

Hyponimia.

A hyponymic, or generic species relationship binds a word that denotes the nature of entities or phenomena with the words denoting the species allocated within this kind. This attitude is associated with words in pairs. tree - Oak; relative - nephew; Color - blue; move - go; Vessel is a glass.A word expressing a more general concept in this kind of semantic relationship is called a hyperonym, and a word denoting a special case, the view of the specified kind of objects or phenomena, is called a hyponym. Words that have common hyperonym are called hipponyms (or cryoponims). So, the word wood is a hyperonym in relation to the words oak, ash, Birch, palm, Saksauletc., which are hipponyms.

Incompatibility

- This is a relationship between Kogponim. So, in relation to incompatibility there are words motherand father, goand run, sweetand saltyetc. These words are incompatible in the sense that they cannot simultaneously characterize the same phenomenon, refer to the same object. In other words, the denotants (extension) words associated with the ratio of incompatibility do not intersect, despite the fact that there are a total of signs that constitute the signs of their total hyperonym. This is the difference in incompatibility from a simple difference in meaning. So, words juniorand poet have different meanings, but they are not associated with an incompatibility attitude (many young men and poets can intersect), while words juniorand old manincompatible by value. Words can be in relation to incompatibility and in the case when the word does not have a word expressing the generic general concept, the types of which denote these words. So, for example, there is no word that would express a generic concept for those who are in relation to the incompatibility of words excellent, Good, Troychnik etc.

The relation "Part is the whole"

connects the name of some object with his names component parts. So, the word woodassociated relationship "Part - whole" with words branch, sheet, trunk, Roots.IN the difference from representatives of some kind, each of which is at the same time a representative of the relevant kind (for example, oak / birch / alderetc. essence trees) none of the parts of the whole is integer in itself (eg, nor branch, n. sheet, n. trunk, n. roots do not eat wood).

Antonimia.

This relationship is based on the opposite of concepts expressed by the words. Three main varieties of antonimia differ in the nature of the opposite. The ratio of additionalness, or complementary antonimia implies such a situation in which the approval of what denotes one of the antonyms leads the denial of what is indicated by the second, for example dry – wet, sleep - awake, C - without. Extra value can be considered as a special case incompatibility, when a certain total for two words, the substantive area is fully distributed between their values. Patubioretor Antonimia binds words denoting multidirectional actions: fleet - fly away, Hello - say goodbye, Freeze - Ottayetc. The contradictional antonymy ratio binds the words, which include an indication of the opposite zones of a scale corresponding to this or that measurement or parameter of an object or phenomenon, for example, such as size, temperature, intensity, speed, and the like. In other words, this type of antonymy is characteristic of words with a "parametric" value: big small, wide narrow, Heat - Moroza, High - low, Cry - fly(about time), etc. In contrast to complementary antonym, the words associated with this ratio do not cover their values \u200b\u200bwith their values, since its average part is indicated by some other expressions.

Conversion.

This semantic attitude can bind words denoting situations whose number of participants is not less than two. The conversions are called words that describe the same situation, but considered from the point of view of various participants: Win - lose, above under, Have - belong, Younger - olderetc. So, the same state of affairs can be described and how H. ahead of y, 10 points, And How Y lags from xh for 10 pointsbut in the first case due to the use of verb ozeri The main thing acting person presented H.and in the second verb lag puts to the center of attention of another participant - Y-A..

Of course, the relationship considered above is not exhausted by many system semantic relations between words in the language. Many other relations that Yu.D.Apresyan called the semantic production relations were allocated and described in the "Meaning - Text" model as lexical functions - replacements that compare any word to which they are in principle applicable, another word (words), A certain way associated with it by value. For example, lexical function Sing is compared to the word denoting a homogeneous integer, a word denoting one element, or a quantum of this whole. So, Sing ( beads) = bead; Sing ( fleet) = ship; Sing ( kiss) = kissetc., and the lexical function of Able I connects the name of the situation with the title of the typical property of the i-th member of this situation. So, Able 1 ( cry) \u003d tearful;Able 2. (transport)\u003d transportable.

Methods of semantic research

The semantics uses a wide range of research methods - from general scientific observation methods (including the introspection playing in semantics, i.e. monitoring its own inner world), modeling and experiment to private methods, often relying on the achievements of related sciences - for example, logic (Prespposition analysis) and psychology (various types of associative experiments). The greatest fame from the actual semantic methods was obtained by the method of component analysis.

Component value analysis

in the broadest sense, it is a set of procedures, as a result of which the word is compared to its definition, which is a thorough method of a structured set of semantic components that specify the conditions for the applicability of this word.

To give some idea of \u200b\u200ba component analysis of the value as a method for obtaining a word dictionary definition, we will demonstrate one of its options on a specific example of the analysis of the word value magazine. Initially, it is necessary to find the word or phrase, denoting the generation of things, the type of which is magazines. Such a phrase will be periodical.The meaning of this generic in relation to the word magazine Names (hyperonym) will be the first semantic component in the definition of the word magazine. This component is a "periodic edition" - reflects signs common from the journal with other things of the same kind (these signs - "Edition" and "Periodicity" - receive explicit, i.e. explicit expression in the composition of phrases periodical). Such signs as part of the meaning of the word are called integral semanticsigns. Now it is necessary to find all the words denoting other types of periodicals, and, mentally comparing objects indicated by the word magazine, with objects denoted by each of them, to identify those signs by which magazines differ from other types of periodicals. Such signs as part of the meaning of the word are called differential semantic signs. In addition to journals Periodic publications are newspapers, bulletinsand catalogs. From newspapers magazines differ in the way they will be discarded. If a print edition Not discharged, it cannot be called the magazine. From bulletins and catalogs, magazines differ from another sign that does not relate to the form of the publication, but to its content: if the magazines are published mainly texts related to journalism, as well as to scientific or artistic literature (articles, essays, informational messages, feuetones, interviews , stories and even heads of novels), the newsletters are created primarily for the publication of official documents (laws, decrees, instructions, etc.) created by public newsletters, as well as the reference information supplied by these organizations, and catalogs - to publish data About products or services offered by this or that firm. Thus, in the interpretation of the word magazineyou should include two components corresponding to two differential features of the designated class of objects characterizing them from external view and on the mainstreaming.

One of the directions within the framework of the component analysis of values \u200b\u200bdeveloped in the works of A.Vezhbitsky and its followers, it comes from the fact that the values \u200b\u200bof all words in all languages \u200b\u200bcan be described using the same limited set of several dozen elements, indecomposable, as atoms In physics, - semantic primitives corresponding to the values \u200b\u200bof words that are presumably found in any language and the components of its conceptual foundation. The semantic primitives include "I", "you", "someone", "something", "people", "think", "talk", "know", "feel", "want", " "," The same "," other "," one "," two "," a lot "," all "," do "," happen "," no "," if "," be able "," like "," Because "," very "," when "," where "," after "," to "," under "," over "," to have parts "," view (for) ", "Good", "bad", "big", "small" and perhaps some others. This direction develops the ideas of philosophers of the Epoch of Enlightenment (Descartes, Newton, Leibnitsa), trying to develop a special language of thought (Lingua Mentalis), through which it would be possible to interpret the values \u200b\u200bof all the words of the usual language.

The component analysis of the values \u200b\u200bof words contributed to the penetration of experimental research methods into semantics.

Experiment in semantics.

As in previous times, the main method of identifying the meaning of the word in lexical semantics remains the introspection, i.e. Linguist observation over the ideal entities that are associated with this word in his own consciousness. Naturally, if the object of semantic research is a native language, then Linguist, being his carrier, can rely on his own knowledge of the language and draw conclusions about the meaning of the word, based on his own intuition, on how he himself uses and understands the word. In the case of studying the semantics of a non-native language, semantic analysis must necessarily rely on some body of the use of studied words with their contexts, extracted from various texts oral and written speechrecognized by authoritative samples of the appropriate literary language or any of its sublaws. And those correct use of the words that Linguist gives himself, and those that he extracts from texts form, so to speak, "positive" language material, comprehending which linguist formulates a hypothesis about the meaning of expressions under study.

An experiment in semantics is used to confirm or disprove semantic hypotheses, nominated on the basis of observations on the use of words that are recognized correct. Experimenting the linguist can with its own linguistic consciousness, if he studies his native language, and with the consciousness of other native speakers (which is necessary when studying a non-standard language).

The most important type of experiment in semantics (in the domestic linguistics for the first time, proposed by Academician L.V. Stherbo in 1931 in the article About the Trojak aspect of language phenomena and experiment in linguistics) It is that the researcher to verify the correctness of his assumptions about the meaning of a word should try to use this word in contexts other than those in which it has already met. The language material obtained as a result of such an experiment will be kept with the correct, possible phrases with the word, also incorrect, deviating from the norm for this reason, never occurring in texts that embody the linguistic norm. These irregular phrases form the so-called "negative language material", the role of which in a semantic study is enormous, since on its basis it is possible to identify those elements of the meaning of the words that prevent its use in this context. (Negative language material is found in the texts of artistic works, the authors of which use the violation of the language norms as artistic technique, Wed, for example, the following semantically anomalous - which is customary to celebrate an asterisk before the relevant language expression - phrases from the works of Andrei Platonova: * They attended this meeting already up; * Diemishchev took the next book from under the table and became interested in it; An asterisk in front of the language expression shows his irregularity from the point of view of the language norm.) In other words, during the experiment of the described type, the linguist generates semantically abnormal phrases with this word and checks whether it is possible to explain the abnormality of its use in a given context. . If possible, this confirms the hypothesis, if it is impossible, the initial hypothesis should be clarified.

For example, if we suggested that the verb offer (X offers y-u r) Component includes "X considers that Y can be interested in P", on what type-type uses like He suggested that I play chess / (drink up) tea / interesting work etc., then we will substitute this word in contexts in which H. no way can assume that the proposed action in interest y-a, for example, in the context, in which x in a rough form encourages Y, to leave the room, believing that it will not do it in their will. Phrase * He offered me to get out It is clearly anomalous, which is naturally explained by the initial hypothesis and thereby confirms it. Similarly, an abnormal phrase * Sit down the lattice at night on the camera window and ranconfirms the assumption that the object of action split It should be from a fragile material, since it is precisely the lack of this property in iron prison lattices, the irregularity of the consumption of the verb in this context is naturally explained.

Another type of experiments involves the use of items themselves or physical phenomenaincluded in the Denotat of the Word. However, in many cases the items themselves can be replaced by their images. Typically, such experiments are carried out with the involvement of native speaker informants and are intended to establish from which item parameter or phenomenon depends on the possibility to use a specific word to designate it. A characteristic example of such an experiment is described in the work of the American linguist U. Blaova Structure of denotative values (1978, Rus. Per. 1983), devoted to the study of the meanings of words denoting vessels in different languages. The experiment is that the informant shows various images of vessels in random order and are asked to call the next vessel. The following parameters varies in the images: The ratio of the vessel width to height; shape (cup-shaped, cylindrical, truncated cone, prism); presence / lack of handle; The presence / absence of the leg. In addition to the images themselves, it varies and "context", in which it appears: 1) "neutral", i.e. Outside the situation; 2) "Coffee" - to call the vessel in a situation where someone, stirring sugar spoon, drinks coffee from this vessel; 3) "Food" - the vessel stands at the dinner table and filled with potato mashed potatoes; 4) "soup"; 5) "Flowers" - a vessel with flowers is depicted on the shelf. Various and material about which informants reported orally. Analysis of the answers of informants allows you to identify the dependence of the use of each word from certain properties of denotat. These properties, as well as their reflection in the consciousness of the native speakers and will be candidates for differential semantic components that constitute the value of this word. Among them, the categorical components that form the necessary conditions Applications of this word. For example, eng. goblet. "Glass" as a categorical feature has a "presence of the leg": if the vessel does not have a leg, then the word goblet. It is never used for designation. Another type of component is probabilistic: they reflect such properties that are usually, but do not always have denotates indicated by this word. For example, a vessel designated by English cup "Cup", usually has a handle, but, as the experiment showed, for the name of the vessel, the presence of this feature is not necessary.

As part of the component analysis, a number of semantic tests of different types were developed, which are used both to identify certain semantic characteristics of the word and for testing semantic hypotheses. A great contribution to their development made E. Bendix and J.Lich. For example, the essence of the "test interpretation test" is to address the informant with a request to interpret (explicate, explain) this or that expression or distinction between the two expressions. Linguist addresses informant with questions like: "What does this mean?" Or "If you heard that someone said this, then what do you think he would have in mind?"

If we want to figure out the semantic distinction between the two words, then we build test expressions as minimal couples, that is, they must coincide in everything, except for one word. So, if we are interested in what the difference between the values \u200b\u200bof words ask and order, we turn to informant with the question: "What is the difference in the meaning between He asked me to do it and He ordered me to do it"? This test can be used at the stage of formation of semantic hypothesis.

When we already have a hypothesis, it is possible to check its correctness using more rigid tests with several alternative responses, for example, using an "implicative test", during which the informant is asked to estimate whether the P statement is true, when a true statement Q is true. The word studied, and the statement of P expresses the estimated component of the meaning of this word. So, if we assume that the verb order(X orders y-y z) Includes component "X reads that Y is obliged to do z", we ask informant: "Provided that the statement He ordered me to stay True, truly the following statement: He considers, what should I stay? " If no less than 80% of informants give a positive response to this question, this is considered to be evidence that the semantic component being checked is actually present in the value of the verb investigated.

Complete factors.

In the light of the above, it may seem like each word has one clear and definite denotative value, which can be specified by strictly as-aign rule, as accuracy to us, under what conditions the word should be used. But in reality it is not so easy.

Ambiguity.

Many words (perhaps even most words) are used in more than one sense. Calovo onion It can be used both to designate a garden plant with an edible bulb and edible tubular leaves and to designate ancient weapon for throwing arrows. English word saw. It is used to designate both some tool (saws) and as a form of the past verb see"see". The same sequence of sounds in such cases turns out to be correlated with completely different values, and the absence of any connection between these values \u200b\u200bprovides a reason to be seen in these and in such cases, not one word with different values, but several of different words, accidentally coinciding in shape (perhaps from some moment; for example, in the word onion 2 "weapons" historically had a nasal sound, which subsequently coincided with the usual [u] in the word onion 1 "Plant"). Such words are called homonyms, and the corresponding type of ambiguity is homonymy. With a different type of ambiguity, called meaningful or polemayia, the meanings of some word, although different, but are interconnected, or, in other words, have a substantial common part. For example, Rus. creature and eng. creation It may designate both the process of "creation" and its result - "what is created". Word movie It may mean either the "film" or the "Theater in which movies", or "the genus of art, whose works are films." Polyesia does not destroy the identities of the word, which is considered as a holistic, but multi-valued unit of language. Omonium and polishey, as a rule, do not create confusion; Due to the sufficient difference between the values, the context usually indicates the implied meaning of the word. But in other cases, the values \u200b\u200bare so close to each other, which says, knowing these values, can easily "slip" from one to another. So, about a person who has thousands of physically different books on the shelves, which are identical unreasonable copies of the publication of his manuscript, one can say that he has one book or that he has a thousand books, depending on whether the word is used book In the value of the type (publishing of a book embodied in a variety of copies) or in the value of the instance (the implied physical item itself; this is a known anti-semiotics, the opposition is sometimes transmitted without translation: Type - Token). This is the same bus, which goes from the subway past the park? Some will say "yes", some - no. But this dispute will be purely verbal: if there is a physically the same vehicle under the "the same bus", then the exact answer is likely to be negative; If the bus is meant the same route, then the answer has the full right to be positive. When such cases of ambiguity are found, it is important to understand that they can be resolved by careful distinction of different meanings invested in a consumable word or phrase. The verbal disputes arise when people think that they disagree in the fact of facts, whereas in reality their disagreements differ only because of the fact that different keywords have different meanings. Of course, absolutize the semantic causes of disputes and conflicts, as representatives of the "General Semantics" school in the USA in the USA in 1930-1960 (her founder was A.Korbsky, and the most significant representatives - S.Hayakawa and A.Rapoport), It is not worth it, but to understand whether the use of language expressions in essentially misunderstanding different values, it is useful almost always.

The most common type of ambiguity takes place when portable word use. Acute knife - this is such a knife that cuts well, acute cheese It really does not cut the language, but there is such a feeling as if he did it. Word a foxliterally refers to the form of mammals, but in portable use ( He is a tricky fox) This word denotes a cunning person. Thus, there are pairs of type eng. dining-Room Table "dinner table" - table of Statistics "Statistical Table"; your Shadow. "your shadow" - hE IS A MERE SHADOW OF HIS FORMER SELF "One shadow remained from him"; a Cool Evening. "Cold Evening", a Cool Reception. "Cold Reception"; hIGHER IN THE SKY "Higher in the sky" - higher Ideals. "Higher ideals", etc. In most such cases, the context clearly determines whether the use is literal or portable.

Metaphor.

Although a portable word acquires at least one additional value and becomes ambiguous in this sense, portable expressions often allow us to talk about things for which we would otherwise find suitable words. In addition, they are usually more lively and strong than literal expressions. In particular, it concerns the metaphor. In this case, the Word, which dictionary correlates with one subject of thought, is used to indicate another object of thought. Speaking O. governing languages \u200b\u200bflames (eng. the Gossip of Flames, letters "Gossip of Flame"; In Russian translation, the metaphor two, however, one of them, the "flame languages", is familiar and weakly realized, such metaphors are also called conventional or "dead" - they are said about them in the next paragraph), Walt Whitman uses the word relating to the chatter, expanding Rumors to designate lively crackling fire. In the case of a metaphorical consumption of the word, its figurative value is determined by the preservation of some similarity with the literal meaning of the word and in the separation from the literal meaning it cannot be understood. The portable meaning of the Whitamine metaphor describing the noise with which the flames sward by the languages \u200b\u200bpassed by us if we did not know or could not think about the literal sense of the word gossip. "Chatter, hearing, gossip." The paraphrases proposed here do not exhaust the complex relationship between literal and portable meaningful values \u200b\u200band, of course, cannot reproduce the psychological effect of the word vision used in this way, in which it faces us with our preceding knowledge of its literal value. This is the multiplication of semantic potential, which is so characteristic of the metaphor.

Metaphors that begin again and again to be used in everyday speech, tend to lose their literal values; We are so used to them that we go straight to their portable values. Most people who heard the English. blockhead "Bollan, Churban" (letters. "CHURBANNY HEAD"), think directly about someone stupid, not correlating this word at all. This word is neither stupidity of any real wooden churban. So, the word blockhead Lost a creative, imaging function, characteristic of the metaphor, and turned into a "dead metaphor". Many words are so impregnated with their metaphorical uses that dictionaries are described as literal values \u200b\u200bthat once previously was portable. Takovo english hood. "Hood, capor, top of the crew, a khokholok bird, cover, cover, cap, engine hood", turned into a metal surface designation, covering the mechanism of the car from above. Old meaning words hood. "Cap" is preserved, and its numerous figurative values \u200b\u200bmake this word "semantically complex". Of course, the word hood. also has a portable use, such as, for example, in a complex word hoodwink. "To mislead, deceive, spend." In the 17th century word explain. "Explain, interpreted" still retained the remnants of their literal meaning in Latin (from which it was borrowed) - "disclose, deploy", so that it could be used in the type of type The Left Hand Explained Into The Palm "The left hand broke into the palm." Today is the initial literal meaning of the word explain. Completely lost the place that arose as a portable expansion consumption. Stories of many words are brightly demonstrated, how much the metaphor in semantic change plays a significant role.

Blurry.

The most annoying problems for semantics are created by such a complicating factor as vagueness (eng. Vagueness). "Blurry" is the opposite of "accurate". Blurry words are inaccurate towards the world, which they are designed to describe. But inaccurate they can be in several different relationships.

The simplest type of vague is created by the lack of a clear boundary between the applicability and the inapplicability of the word. One subject is clearly painted in yellowcolor, another as clearly painted in orange; But where to spend a clear distinction line between them? Yellow or orange should be called what is in the middle? Or perhaps, should we introduce a new concept of yellow-orange color? But it will not allow the specified difficulty, because the question will arise where to draw the border between orange and yellow-orange, etc. When nature itself gives us continuity, inside which we want to spend some distinction, then any point in which we will try to make this distinction will be somewhat arbitrary. The use of it is "this", and not the "wrong" word, apparently, implies a clear point of the transition, although there is no one in nature. Scalar (correlated with some scale) words - such as slow and fast, easy and difficult, solidand softillustrate this type of vagueness.

It happens that the conditions for the use of the word are described by multiple criteria. This is not the same as ambiguity, in which the word is used in several different meanings. But this also does not mean that there should be some many conditions for the use of the word, since in normal case it takes place without any vagueness. Above mentioned three conditions for the use of the word triangle, but word triangleit is not blurry, but accurate. Under the "multiplicity of criteria" refers to the fact that there is no single set of conditions that would set its use in the same sense in which the three conditions mentioned above set the use of the word triangle; Moreover, it may be that there is no such condition any such condition that is obliged to be carried out in order for the use of the word possible. Creatures we call dogs, as a rule, are covered with wool, capable of barking, wagged with tails, run on four paws, etc. But the dog about three paws still remains a dog; A dog who does not know how to bark, can also remain a dog (such as the African breed of Basenji), etc. The sign A may be absent, while there are signs B, C and D; The sign B may be absent while the signs of A, C and D, etc. are given. None of them is necessary; There is enough combination of others. Here the difference between distinctive and accompanying signs collapses; Instead, we have some set, a kind of quorum (the required number) characteristics, the presence of which is necessary in order for this word to be applicable to this subject. In order to announce the meeting of the Senate Open, you need a quorum of senators, but there is no such senator, the presence of which would be necessary in the presence of the minimum required number of other senators. This is the requirement of a quorum.

The picture further complicates the following circumstances. (1) Sometimes there is no certain number of features that form this set-quorum: All we can say is that the more likely the signs of this subject possess the property of "X-Observation", the more we tend to use for its designation The word "x". (2) It is also impossible to say that all these signs have the same weight. Saying that someone wen (Intelligent), we attach the ability to solve new tasks greater weight compared with memory. (3) Some signs may be present to varying degrees: so, almost everyone can somehow cope with solving problems, however, the higher the degree of this ability, the higher mind (Intelligence). The more pronounced sign of "X-Observation", the more confidence we are talking about the applicability of the word "X".

Blurry may not only be the word we are trying to give a definition; Words, through which we give this definition, can also be vague. English word murder. means "deliberate killing" ("intentional murder") in contrast manslaughter."Bloody", in which the murder is uninforced or occurs as a result of an accident; But is it enough to recognize the action arbitrary to be intentional, or should it be more thoughtful (planned in advance)? And when, in general, you can call something murder? If someone admits the death of another by negligence or does not save another in a situation where he could save, did he kill him? Does her husband kill his husband, bringing him to suicide? The impression of the accuracy that occurs when constructing a strictly formulated definition may be illusory, for the blurry that characterized the intended word may again show itself in the words of words, with which we are trying to build a definition, so that no vagueness is not Get rid of

Sometimes we, in a practical plan, and do not need to strive for greater accuracy. When someone says: The corridor goes into the depths of the building, then the verbity of the verb leavewith the designation of the stationary object does not interfere with understanding. Sometimes we really need to be expressed more precarious, but the state of our knowledge does not give us the opportunity to clarify anything. Nevertheless, vague descriptions in most cases are still better than the complete absence of descriptions; Approved by the opposite Austrian philosopher L. Vitgenstein (the thesis of his Logical-philosophical treatise It says: "What it is impossible to talk about that it should be silent") by the end of his life refused his radical position.

The value of proposals.

Words and phrases are connected to each other, forming offers - semantic units that we most often use in everyday speech. Words in the sentence must be combined by certain grammatical rules, your own for each language. For example, in the English proposal should be a grammatical minimum consisting of the subject and faithful. Chain words Walking Eat Sat Quiet (Possible letters. The translation of "walking eating calm") consists of words, but does not form an English proposal, even because there is no subject to it. In addition to these minimal requirements, it is obliged to have a proposal as holistic units, and not just forming them words. Saturday is in bed "Saturday is located in bed" consists of words, and these words form a grammatically proper proposal, but this proposal will most likely be perceived as meaningless.

Just as the words refer to things (things in a broad sense, including qualities, relationships, actions, etc.), the proposals refer to what can be called the provisions of things. Cat lies on the rugcall one position of things The dog lies on the rugrefers to another position of things. Of course, there are also such proposals that do not describe any provisions of things: we know what it means Cat ZalalaAlthough this proposal does not describe any existing (and, as far as we know, no previously existing states. The proposals indicate not only the real states of things, but also possible (or avoiding the ambiguous term "possible", can be said, "imaginable states of things", although the term "imaginable" brings with them new difficulties). The proposal is not obliged to refer to any real or past state of affairs, however, when we use a proposal, we need to know which state of things would have been referred to as our proposal if such a state of affairs existed. We believe that the offer Saturday is in bed It is meaningless, because there is no such conceived state of things that could be in principle to be described by this proposal. Being not able to think this state of things, we say: "It does not make any sense," "this absurdity" or "it is meaningless."

Internally contradictory proposals are meaningless because there is no possible position of things that they could describe. Sentence He painted a square circle internally contradictory because words definitions squareand a circle incompatible with each other. I'm going to change the pastinternally contradious because pastrefers to what has already happened, but the fact that man collectingto do, belongs to the future.

Suggestions containing so-called categorical errors are meaningless, although they may not contain any direct contradiction. Red belongs to color category, round - to the category of outlines. Thunder strikes belong to the category of physical phenomena, thoughts - to the category of mental events. All this belongs to the category of temporary things or entities, while the numbers and philosophical universals belong to the category of increasing entities. Any attempt at which the property relating to one category is attributed to the subject relating to another category leads to nonsense. If we say Saturday is not in bedThis will be a categorical error. It lies not that Saturday is more characteristic not to be in bed, than to be in bed; It lies in the fact that the concept of finding in bed is not applicable at all by the days of the week. Similarly, senseless sentence Number 7 - greenbecause adjective greenapparently only to physical subjects, and not to the numbers. Just as meaningless due to the presence of categorical errors such offers as Quadratic inequalities will go to horsepower, Theories eaten acidity, Green ideas are fiercely sleep, She heard color, Blue there is a simple number.

Literature:

Shmelev D.N. Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary. M., 1973.
Novikov L.A. Semantics of Russian language. M., 1982.
Bendix E. Empirical base Semantic description
Naida Yu.A. Procedures for analyzing the component structure of the reference value. - In the book: New in overseas linguistics. Vol. XIV. M., 1983.
Katz J. Semantic theory. - In the book: New in overseas linguistics. Vol. H. M., 1985
Vasilyev L.M. Modern linguistic semantics. M., 1990.
Stepanov Yu.S. Semantics. - Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1990.
Apresan Yu.d. Selected Works, t. 1. Lexic semantics. Synonymic language of language. M., 1995.
Wurnzbitsa A. Language. Culture. Knowledge. M., 1995.

Semantic Dictionary of the Russian Language - Dictionary compiled by prof. V. A. Tuzov from St. Petersburg State University to solve the problem of semantic analysis of texts in Russian. The essence of the decision is that the semantic analyzer, using morphological and semantic dictionaries, removes the envelope of the Russian language from the source text and builds an equivalent text on the semantic language. The book describes the semantic language, the semantic dictionary of the Russian language and is given by the algorithm of semantic analysis.

Availability

The Tuzova Dictionary can be downloaded on the website of St. Petersburg Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. As of 2007, the dictionary contained 164 thousand words distributed in 1638 classes. Unfortunately, licensed restrictions do not allow you to publish work on NLPUB in open form. To obtain a full dictionary and classifier from December 2012, you can contact representatives.

Structure

The dictionary of the basic concepts of the Russian language contains words that cannot be expressed through other simpler concepts. It contains about 18,000 nouns, calling physical and abstract objects, more than a thousand basis adjectives and about a thousand basis verbs, which, ultimately, were replaced by exclusive nouns. The remaining words - more than 90000 words - are derivatives, that is, their meaning is expressed in the form of a superposition constructed from basic functions and basic concepts. All many concepts are broken on hierarchical system classes.

The vocabulary article of the computer semantic dictionary contains the header word and its interpretation in the semantic language. Many words - and this, as a rule, often used words - contain more than one interpretation. The most significant prepositions, the description of some of them contains more than a hundred alternatives.

Example

A typical vocabulary article is demonstrated in the article "On the benefits of accidents" published in the magazine "Computerra".

The word "address" in the explanatory dictionary S. I. Ozhegova is defined how to send on some address, although it is advisable to analyze it, of course, to determine more precisely, namely, to move the movement of something somewhere using someone's address; The formula of this statement on the developed semantic language will be:

N% ~ Add to $ 12/0171 (PERFCAUS (Uzor (! They, address $ 12/0171 (! Dat), #), Mov (! Win,! From,! Through ,! Dat \\! Kdat \\! Where)))

In this formula, the word "addreste" is written:

• the word enters the semantic cluster "Address" (address $ 12/0171);
• its interpretation: perform an action (perfcaus) using (Uzor) address (address $ 12/0171) for moving (MOV) of something (! WIN) somewhere (! Dat \\! Kdat \\! Where);
• the word can be in relationships with nouns in the nominal (! Him) as a leader, a dutient (! date) as the address owner (address $ 12/0171 (! Dat)), to have a connection with a visionerate case, denoting the movement object (first Argument MOV) and locations in different kinds, including in the complex derivative (! From).

Frequency grammatical semantic dictionary of the language of artistic works (with electronic application) as a special lexicographic product

The Frequency, Grammatical and Semantic Vocupulary of Language of Works of Art By A. P.Chekhov (With the Electronic Appendix) AS A Special Lexicographic Product in Described.

The reader is offered a lexicographic work of a new type, in which the combination of the dictionary and the electronic body of the texts is implemented. This combination creates new opportunities for working with a dictionary and allows the reader to conduct a further independent study of the characteristics of the writer's language and creativity.

The dictionary is released in electronic form (on the disk) along with the application. This electronic publication contains: 1. "Frequency grammatical-semantic dictionary of the language of artistic works." Authors: , ; 2. Electronic housing artistic texts, on the basis of which dictionary was created. Creators: ,; 3. Software tools for working with text enclosures "Computer information and research system for working with electronic corps of texts" source ". Developers: ,; 4. Methodological guide to work with the "source" system and the case of texts. Authors: ,

The building, as well as the dictionary, was created in the laboratory of general and computer vocabulary and lexicography of the Philological Faculty of Moscow State University. In this project, students of the philological F-TA MG, S. Guseva, A. Chernyshov, S. Vorobay, M. Faldin, who worked in the special seminary "Creating and Study of Copyright Text Corps" took part.

In this dictionary and the building, all completed artworks are presented (without options and edits). Texts are given by academic publication in 30 tons. - M.: Science, 1974 - 1983.

Quantitative characteristic of the dictionary and housing. The number of texts - 600 (17 plates, 583 prosaic works); The amount of typing is 1 271 664 (plays -176 308; prose - 1 095 356); The number of different words - 101 282 (plays - 23 093; prose - 96 141); The number of different lexemes is 36,419 (plays 11 802; prose - 34 763 (without information options)). Collecting in other languages \u200b\u200bare presented in the case, as in the dictionary, only in words. The exception is only the nouns written by the Latin, grammatically associated with Russian words and are part of Russian text.

IN Dictionary Four sections. In the first section The description of the composition of the lexical units of artistic works is given. This section contains more than 34 thousand capital units. In the second section The description of the composition of individual groups and rows of units allocated from the general lone on the semantic base is given. When drawing up "sublardings", we tried to take away such groups of words that are of interest from linguistic, literary, cognitive points of view. In the third section Some results of the quantitative analysis of the vocabulary of artistic works are given. In the fourth section The description of the electronic application to the dictionary is given.

The structure of the vocabulary article. The full dictionary article is given in section I. It contains: (1) the capital word; (2) its grammatical characteristic; (3) its quantitative characteristic; (4) Data on options. In some cases, after the title word (5) semantic comment. In cases where to describe the value of the unit is difficult, the context of use is given indicating the work. The surnames give an indication of the work in which this person mentioned, and brief information About this face. Frequency characteristics in the dictionary. For each dialing unit, quantitative information of two types are given: the number of use and number of texts in which the word is used. When working with the amount of use, we encountered a huge literal coincidence of two works: Comedy "Ivanov" (1887) and the drama "Ivanov" (1889). In the dictionary, the lexical material of an earlier work is used only if it is unique. In all other cases, the number of use and number of texts is given without taking into account the play "Ivanov" (1887). Grammatical characteristics in dictionary articles. A quasten characteristic given in the dictionary generally corresponds to the system of grammatical classes used in " Grammatical dictionary Russian language " . Separately describe sound resistance, letters, notes, parts of words, means of rubrication and components of foreign text. Lexical variability, homonymy and polemia. Word options we sought to bring into one dictionary article. The lexical homonymy of minewheld words in the dictionary and the case was consistently resolved. Particularly made part of portable values \u200b\u200bof the type "subject, animal\u003e face". For the most regular units having frequency use of the phraseological type, additional work was done on the separation of mineral and non-valid use. Semantic comments and illustrative examples. Omonies were consistently commented in the dictionary (the comment is not given only for Omonimov type predicative / adverb, preposition / adverb). We also tried to describe the importance of those words that may be incomprehensible outside the context, have a non-standard value in context or require knowledge of realities. As a basis for working on a semantic commentary, "Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language with the inclusion of information on the origin of words" (R. Ed., M., 2007). When compiled a comment, we also relied on the book "What is unclear to the classics, or the encyclopedia of the Russian life of the XIX century" (M., 1998) and other sources.

Housing marked as follows information types: 1. Form; 2. Initial form the words; 3. The name of the work; 4. Subtitle and dedication; 5. Year of writing a work; 6. Periodization (we give three periodization three known to us); 7. Text type: prose or dramatic; 8. Signature; 9. Text genre; 10. Author's genre; 11. Speech genre; 12. Place of writing; 13. Type of narrator; 14, 15. A set of topics and theme; 16. Semantic class (geo; face; name; color; sound; production); 17. Parts of speech; 18. Special use; 19. Tom and the page in the composition of the Works. When laying the case types of information, we attempted to solve, in particular, the following linguistic tasks: 1. Speech genre - speech genre of text. Speech genre, by definition, this is a "typical model of building a speech whole" [Bakhtin: 151]. Construction (creation process), the structure (architectonics) of the genre is determined by many factors, but all of them are in the state of the coziness of each other and form a certain integrity on the basis of the internal unity of all forming components. In total, Chekhov can distinguish about 25 different speech genres; 2. Type of narration - This is an indication of what the work is written from what person. Usually Chekhov texts are written from the first or third party. However, some works (for example, "Fair" Total "", "something about", "letters" and others) are a set of passages that are created on behalf of different characters. In such cases, we cannot unambiguously determine what person it says, but we can identify several combinations, for example " first (several) face" or " third / first face" 3. Topics - The names of the works. We attempted to empirically allocate by supporting the lexical composition, since the automatic layout algorithm does not exist. The system allows you to view as a combination of themes (by combination you can find the appropriate product) and each topic separately (you can draw up a list of works on this topic).

The main functions and features of the system . Cabinet information and research system "Study of the dictionary, text features, concords" ("source") allows: (a) view and copy the available dictionaries and concords to the file; (b) receive new dictionaries and concordances by combining those types of information that is marked by the housing; (c) Work with each product in full-text mode and receive reference information about it and on its units. The system is possible in three modes: (1) "Concordants", (2) "Text", (3) "Reference materials". The main thing is the "Concordance" regime. Through it, the main types of operations with the corps are carried out - work with the words, contexts and the transition to the full text of the works. It gives access to the types of information marked by the housing. Concordance components - Sloven and contexts - located in different windows. Each of the concordants grows the case material in a special way in accordance with the selected type of information. The wordless of the cordant may be sorted by a three-way manner - alphabetically, in frequency, as well as from the end of units. Contexts can also be sorted in different ways. When working with a specific context, you can call an auxiliary window in which the text of the work is shown, or go to full-text mode by clicking on the "Text" tab. For units of some concordants ("Words", "Product Names", "Special Use") automatically issues a vocabulary article from reference materials. In addition to the ready-made concordants selected from the "Information Type" menu, the system allows you to receive new concords. To do this, use the Filter function. Installing a filter on one of the elements of the word of the concordance allows you to "cross" the information contained in the concords of different types. The useful function of the system is the ability to analyze the joint occasion of the elements. The combination is also convenient to explore using the "Context Sort" function. Mode "Reference materials" allows you to view two databases: "Notes and personalities" and "semantic comment". The first collected "notes to works" (by academic publication) and background information on some of the persons related and / or mentioned by him. The second base contains semantic comments on dedicated lexical units of works.

With the dictionary you can find on the website of the HTTP: // WWW laboratory site. Philol. MSU. RU / ~ Lex /. Questions and wishes please send to the email address ***** @ *** MSU. RU.

Literature.

Text problems. Experience philosophical analysis // Questions of literature. 1976. No. 10.

The third type of dictionaries is the so-called semantic or semantic dictionaries in which the initial (words of the vocabulary article) is the meaning.

How should the semantic dictionary be organized? The basis for a specially designed formal method of writing meaning (most likely it should be not a plane and three-dimensional spatial structure). Elementary meaning is made in accordance with the spelling (meaning language sign). Chains of values \u200b\u200b(regular in language) are implemented in terms of expression. Such a dictionary thinks as very difficult organized. The most difficult is the development of a formal record of the meaning. Almost all the last year's linguistics is developing different ways of writing meaning because it makes sense, unlike the shape of the word from his sound and spelling, it does not give us in direct observation: we can neither see it to hear or swell we can only consciously feel. But somehow it is represented in our mind! We are trying to simulate the meanings in our brain inventing some special semantic record.

Attempting the image of the meaning or semantic representation (sem. P) phrases on the plane (I.A. Melchuk) Zarezka E. N. Rtorika: Theory and Practice speech Communication. - 4th ed. - M.: Case 2002. - 480 s ..

But reports what and wants in becoming xh himself a - with the goal to make this message causing in order to become x-m

Possible readings (sections P) phrases:

Vanya firmly promised pets in the evening<что вечером он примет> Masha is the warmest way.

Development very different species The semantic record is the cornerstone of linguistics the second half of the 20th century. There are certain achievements in this area; One of them is a specially designed semantic record I.A. Melchuk on the basis of which the dictionary is created. Even a quick look at the drawing makes it possible to understand how difficult it is a description of the meaning.

It is clear that the semantic dictionary is a dictionary of the future because only the presence of such a dictionary can actually provide automatic translation from one language to another. It has already been said that the translation is to subtract information from the text and submit this information to the means of another language. In order to carry out an automatic translation, the understandable sense will be able to specify formally. Develop a formal record allowing you to fix meanings that a person recognizes reading the text. Let's say in your native language. Dictionary organized on the principle of verbal parallels (table - Table) i.e. An ordinary bilingual (or multilingual) dictionary is a weak assistant to translator because the translation is never subsequently carried out (incorrect teaching techniques foreign language The single translation method leads to the fact that a person cannot speak in this language). You can only translate entire designs because only within the offer you can decline in information that is never the sum of the meanings of the components of the elements. And only having received this general information to be expressed by means of another language. A person's speech is not a disstaining trash from another language. Russian Hello! Translated on english How how does how do you do? What in direct translation has nothing to do with the original nevertheless it is the only correct translation. It is important to understand that an adequate translation is not only in some cases. This is the norm.

The bilingual dictionary puts two signs in accordance with each other with a single concept. The terms of the content is the correspondence of the two meaning (one by one by each language) one meant. The meaning of the word is not described anywhere, but is recognized as an understated carrier of the language that is represented in the second part.

The multilingual dictionary is no different in this regard from bilingual: the sign of the first language through understood meaning is put in line with signs in other languages. All multilingual dictionaries are based on this principle.